WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 1

Module # 11 – Component # 10

Local Communities: Impact & involvement

Objectives
To explain the various impacts on host communities and the potential results
of negative tourist-resident relations and provide possible solutions to
overcoming these negative aspects of ecotourism in the new millennium.

Expected Outcomes

? To be able to explain the potential economic impacts of tourism

on local communities.

? To be able to explain the potential socio–cultural impacts of

tourism on local communities.

? To be able to explain the potential environmental and ecological

impacts of tourism on local communities.

? To be able to describe the five levels of perception of tourists by

the local host community.

? To be able to identify several strategies for avoiding negative

tourist impacts on the local community.

? To be able to differentiate between hard and soft tourism.

? To understand that it is vitally important to work in conjunction

with local host communities for the benefit of both the
community as well as the tourism resource.

Local Communities: Impact & Involvement © WildlifeCampus

WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 2

Introduction

“Throughout recorded history, tourism has impacted in some way on

everything and everyone that it touched. Ideally, these impacts should have
been positive, both in terms of benefits to destination areas and their residents.
These positive impacts should include results such as improvements in local
economic conditions, social and cultural understanding and protected
environmental resources. In theory, the benefits of tourism should produce
benefits far in excess of their costs.” (Theobald 1994)

“The key problem facing native peoples... today is how they can achieve the
most benefits derived from tourism without being overrun and overwhelmed by
the excesses that tourism itself can cause.” (Theobald 1994)

The tourist industry is a double-edged sword to most communities that host

tourists and tourism. On the one hand, there is the potential to improve and
develop resources, infrastructure and wealth throughout the area. On the other
hand there is the constant threat that tourism will overwhelm the host
community, replacing it with a mere façade of what was worth visiting in the
first place.

The Impact of Tourism on Host Communities.

Tourism development should not force foreign lifestyles onto local residents,
but should rather complement and support traditional practices such as
farming, fishing, and harvesting of game and plants.

In a previous component (Component # 11 – Introduction to Ecotourism),

three general approaches to tourism were identified viz. the economic,
environmental and the socio-cultural approach.

It was discussed that a careful combination of all these approaches (i.e.

ecotourism) would provide the most successful and sustainable form of
tourism development. It is the last of the points mentioned above, i.e. the
social approach, that forms the basis for this section.

It has been established that tourism development brings with it changes to the
economic, social and environmental aspects of the destination being
developed. Of these changes, it is the social factors that are amongst the
most important to manage, in that without good community relations,
successful development of any kind is almost impossible to achieve.

In the past, the economic impact on communities has always been easily
measurable, but not so the impact on social structure and environment. The
growing environmental movement has, however, allowed for the development
of new systems with which to measure impacts in this area.

Local Communities: Impact & Involvement © WildlifeCampus

WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 3

Economic Impacts on Host Communities.

The economic impact of tourism has a greater effect on the more rural,
underdeveloped areas of a country, (where subsistence farming, fishing etc.
form the main income generating activities) than on the more developed and
economically independent areas of the country.

It is in the rural, traditional and underdeveloped areas that the contribution of

tourism has its most significant impact. Household income can increase by a
large percentage due to employment opportunities, the opportunity to sell
local produce and to market local arts and crafts.

The development of tourism in these areas requires the development of

infrastructure which in turn benefits the local community. e.g. roads, water
provision, electrification and sewage.

Continued tourism growth in an area often leads to increased land prices

however, which encourages landowners to sell for short-term gain, only to be
left with no land and nothing to offer but their (cheap) labour.

Problems such as these can be overcome through lease agreements and

rental of land and through government agencies purchasing unused land
before land speculators, in order to ensure stable pricing in the future.

Socio - cultural Impacts on Host Communities

The differences between cultures often provides the incentive for tourists
to visit certain destinations.

Because of this cultural and social gap there is often little or no

understanding between tourist and resident, resulting in a general
condition of misunderstanding between the two. Residents frequently
blame tourists for bringing with them the evils of their own societies such as
drugs, gambling, alcohol, and prostitution. In turn the visitors view the
residents as surly, rude, ignorant and unhelpful. The host community
frequently retaliates with violence or crime against tourists.

