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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the academic discipline, see Art history.
Venus of Hohle Fels

Horse painting from Lascaux cave system

Mask of Tutankhamun

Venus de Milo, Alexandros of Antioch

Mona Lisa, Leonardo da Vinci

Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, Pablo Picasso

History of art

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Periods and movements

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Regions

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Types

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The history of art focuses on objects made by humans for any number of spiritual,
narrative, philosophical, symbolic, conceptual, documentary, decorative, and even
functional and other purposes, but with a primary emphasis on its aesthetic visual
form. Visual art can be classified in diverse ways, such as separating fine
arts from applied arts; inclusively focusing on human creativity; or focusing on
different media such as architecture, sculpture, painting, film, photography,
and graphic arts. In recent years, technological advances have led to video
art, computer art, performance art, animation, television, and videogames.
The history of art is often told as a chronology of masterpieces created during
each civilization. It can thus be framed as a story of high culture, epitomized by
the Wonders of the World. On the other hand, vernacular art expressions can also
be integrated into art historical narratives, referred to as folk arts or craft. The more
closely that an art historian engages with these latter forms of low culture, the more
likely it is that they will identify their work as examining visual culture or material
culture, or as contributing to fields related to art history, such
as anthropology or archaeology. In the latter cases, art objects may be referred to
as archeological artifacts.

Prehistory[edit]
Main article: Prehistoric art
Prehistoric art includes a broad range of art made by painters and sculptors from
illiterate cultures, including some of the earliest human artifacts. Among the first art
objects are decorative artifacts from Middle Stone Age Africa.[1][2][3] Containers from
that period have also been discovered in South Africa that may have been used to
hold paints dating as far back as 100,000 years ago.[4]
A form of prehistoric art found all over the world, especially in Europe, small
prehistoric statuettes known as Venus figurines with exaggerated breasts and bellies
were made, the most famous ones being the Venus of Hohle Fels and the Venus of
Willendorf, found in Germany and Austria. Most have small heads, wide hips, and
legs that taper to a point. Arms and feet are often absent, and the head is usually
small and faceless.
The Venus of Hohle Fels is one of the numerous objects found at the Caves and Ice
Age Art in the Swabian Jura UNESCO World Heritage Site, where the oldest non-
stationary works of human art yet discovered were found, in the form of carved
animal and humanoid figurines, in addition to the oldest musical instruments
unearthed so far, with the artifacts dating between 43,000 and 35,000 BC. [5][6][7][8]
The best-known prehistoric artworks are the large Paleolithic cave paintings that
depict animals in continental Europe, particularly the ones at Lascaux in
the Dordogne region of France. Several hundred decorated caves are known,
spanning the Upper Paleolithic period (c. 38,000–12,000 BC). There are examples
in Ukraine, Italy and Great Britain, but most of them are in France and Spain. Many
theories have been suggested about the art's purpose, the most accepted being that
it was part of religious rituals, possibly to evoke hunting success.

Giant deer bone of Einhornhöhle c. 49,000 BC; Megaloceros bone; Einhornhöhle, Germany
 

Löwenmensch; c. 41,000–35,000 BC; Hohlenstein-Stadel caves Swabian Jura, Germany

Painting of rhinoceroses; c. 32,000–14,000 BC; charcoal on rock; length: c. 2 m; Chauvet

Cave (Ardèche, France)[9]

Venus of Willendorf; c. 25,000 BC; limestone with ochre colouring; height: 11 cm; Natural History
Museum (Vienna, Austria)[10]

