ART OF ANCIENT CHINA

HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT

Geographically, the boundaries of ancient China were: to the north the Gobi Desert and Mongolia; to the south the
China Sea and the jungles of Indochina, to the east the Yellow Sea and the China Sea, while to the west, the
mountains of Tibet and Turkestan.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

Emperor: He was at the pinnacle of the social pyramid of Chinese civilization, he was considered the intermediary
between gods and men.

Imperial Family and Nobles: Nobles were typically the extended family of the Emperor and Empress and people
who excelled in their fields, particularly in the military. Most nobles lived in extravagant houses and wore
expensive clothes and jewelry.
The emperor and his family were at the top of the social ladder in ancient China. The emperor ruled from a palace
in the capital city. Chinese emperors believed that they were appointed by heaven and therefore did not need to
obey humans. It was common for an emperor to have many wives to increase his chances of having a son. Once the
emperor chose a son to succeed him, the son's mother would become empress and could bestow favors on her
family, often in the form of positions in the royal household and plots of land.
Mandarins: ministers and other officials who were responsible for administration and actions in the Chinese
Empire. (collecting taxes, building public works, etc.)
The military, large merchants and the clergy: they stood out as a valued social class, but without much political
power.
Peasants, artisans and small merchants: at the base of the pyramid, peasants worked on state lands, in
construction and in the mines of the Chinese empire. The artisans and small merchants lived in houses made of
straw and wood.

Social structure was very important in ancient China. The Chinese believed in strict social groups and people were
expected to behave according to their social position. This belief was reinforced by the Chinese philosopher
Confucius, who taught that strict social order and discipline were the key to a successful society.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION / DYNASTIES

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The rulers of the Zhou or Chou dynasty resorted to feudalism because the Chinese territory was too large to be
governed centrally and local governors were needed to defend the borders from barbarians, collect taxes, etc. Little
by little, this became a weakness for the court as it lost power, the country was fragmented into 7 states led by
feudal lords, who fought to unify China under their command and obtain greater power and territory. These feudal
lords had lands and political power, they were judges and military leaders. These 7 states were: Qi, Chu, Yan, Han,
Zhao, Wei, Qin.

The governor of Qin, Qin Shi Huang Di, implements laws created by Shang Yang based on the Tao-se to make the
people act and think as he wanted. It promoted discipline and control. In the army there was promotion based on
merit, using war as a social elevator, 1 head, 1 step in the hierarchical pyramid, this created a reinforced army.

Qin Shi Huang Di was the first emperor to unify China, and the dynasty system was created from him. The
character created laws, a system of measurement, standardized the Mandarin language, writing, and built the Great
Wall of China to defend the people from the Mongols. He was greatly hated because of all the deaths he caused and
there were several conspiracies against him, which made him paranoid and he ordered the murder of anyone who
spoke ill of him. His fear of death led him to plan the construction of the tomb from the age of 13.
Regarding the form of government from the year 2200 BC There was a governmental alternation in the power of
the empire which gave rise to different dynasties. The first of these was the Hsia dynasty, from which periods of
unification and fragmentation followed.

In 221 BC, King Quin Shi Huang, founder of the Quin dynasty, proclaimed himself emperor and united all of China
under his rule. Before him there were three great dynasty: the Shia Dynasty, the Shang Dynasty and finally the
Zhou Dynasty. The dynasties that followed expanded the territories and cemented the splendor of China, although
there were also periods of decline and foreign invasions.
When he died, control was lost in the empire and a competition for power began. LIU BANG came in and extended
the wall by adding towers to 15 km, smoke towers, flags and trumpets to warn of attack and guardians. In 184 BC
the Han Dynasty disintegrated and YANG DI entered, reinforcing the empire within

GREAT WALL OF CHINA

To protect his empire, Emperor Qin began construction of the Great Wall of China, beginning the project that would
become the 6,000-kilometer-long wall we know today. More than 1/2% of the Chinese population worked on its
construction, thousands of people died, suffered from cold, hunger, and had broken legs and backs. The
construction method was rammed or rammed earth. It had 1 tower every 7000 meters and functioned as a
communication route.