Cultural idiosyncrasies and traditions are often exploited unfairly and are used
by tourist destinations as “staged authenticity” acts. These acts should only
be used by tourism managers at the request of the host community as a
means of protecting their private lives, ceremonies and culture from
penetration by tourists. In this way ancient customs can be protected.
Unfortunately this does not always work, and local customs often
degenerate into a commercially organised façade of the original thing.
Traditional dances and craftwork often give way to cheap imitations that
generate maximum income for minimum effort.

Local Communities: Impact & Involvement © WildlifeCampus

WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 4

One means of controlling the influence of tourists and tourism on the local
community is through “enclave” tourism. Here tourist activities are
controlled, and minimal contact is made directly with locals, but education
about local culture is ensured through the services of “culture brokers” who
act as go-betweens between the local community and the tourist destination.
When tourist attention penetrates the private life of the host community,
trouble develops.

Environmental and Ecological Impacts on Host Communities

Badly planned tourism developments invariably affect the physical

environment of destinations.

Architecture of hotels, lodges and facilities may spoil the landscape if

insufficient thought is given to their design and “friendliness” within the
context of the environment in which they are situated.

Water may be diverted from the local community to serve tourist

destinations, thereby impoverishing the local farmer, fisherman and
average household of the surrounding area.

Littering by tourists can lead to pollution problems as witnessed in Great

Britain where nearly a ton of litter is removed from the summit of a single
mountain (Ben Nevis) on a daily basis during the peak tourist season.

There may be disturbance to wildlife, livestock, crops and fishing resources in

the area, either intentionally or as a result of ignorance.

The extent of such damage depends on:

i) the size of the overall development and the total number of people
visiting the area.

ii) the sensitivity of the environment.

iii) the nature of the planning and controls that are in place to prevent
such damage.

Tourism is potentially a positive force in helping to conserve the environment

of holiday destinations world-wide. The motivation to travel is supplied by
areas of natural beauty, wildlife areas, areas of historical and cultural interest.
Money generated through tourism can easily be channelled back into a
conservation effort for the area being visited. This requires good planning and
management strategies and should be enforced through local authorities.

Local Communities: Impact & Involvement © WildlifeCampus

WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 5

Results of Negative Tourist-Resident Impacts

Tourism development in an area is often accompanied by changing social

perceptions of the local community. Doxey (1976) identified what he terms the
“tourist irritation index” or “irridex.”

This “index” lists five levels of perception of tourists by the host

community.

1. The level of euphoria in which there is a mutual respect between

residents and tourists. Economic prospects are good, and the host
community feels a sense of prosperity.

2. After the initial stage, the increase in the economic welfare of the area is
taken for granted, and tourists are viewed in a more formal light. The
level of apathy has been reached.

3. The level of irritation is reached when the old order within the
community is challenged, and development accelerates to
accommodate for the expansion in business. Tourists are viewed in a
negative light since they are blamed for the changes that have taken
place.

4. When tourists and tourism are blamed for the destruction of order
within the community e.g. vandalism, corruption of the youth, drug
abuse, littering, crowding of amenities and others, the level of
antagonism has been reached. There is overt and covert hostility
towards tourists.

5. Beyond the antagonistic stage, the uncontrolled and un-monitored

expansion of the tourist destination leads to a total change within the
social makeup of the host community. The nature of the community,
the environment and the economics of the area are no longer what
they used to be, and the destination is incapable of attracting the same
type of tourists as was originally the case.

This scale of irritation is merely a model used to describe how social relations
can deteriorate, and is not meant to be a measurable scientific scale.
Several criticisms have been levelled at this model, amongst them the
following:

?? It is not clear whether each community has to undergo the full evolution
of each level before “graduating” onto another level.
?? It is also unclear whether or not different phases of irritation can co-
exist at the same time within the same community.
?? Furthermore it is not clear if communities can skip entire levels of the
scale and start at a very high level initially.

Local Communities: Impact & Involvement © WildlifeCampus

WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 6

The scenario reflected in Doxey’s model is only likely to become a reality

when there is no active participation of the host community in the
planning and development stages of tourism. Tourist-resident impacts, if
ignored, can lead to community backlash which could include:

1. the loss of support for local authorities and councils that support
tourism

2. an unwillingness for local residents to work in the tourism industry.

3. a lack of enthusiasm for word of mouth promotion of the destinations in

the area.