Antiquity[edit]
Main article: Ancient art
Ancient Near East[edit]
Main article: Mesopotamian art
Ancient Near East stretched from Turkey and the Mediterranean seaboard in the
west to Iran and the Arabian peninsula in the east. Over time, multiple civilizations
appeared, lived and disappeared here. One of the key regions was Mesopotamia,
which witnessed during the 4th millennium BC the emergence of the first cities and
the earliest form of writing. Ancient Mesopotamia covers present-day Iraq, and parts
of Syria and Turkey. Its northern half forms part of the so-called Fertile Crescent,
where important Neolithic developments such as early farming and the
establishment of permanent village settlements first appeared. Because the region is
situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river delta, numerous civilizations lived here,
notably Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia. Mesopotamian architecture was
characterized by the use of bricks, lintels, and cone mosaic. Notable examples are
the ziggurats, large temples in the form of step pyramids.
The political, economic, artistic and architectural traditions of the Sumerians lead to
the foundation of Western civilization. Multiple things appeared for the first time in
Sumer: the first city-state (Uruk), ruled by king Gilgamesh; the first organized
religion, based on a hierarchical structure of gods, people and rituals; the first known
writing, the cuneiforms; the first irrigation system and the first vehicles with
wheels. Cylinder seals appeared here as well, engraved with little inscriptions and
illustrations. Another civilization that developed here was the Akkadian Empire, the
world's first great empire.
During the early 1st millennium BC, after the Akkadians, an empire
called Assyria came to dominate the whole of Middle East, stretching from
the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea. Its cities were filled with impressive
buildings and art. Assyrian art is best known for its detailed stone reliefs, depicting
scenes of court life, religious practice, hunting and epic battles. These reliefs were
initially painted in bright colours and placed in palaces. Besides their beauty, they
also show us Assyrian life and views of the world, including Assyrian clothing and
furniture.
Later, the Babylonians conquered the Assyrian Empire. During the 6th century
BC, Babylon became the largest city in the world. Upon entering Babylon, visitors
were greeted with the impressive Ishtar Gate, with its walls covered in vivid blue
glazed bricks and reliefs showing dragons, bulls and lions. This gate is named
after Ishtar, the goddess of war and love.
In the mid-6th century BC, after a series of military campaigns, the Babylonian
Empire fell to the Achaemenid Empire, ruled by King Cyrus II, stretching across the
Middle East and Central Asia, from Egypt to the Indus Valley. Its art incorporates
elements from across the empire, celebrating its wealth and power. Persepolis (Iran)
was the capital of the empire, and it is full of impressive sculptures showing religious
images and people of the empire. There are also the ruins of a palace here, with a
big audience hall for receiving guests.
Besides Mesopotamia and Iran, there were Ancient civilizations who produced art
and architecture in other regions as well. In Anatolia (present-day Turkey), the Hittite
Empire appeared. During Antiquity, South Arabia was important in the production
and trade of aromatics, bringing wealth to the kingdoms that were in this region.
Before circa 4000 BC, the climate of Arabia was wetter than today. In south-west,
several kingdoms appeared, like Saba’. The south Arabian human figure is usually
stylized, based on rectangular shapes, but with fine details.[11][12][13]

Standard of Ur (Sumerian); c.2600-2400 BC; shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood; length:
49.5 cm; British Museum (London)[14]
 

King of Akkad (Akkadian); c. 2250 BC; copper alloy; height: 30 cm; Iraq Museum[14]

Stag rhyton (Hittite); c.1400-1200 BC; silver with gold inlay; height: 13 cm; Metropolitan Museum of
Art (New York City)[15]

Incense burner (Pre-Islamic South Arabian); c. mid-1st millennium BC; bronze; height: 27.6 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art[16]

Winged bulls (Neo-Assyrian); c.710 BC; alabaster; height (max): 4.2 m; Louvre[17]
 

Delegation bearing gifts (Persian Achaemenid); c.490 BC; limestone; c.260 x 150 cm; in
situ, Persepolis (Iran)[18]

Egypt[edit]
Main article: Ancient Egyptian art
One of the first great civilizations arose in Egypt, which had elaborate and complex
works of art produced by professional artists and craftspeople. Egypt's art was
religious and symbolic. Given that the culture had a highly centralized power
structure and hierarchy, a great deal of art was created to honour the pharaoh,
including great monuments. Egyptian art and culture emphasized the religious
concept of immortality. Later Egyptian art includes Coptic and Byzantine art.
The architecture is characterized by monumental structures, built with large stone
blocks, lintels, and solid columns. Funerary monuments included mastaba, tombs of
rectangular form; pyramids, which included step pyramids (Saqqarah) or smooth-
sided pyramids (Giza); and the hypogeum, underground tombs (Valley of the Kings).
Other great buildings were the temple, which tended to be monumental complexes
preceded by an avenue of sphinxes and obelisks. Temples
used pylons and trapezoid walls with hypaethros and hypostyle halls and shrines.
The temples of Karnak, Luxor, Philae and Edfu are good examples. Another type of
temple is the rock temple, in the form of a hypogeum, found in Abu Simbel and Deir
el-Bahari.
Painting of the Egyptian era used a juxtaposition of overlapping planes. The images
were represented hierarchically, i.e., the Pharaoh is larger than the common subjects
or enemies depicted at his side. Egyptians painted the outline of the head and limbs
in profile, while the torso, hands, and eyes were painted from the front. Applied
arts were developed in Egypt, in particular woodwork and metalwork. There are
superb examples such as cedar furniture inlaid with ebony and ivory which can be
seen in the tombs at the Egyptian Museum. Other examples include the pieces
found in Tutankhamun's tomb, which are of great artistic value.[19]