Shang Dynasty, Zhou Dynasty, Qin Dynasty, Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, Song Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty, Ming
Dynasty, Qing Dynasty.

Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BC) C.): This dynasty began in 1600 and lasted until 1046 BC. He stood out for all his
sculptures and objects that were created with bronze, especially the decorated vessels.
Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC) C.): Evolving from Shang art, the Zhou created a decorative and ornate style, with
stylized and dynamic figures, continuing the work in copper. A nomadic invasion in 771 BC. C. fragmented the
empire into small kingdoms, Warring States Period. Taoism and Confucianism appeared, which would greatly
influence art. Jade work, decorated in relief, stood out, and lacquer appeared. It was characterized by dynamic and
stylized figures. However, the most commonly used material remained copper, but a new material called “lacquer”
appeared.
Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) C.): China was unified under the reign of Qin Shi Huang, and the Great Wall was built to
prevent outside invasions, with a length of 2,400 kilometres and an average height of 9 metres, with guard towers
12 metres high. The great archaeological find of the Terracotta Army of Xian (210 BC) stands out. C.), located inside
the Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang.

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Han Dynasty (206 BC) C.-220 AD C.): time of peace and prosperity, Buddhism was introduced, which had a slow but
progressive implementation. It stood out for its funerary chapels, with winged statues of lions, tigers and horses.
The painting focused on themes of the imperial court, nobles and officials, with a Confucian sense of solemnity and
moral virtue. Also noteworthy are the reliefs in sanctuaries and offering chambers, generally dedicated to
Confucian motifs, in a linear style of great simplicity. Paper was invented during this dynasty. Stone sculpture
began as a majestic and representative decoration of the funerary paths of the imperial tombs in this dynasty.
Tang Dynasty (618-907):
Song Dynasty (960-1279):
Yuan Dynasty (1280-1368):
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644):
Qing Dynasty (1644-1911):

RELIGION

Three major religions have had a profound influence on Chinese art throughout history. Confucianism was the first
religion to inspire ancient Chinese art, followed by Taoism and then Buddhism, which probably had the greatest
influence on the art of the region.

The Chinese are also known to possess a deep love for nature and thus we find that nature has been a great source
of inspiration for the country's artists since the beginning of Chinese civilization. Chinese artists were particularly
fond of painting landscapes. Flowers (Flower painting featured prominently in Tang and Song Dynasties) were
another important subject of nature and Chinese artists were also fond of taking birds as a theme in their art work.

The reason behind the Chinese passion for nature was the influence of the religions that prevailed in the country.
All three religions encouraged the development of a love for nature and there were many concepts that revolved
around becoming one with nature.

Buddhism, born in India (sidarta the enlightened one)

To enlighten is to know the truth, to reach happiness in nirvana, a state of total peace.
They do not pray or worship the Buddha
The reward is found in life.
When you become enlightened you stop reincarnating and your life of suffering ends.

Confucianism

Philosophy of life based on obedience, shapes society with ethical rules and customs. The world is flawed, it needs
to be shaped, controlled.

Taoism
Search for the good, without distracting from the good that you already possess, since the desire to control
frustrates and weakens.
Accept things as they are.
The path is nature
Good and evil are not opposites but complements.
Knowing how to navigate without fighting.
Live a healthy life.
Caring for nature
Do good works to achieve immortality
Do not eat meat
They do not follow deities but what they could become.
Anyone could be immortalized in a temple. (LI BING Dujiangyan)

DEATH

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Death is considered in China mainly as a division of elements (5 elements, yin-yang) that came together at birth.
When a person dies, his spirit survives and enters into a situation of existence similar to that of the earthly one -
hence the fact that in the tombs there are objects that the deceased might need in the afterlife and that food and
drink are periodically deposited there for sustenance. There is a continuity of existence after death, so death is
treated like life. I remember a legend that tells of a king who accused a general of buying too many weapons for his
own tomb. This man was accused of attempting a rebellion in the afterlife, so - imprisoned and humiliated - he took
his own life.