4. hostility towards tourists resulting in overcharging for services, rudeness

and poor service.

5. delays to the development of infrastructure for tourism through co-

ordinated community protests.

Strategies for Avoidance of Negative Tourist-Resident Impacts

Communities have begun to recognise the need for their involvement at all
levels of planning, implementation and development of the tourism
industry locally. They have begun to take steps to get back into the decision-
making process through the establishment of working groups, community
workshops, committees and so forth.

The following points are guidelines for efficient development of tourist

destinations, taking local input into consideration.

Education

Residents should be made aware of the advantages of tourism and be

encouraged to share tourist resources and amenities.

The host community will normally respond in a more positive manner to the
influences of tourism if it is well educated in aspects relating to tourism within
its area. Information campaigns are a useful means of achieving this.

Local Communities: Impact & Involvement © WildlifeCampus

WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 7

Incorporate Community Perspectives

Tourism planning must be based on goals identified by local residents so

that they can maintain their lifestyle, keep developments within the local
carrying capacity, and balance the change of pace with local desires.
The local community should be allowed to become involved with the
development planning of tourist destinations and areas. Although they are
not usually the best qualified to make these decisions, if several alternative
plans are developed by them and a vote is taken as to the most popular
amongst them, the quality of the decision is enhanced considerably.

Impact will be lessened if:

?? the goals for development are in harmony with those of residents.

?? the promotion of local attractions is subject to local endorsement.

?? local people are directly involved in the development process. Respect

must be retained for local traditions and life-styles through local
involvement in tourism development.

?? there is broad-based community participation in tourist events and

activities.

?? destination areas adopt themes that are in line with the local history and
lifestyles, and attempt to enhance local pride.

?? local growth problems are mitigated before increasing tourism activity as an

agent of change.

Increasing Resident Opportunity

Residents of the tourist area must not be removed from access to the
facilities that are being sold to tourists. Public and private efforts to
maintain local opportunities for recreation must be co-ordinated.

Local Communities: Impact & Involvement © WildlifeCampus

WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 8

Community Equity and Management Committees

Tourism should be self determined for host communities. Maximal use of

local capital, entrepreneurial ability and use of labour should be facilitated.
Management committees should be established to monitor the above aspects
in case local participation should be under represented.

Research and Monitoring

All aspects of the above processes should be monitored, problem areas

identified and plans implemented to counteract deviation from the original
plans. Ongoing research is needed to establish changing trends, values and
circumstances.

Hard Tourism Versus Soft Tourism

These terms have been applied to different tourist activities that have as their
emphasis two completely different approaches. These approaches affect
the local community in very different ways.

It is the soft approach that is most desirable in the prevention of

relationships between host community and tourist from escalating up the
tourist irritation index.

Hard tourism is seen to be an aggressive, short-term, inconsiderate,

unregulated, outside controlled industry. Tourists of this type tend to bring
their culture with them, are short duration group travellers, treat local
customs with curiosity and little respect and maintain a high profile.

Soft tourism, on the other hand, is a cautious, long-term, considerate,

regulated, and self-determined industry. Tourists are quiet and tactful, travel
in small groups and stay for extended visits, make spontaneous decisions,
embrace the local customs and lifestyle, and are willing to learn.

The significance of soft tourism for ecotourism destinations in Southern Africa

is quite apparent. In Southern Africa, our typical eco-destination is a wildlife
area surrounded by an impoverished community. In the past these
communities have seldom benefited from the activities of tourists except
through job opportunities, curio sales and the like.

Local Communities: Impact & Involvement © WildlifeCampus

WildlifeCampus – Game Ranging Course 9

Conclusion

Impacts on local communities (be they negative or positive) will always

accompany tourism development and tourism thereafter.

In order to prevent these impacts from becoming overwhelmingly negative, it is

apparent that community involvement needs to be established as early in
the process as possible. A balance also needs to be achieved between
economic, socio-cultural and environmental factors in terms of both
development and of future allowable levels of impact.

Control and self-determination of these factors by the local communities is

the only viable means of achieving this. The developers and managers of
tourism need to position their destination carefully within the market place so
as to attract the type of tourist (“hard” or “soft”) most suited to the area
being developed. Hard tourism has little place in the area of ecotourism in
Southern Africa.

Local Communities: Impact & Involvement © WildlifeCampus