The complicated ceremonies related to death and funerals have as their underlying motive respect for ancestors.
They were the ones who ensured success in hunting, agriculture, punishment through illness, etc. For this reason,
sacrifices and offerings were offered to them consisting of food, animals, drinks, precious stones and jade.

Chinese belief was that there was life after death, which provided the deceased with all the comforts and objects
for their stay in the other world. Funerary art ranged from vessels, rituals, weapons, to ceramic figures, jade and
sacrificial vessels made of bronze.

During the Shanh and Western Zhou dynasties (1600-771 BC) bronze vessels predominated for venerating the
dead during their rituals; while in the Qin and Han dynasties (221 BC-220 AD) it was characterized by the use of
bronze objects, jade (symbol of eternal life) and replicas of buildings and figures of people and animals.

Since ancient times, rituals have played a very important role in China, not only in the religious sphere, but above
all, in political and social organization.
Since ancient times, man has taken care of the disposition of the bodies of the deceased, so burials have a ritual
character and imply certain beliefs in post-mortem life.

The existence of human sacrifices is proven (Shang Dynasty), since the dead were buried together with wives,
concubines and servants; but over time these were replaced by funerary statuettes called MING KI. Records have
been found in which this dynasty frequently practiced rituals to worship spirits. Some of the rituals practiced
include decapitation, dismemberment, blood extraction, drowning, as well as splitting the body in two halves,
burying people alive or exposing the body to the sun. Each of these practices was done for a different purpose;
whether they were focused on asking for rain or honoring the spirits, bloodshed was not lacking. To bleed the
bodies of those sacrificed in order to offer their blood to the spirits of the ancestors. The purpose was to show
mercy to the spirits while keeping other tribes in fear. On the other hand, when the body was split in half, what was
normally sought was to offer these bodies, mostly male, to ancestors of the same gender. Another ritual used to
sacrifice someone was to burn the bodies. This ritual, unlike the previous ones, was not to honor their ancestors,
but to worship natural spirits. Agriculture was extremely important to ancient civilizations, so their existence
depended entirely on rain. For this reason, sacrifices were made, usually of women, who were considered more
effective for these purposes. The aim was specifically to worship the river and the rain deities. Pray that this would
not be lacking, but without bringing with it floods.

SYMBOLISM OF FUNERAL JADES

Since the beginning of civilization in China, man sought to perpetuate his life (IMMORTALITY) and enjoy a better
existence after death. Therefore, a magnificent and honourable burial, as well as a tomb with all the precious
objects of his life, were essential.

USE OF FUNERARY JADE

 Funerary jades with a social significance. These would be jade belongings that the deceased appreciated.
Eg: rank insignia, jewelry, weapons, etc.
 Amulets carried by the corpse are considered to preserve bodily decomposition. Eg: jades that blocked the
9 orifices of the body, cicada in the mouth, jade fish in the eyes, etc.
 Jade objects that dressed the deceased during funerals. E.g. chain mail, shrouds, burial shrouds, etc.

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The tombs of the highest ranking persons or those belonging to the Imperial Family were generously provided
with fine silk fabrics, musical instruments, food and drink, etc.; they also had furniture and precious objects.
Among the objects found in the tombs we can mention figures of jade, gold and silver, fabrics, jewelry, etc. The
pantheon continued to be underground, but a tumulus indicated its location - varying in height and size according
to rank.

In the following dynasties, funeral customs did not change much: large chambers, tombs, altars, statuettes and
jades. But there was a change in the material used to make the ming ki (baked clay, clay, ceramic, porcelain,
stoneware, etc.).

The practice of burying figurines with the dead disappeared in the time of the YUAN, who were content to
represent these images of people, beasts and objects on paper, burning them at the time of funerals. The MING
returned to the ancient T'ang custom of making clay figurines to enclose in temples, but in the TSÙNG period the
Mongol custom of burning paper effigies was restored. Even today, this custom of burning money or paper figures
can be observed in Taiwanese temples.

An important factor was the introduction of Buddhism in the 2nd century AD, as cremation multiplied, so vessels
appeared to hold the ashes of the deceased, deposited on family altars. Likewise, classical motifs of Buddhist
iconography began to be carved, sculpted and painted on the royal tombs, interspersed with the pre-existing ones.

JADE SUIT

In ancient China, jade was known as yu and was believed to contain yang (cosmic energy). Those who lived during
the Han Dynasty viewed it not only as a precious stone, but also as a substance charged with excellence, purity and
virtue. Wearing jade implied certain hierarchical privileges. This privilege of rank also extended to funerary
traditions; Han dynasty tombs contained jade objects of various shapes. The most extraordinary jade articles of the
dynasty. They were believed to act as armor of protection against spirits and demons in the afterlife. The reason for
making them from this material was the belief that jade had the magical property of preventing corruption of the
body. Two examples of this type of attire were discovered in 1968 in separate tombs in the cliffs of Mancheng in
Hebei Province. Surrounded by more than 10,000 valuable objects, the bodies of Prince Shen and his wife Princess
Don Wan wore jade robes, made of jade plates sewn with gold threads. The latter formed a total of 2,498 jade
plates joined together by 1 kg. of gold thread and although most of the pieces are rectangular or square, there are
also rhomboidal, trapezoidal and some small pieces in the shape of the holes of the ears, eyes and nose, which
served to cover these parts.
There were various models of these suits:
 Those made with gold thread were reserved exclusively for the emperor's family.
 Princes, dukes and high nobility in general used silver thread.
 The children of these were given copper thread, and the lower nobility received silk thread.
The rest of the population was prohibited from making jade suits, even though it was a very expensive item.
Five of these costumes are currently preserved (all are in Chinese museums) and although it is not believed that
they were in great abundance, it is thought that many have been lost forever due to grave robbers.

In addition, the body's orifices were sealed with jade stones to preserve the person's essence at the time of death,
such as eyes, ears, nose, anus and genitals.

The most elaborate jade suit of all, composed of over 4,000 plaques, was found in the tomb of Zhao Mo (137-122
BC), the second governor of Namyue, a small kingdom near present-day Canton. The tomb was discovered in 1983
and rivals in grandeur the tombs of the imperial family of the Han dynasty in northern China. It was lined with
stone and originally painted in light colors, and had two large chambers and two small chambers. The large rear
chamber contained the governor's coffin; it had two side chambers containing the bodies of the guards and
servants. In front of the tomb were placed vessels, musical instruments, elephant tusks and alchemical minerals. At
the back, next to the bodies, there were a large number of jade pieces. Around the tomb were twelve sets of jade
beads and various ornaments designed to be worn around the neck as long necklaces or at the waist as pendants.

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These ornaments were both decorative and protective. The Han Dynasty preserved a funerary tradition
established in the Neolithic period, which involved placing a jade disc with a central hole, known as a bi or pi disc,
on or near the buried body. The bi disc was the ultimate emblem of Chinese nobility and its intention was to guide
the spirit of the deceased through the North Star, represented by the hole in the center.

SACRED ANIMALS OF CHINESE CULTURE

Qilin This animal has a fictional elk body, buckhorn, fish scales, buffalo tail and horse hoof. It also symbolizes
happiness as ancient legends about the Qilin symbolize the sending of a son to the family, which is why they are not
common today in China. It is considered a kind animal. Kings and emperors took it as a symbol of peace and
prosperity. In the emperors' residence and garden in the Forbidden City and the Summer Palace, the Qilin can be
seen, cast in bronze or sculpted in stone.

The phoenix is a figment of human imagination that brings together the characteristics of many birds. Phoenix is
king in the world of birds and represents good omen, peace and clarity in politics. Like the dragon, it is considered
by kings and emperors to be a symbol of power and dignity. Only imperial and immortal people had the right
to use things related to phoenix, such as phoenix chariot and phoenix crown. As time passes, the phoenix becomes
the town's favorite mascot. Especially in traditional Chinese weddings, phoenix patterns are repeatedly used on the
bride's dress and hair ornaments, representing good luck and joy.
The turtle, the only real animal among the four, has the longest life span among the animals. The Chinese people
regard it as a symbol of longevity. In ancient times, when great events were celebrated, the attendees would burn
turtle shells to judge good or bad luck by the crack. The Divine Turtle was highly respected in China. In the imperial
palaces and courtyards, sacred turtles are found everywhere, either carved in stone or cast in bronze, to foresee
imperial eternity.
Lion
Lions protect people's homes and scare away evil spirits. Lion statues are widely used and very common in China.
Yellow snake
The snake is used as protection in Chinese culture, a good example of this can be found in the Great Wall of China.
The dragon In fact, the Chinese dragon is an imaginative combination of different animal parts. For example, the
head of the buffalo, the nose and teeth of the lion, the body of the snake, the scales and tail of the fish, and the claws
of the bird. Chinese dragons are occasionally depicted with bat wings. According to Chinese legends, dragons live in
the sky, rivers, wells, lakes and seas.
In the dynasties of ancient times, the dragon was the emblem of the emperor and imperial power. prosperity and
good fortune, excellence, bravery and boldness, heroism, perseverance, nobility and divinity. The dragon,
especially yellow or golden dragons with five claws on each foot, was a symbol of the emperor in many Chinese
dynasties. The imperial throne was called the "Dragon Throne."
On the ceilings of palaces and temples, on the furniture of royal families, dragons are sculpted and painted
everywhere. Huang Di was immortalized as a dragon and ascended to Heaven. Because the Chinese regard Huang
Di as their ancestor, they sometimes call themselves "the descendants of the dragon."

terracotta warriors

The terracottas attempt to replicate the imperial world in its entirety, to ensure that the deceased's afterlife was
perfect and that he was cared for by his servants, as well as to defend the emperor from enemies. They believed
that when they died they would live in a parallel world in which they would need spiritual versions of everything
they owned in this world, so they made an exact replica of the emperor's residence and recreated the emperor's
luxurious life. Previously, servants and the entire court were sacrificed along with him, this practice was lost in the
Han dynasty.
The Terracotta Army was found 1 km east of SHI HUANG DI's tomb. In order to protect himself from enemies in the
afterlife, he ordered the construction of his famous army of terracotta warriors who would protect his magnificent
tomb when he passed away. Hundreds of craftsmen were called from across the empire to build the army which
was completed before his death in 210 BC.
There were sculptures of more than 8,000 soldiers and 520 horses in the terracotta army and 100 battle chariots.
In 1980, two painted bronze chariots were discovered. Each of these cars is made up of more than 3,000 pieces.

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 They also had details, including uniforms, weapons, armor, and each soldier even had his own face, molded with
precision and detail. They were discovered during construction work on a water supply in 1974 near Xi'an.

By burying these statues it was believed that the emperor would continue to have troops under his command.
The figures are life-size: they measure between 1.72 and 1.80 metres in height, weigh 270 kg, are made of hard clay
and are equipped with armour also made of terracotta. Each of these figures has different features and
characteristics: mustaches, hairstyles, young, old, features of different ethnicities. The heads and hands were
molded separately and then added to the bodies. The uniforms also reflect the military ranks to which they belong.
Each soldier carried a weapon (87 stone armors): bows, spears, swords, etc.
The figures are bright and vivid in colour, but this colour is lost after just five hours of exposure to air, due to
oxidation. Black, blue, red and yellow, white. In Jing Di's tomb were found other terracotta army on a smaller scale
1/3 of life size 8000 soldiers, animals: sheep, dogs and pigs, female and male and different breeds, kitchen utensils.
The soldiers had mobile, hand-sculpted wooden arms to carry out their different activities. And they were dressed
in silk.

Silk was one of the most coveted goods, there was even a silk route to trade it to Europe. It was paid in silk.
Revealing the secret of its manufacture was punishable by death.

CHINESE ART

The country of China has been ruled by many different dynasties over time. Each dynasty had its own style, which
evolved over time. Chinese art is greatly influenced by the country's rich spiritual and mystical history. The
Chinese are also known to possess a deep love for nature and thus we find that nature has been a great source of
inspiration for artists, they were particularly fond of painting landscapes. The reason behind the Chinese passion
for nature was the influence of the religions that prevailed in the country. All three religions encouraged the
development of a love for nature and there were many concepts that revolved around becoming one with nature.

Ancient Chinese art includes calligraphy, embroidery, paintings, statues, buildings, shrines, porcelain, silk, puppets,
glazed ware, folk toys of firecrackers, opera, paper fans, paper cuttings, lanterns and kites, seals, swords.

Characteristics of Chinese art

 Elegance and simplicity of the works. Each applied element is extremely essential in the work, as well as
the presence of curves and reliefs.
 Chinese art works are endowed with sensibilities and attempt to integrate the senses to enjoy their art.
 It has had a more uniform evolution than in the West.
 One of the essential principles of Chinese art is the synthesis between the artistic creative spirit and the
social and hierarchical function for which they were destined from their conception.
 The themes chosen to dignify power were large real and mythological animals.
 The polychrome murals that appear on traditional buildings are notable, with their wide variety of motifs
and themes, they have both decorative and symbolic value. In them we find representations of dragons,
phoenixes, myths, landscapes, floral motifs, birds, etc.

ANCIENT CHINESE PAINTING

Traditional Chinese painting is known as “guo hua ( 国 画 )”. As in calligraphy, the painting is done using a brush
dipped in black or colored ink, usually on rice paper or silk. Traditional painting has also been done on walls,
porcelain and lacquer materials.
There were two types of painting: watercolor, which was applied on silk or paper, and also frescoes, which were
printed on the walls of palaces for decorative purposes. The tombs were also decorated with paintings and figures
of dancers to entertain the emperor in the afterlife.

There are two main techniques in Chinese painting:

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“Gong-bi (工笔)” or meticulous attention to detail, mainly referring to portraits.
“Xie yi (写意)” or freehand, mainly referring to landscapes.

These works are conceived with the help of brushes composed of a handle and head. The handle is usually made of
bamboo or wood, while the head is made of animal hair, usually sheep or wolf hair. Usually only black ink is used.

A basic distinctive feature of this painting is that ideas and motifs are presented primarily in the form of lines and
dots in ink, rather than in color, proportion and perspective. (They use “dispersed perspective,” which offers a
delicate sense of proportion.)

Another characteristic is the common use of white spaces to represent sky, water or fog or just a feeling of
emptiness.

Chinese painting is classified into three main categories: portraits, landscapes, and flowers and birds.

Portrait: The oldest, dominating the scene until the late Tang Dynasty, artists painted detailed portraits of the
royal court. Some ancient works show life in the court of Chinese emperors, their wives, and imperial horses that
were preserved in tombs and burial sites.

Landscapes: The Tang Dynasty also saw the beginning of landscape paintings, often referred to as “Shanshui”
(“mountain water”) paintings. The landscape paintings depicted mountains and water, influenced by the Taoist
tradition of seeking solitude in nature. Most Tang artists outlined figures with fine black lines and used bright
colors and elaborate detail.

Golden Age of Chinese Landscape Painting”: Song Period (960-1127) is known as the Using bold strokes and
black lines. They produced paintings of things such as plum blossoms, orchids, bamboo, chrysanthemums, pine
trees and cypresses using their own themes to reflect their own ideals and characters. Paintings with mountains,
forests, fields and gardens allow us to escape the sufferings of this world and enter the realm of peace and
tranquility. This is why landscape has always been a highly prized pictorial form for Chinese writers and
bureaucrats.

Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) painters began to add poetry and calligraphy to their works to express their thoughts
and feelings.

Ming Dynasty was combined with calligraphy. Many paintings were landscapes that included mountains, houses,
birds, trees and water. Colour techniques were perfected (1368-1644)

CHINESE BRONZE SCULPTURE

Chinese ritual bronze assemblages are the most impressive surviving objects from the Chinese Bronze Age. During
the Shang Dynasty, China became one of the most skilled bronze-working civilizations in the ancient world, as
people smelted metal to make kitchen utensils, tools, weapons, and other household items. Dating back to around
1650 BC, these elaborately decorated vessels were deposited as grave goods in the tombs of royalty.
The size of the vessel varied depending on whether they were to contain wine, water, grain or meat, and some even
had decipherable characters written on them, proof of the evolution of writing.

The bronze vessels had a ritual function and were used to deposit offerings to ancestors. They were produced for
an individual to use in ritual offerings of food and drink to his ancestors in family temples or ceremonial halls over
tombs, or rather in ritual banquets involving members of a family; the earliest literary records speak of these. Upon
the owner's death, they would be placed in his grave, so that he could continue to pay his respects in the afterlife;
other examples were issued specifically as grave goods.

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The strong religious associations of bronze objects brought about a large number of vessel types and forms that
were considered classical and totemic and were copied, often in other media such as Chinese ceramics, in
subsequent periods of Chinese art.

Sacrificial vessels (祭器, jìqì),

Wine glasses (酒器, jiǔqì),
Food vessels (食器, shíqì),
Water vessels (水器, shuǐqì),
Musical instruments (樂器, yuèqì),
Weapons (兵器, bīngqì),
Measuring containers (量器, liángqì),
Old money (錢幣, qiánbì), and

The decoration of Shang bronzes consisted of geometric and helical motifs and imaginary beasts, such as the taotie
monster mask and the kui dragon, placed in well-defined sectors. In late Shang bronzes, the abstract elements
constituting the masks and dragons are irritated and arranged in spiral frames called by Song antiquarians leiwen
or lightning type.

CHINESE PORCELAIN

Probably the most important gift for art lovers has been porcelain items. Jars, cups, teapots and vases.
In terms of ceramics, the Tang Dynasty (618-907) is recognized for the predominance of three colors in its
porcelain objects (tricolor) because in this period the colors most used by artisans were yellow, green and white.
This does not mean that all the pieces only had these three colors, there were pieces with four or five, but in
general these three predominated. The favorite motifs were horses, camels, figures of women, jars in the shape of
dragon heads, figures of musicians, acrobats. Aristocratic families used these objects in their funeral ceremonies. A
large number of these statuettes were buried in the tombs of wealthy people of the time. The realist tendencies of
religious art were also reflected in secular sculpture in objects such as the sumptuously ornamented T'ang horses.

Yuan Dynasty: The "blue and white" vases, which appear but will fully develop within the framework of the Ming
Dynasty and again at the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. The pottery was
painted with ornate scenes of daily Chinese life, including carriages, bridges and signs of the zodiac.
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) porcelain blue and white vases were highly prized and sold to the wealthy throughout
Europe and Asia.
Qing Dynasty: The "pink family" and "green family" porcelain, well known in the West, were developed.

SCULPTURE

Stone sculpture began as a majestic and representative decoration of the funerary paths of imperial tombs in the
Han Dynasty. Large real and mythological animals, representing social classes - scholars, military, foreigners, etc. -
were the themes chosen to dignify power. An example of this is the sculptures that line the path of the spirits of the
Han and Tang dynasties and especially the Ming tombs, as well as the representative sculpture of the imperial
palaces.

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

Imperial palaces
The Forbidden City was the Chinese imperial palace from the Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty. It is
located in the center of Beijing, China, and currently houses the Palace Museum. For nearly 500 years it was the
home of China's emperors and their court, as well as the ceremonial and political center of the Chinese
government. Built between 1406 and 1420, the complex houses 980 buildings and covers 720,000 m². The
complex exemplifies traditional Chinese palace architecture and has influenced the cultural and architectural
development of East Asia and other parts of the world.
Chinese temples

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China is a country that has worshipped different religious beliefs. Of all of them, Taoism is the only native religion
in the country. Taoist buildings are known as guan or palace. On the other hand, it is worth highlighting the
special presence of Buddhism with its temples, pagodas and grottoes, the three main Buddhist constructions in
China.
Chinese pagodas
The Chinese pagoda has its origins in India and was introduced into China along with Buddhism during the Han
Dynasty. The pronunciation of the word "pagoda" which originally means tomb.

The pagodas of ancient China are a combination of Chinese and Indian art and come in a wide range of varieties. If
they are classified by their external shape, there are those with a square base,
hexagonal, octagonal and round. The material with which the first pagodas were built was wood. Later, other more
resistant materials began to be used, such as stone, brick, bronze or tiles. The number of floors of Chinese pagodas
is generally
odd. Most pagodas were built for religious purposes, mainly as part of Buddhism, which is why they are located
near or within Buddhist temples.

The modern pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa, a mound-shaped structure where sacred relics were kept.
Although there were already square-based stupas with upper bodies that symbolized the five elements—earth,
water, fire, air and sky—that is, the pagoda is a representation of the Universe. The square base on which it sits
symbolizes the earth; the central pillar that rises from the base to the highest point, the axis of the world. The
material with which the first pagodas were built was wood. Later, other more resistant materials began to be used,
such as stone, brick, bronze or tiles.

Wooden pagodas are very resistant to earthquakes, however many have burned down, and the wood is also prone
to rot, both natural and insect infestation.
Chinese architecture is the only architectural system whose structures are primarily made of wood, which is a
reflection of the country's ethics, its aesthetic criteria and the value it places on nature. They are constructions that
are based on deep cultural traditions and thus, the ideology of the superiority of imperial power and its compact
class system stands out in them.

CALLIGRAPHY

It is an exemplary art form that uses extraordinary brush handling techniques, presentation and style to convey the
artists' message. The roots of ancient Chinese calligraphy date back 4000 years, and it is believed that Cang Jie
invented calligraphy during the reign of the Yellow Emperor. Before the invention of paper, calligraphy was done
on silk. Calligraphers practiced for years to learn how to write perfectly, but with style. Each of the more than
40,000 characters had to be drawn with precision.

In ancient China, calligraphy was a means of communication, a way of writing things down, as well as a way of
expressing yourself. Noble and royal children had to learn calligraphy. Even emperors practiced until they were
good at writing calligraphy. Of course, Chinese emperors could appoint someone to write for them, but the ability
to write in calligraphy showed control and inner peace. It was a position signal. The emperor had the highest
position of all.

Stamp style
The oldest of the styles (peak in the Qin dynasty, 221 BC). C.-206 BC C.), known as seal script ( 篆 書 , zhuànshū),
corresponds to an adaptation of the characters as they were engraved, not painted, on bronze or stone. The lines
are thin and pointed at the ends, curvature is not excluded, the shape of the characters is relatively free: this type of
stroke does not follow the guidelines discussed in other styles and which are essentially due to the brush.
Scribes' style 隸書 lìshū
As Chinese administration became more established through the power of writing, the complex and irregular seal-
style characters seemed to be a hindrance to the speed of understanding and learning how to write. It was for the
officials, the scribes, for whom - according to tradition - Chéng Miǎo, prison director under the Qin dynasty (221
BC), C.-206 BC C.), would have created a simpler layout style from the seal style.

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It is characterized by thick strokes with the tip hidden (the initial and final trace of the brush cannot be seen). The
strokes are square, flattened in the middle, spaced out and tending to overflow to the sides. During the 2nd
century, under the Dōnghàn, or Eastern Hàn, the perfection of the brush led calligraphers to give greater breadth to
their strokes, mainly by adding undulations and stretching out the horizontal ones.
This style was quickly replaced, from the 3rd century, by the regular style. However, it continued to be used in
calligraphy even up to the present day.
Regular style 楷書 kǎishū[edit]
Still under the Han, throughout the 3rd century AD, this style appeared, considered as an improvement and
rationalization of the style of the scribes. It is the standard script ( 正 楷 , zhèngkǎi), which had its peak under the
Táng (618-907 AD) in which calligraphers definitively fixed the structure and technique of the stroke. The need for
simple writing, as legible as possible, very regular, responded to the needs of centralization of power.
Current style 行書 xíngshū
As its name indicates, this style, reborn under the Hàn, towards the end of the Eastern Dynasty (25-220), is a
double form: it is fast (the characters "run") and habitual ("current"). The style is born from a "deformation" by
simplification of the regular line. This is why it is the most commonly used typeface for everyday manuscripts.

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