Nebamun Hunting in the Marshes; c. 1380 BC; paint on plaster; 98 × 83 cm; British
Museum (London)[20]
 Akhenaten and Nefertiti with Daughters; c.1345 BC; painted limestone; 32.5 x 39 cm; Egyptian
Museum of Berlin (Germany)[21]

Mask of Tutankhamun; c. 1327 BC; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm; Egyptian
Museum (Cairo)

Nefertiti Bust; 1352–1336 BC; painted limestone; height: 50 cm; Neues Museum (Berlin, Germany)[22]

Temple of Philae (Egypt), 380 BC-117 AD[23]

Indus Valley Civilization[edit]

Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation § Arts_and_crafts
Discovered in 1922, long after the contemporary cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt,
the Indus Valley Civilization, aka the Harappan Civilization (c. 2400–1900 BC) is now
recognized as extraordinarily advanced, comparable in some ways with those
cultures. Its sites span an area stretching from today's northeast Afghanistan,
through much of Pakistan, and into western and northwestern India. Major cities of
the culture include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, located respectively in Punjab and
in Sindh province in northern Pakistan, and the port city Lothal, in the state
of Gujarat (India). The most numerous artefacts are square and rectangular stamp
seals and seal impressions, featuring animals, usually bulls, very short Harappan
texts. Many stylized terracotta figurines have also been found in Harappan sites, and
a few stone and bronze sculptures, more naturalistic than the ceramic ones.[24]
 

Seals with Indus script and impressions; 2500-2000 BC; steatite; various sizes, mostly c.3 cm; British
Museum (London)[25]

Dancing Girl; c. 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National Museum (New Delhi, India)[24]

Proto-Shiva Stamp Seal; c. 2400-1900 BC; steatite; height: 3.6 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)[24]

Priest-King; c. 2400–1900 BC; steatite; height: 17.5 cm; National Museum of Pakistan (Karachi)[24]
 

Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; c. 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 × 3.2 cm; Cleveland
Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)

China[edit]
Main articles: Chinese art § Bronze casting, Chinese ritual bronzes, and Sanxingdui
Further information: Shang dynasty and Zhou dynasty

Warriors of the Terracotta Army; c. 214 BC;

terracotta; height (average soldier): c. 1.8 m; Lintong District (Xi'an, Shaanxi, China) [26]

The first metal objects produced in China were made almost 4000 years ago, during
the Xia dynasty (c.2100–1700 BC). During the Chinese Bronze
Age (the Shang and Zhou dynasties) court intercessions and communication with the
spirit world were conducted by a shaman (possibly the king himself). In the Shang
dynasty (c.1600–1050 BC), the supreme deity was Shangdi, but aristocratic families
preferred to contact the spirits of their ancestors. They prepared elaborate banquets
of food and drink for them, heated and served in bronze ritual vessels. These bronze
vessels had many shapes, depending on their purpose: for wine, water, cereals or
meat, and some of them were marked with readable characters, which shows the
development of writing. This kind of vessels, of a very high quality and complexity,
were discovered on the Valley of the Yellow River in the Henan province, in sites
like Erlitou, Anyang or Zhengzhou. They were used in religious rituals to cement the
Dhang authority, and when the Shang capital fell, around 1050 BC, its conquerors,
the Zhou (c.1050–156 BC), continued to use these containers in religious rituals, but
principally for food rather than drink. The Shang court had been accused of
excessive drunkenness, and the Zhou, promoting the imperial Tian ("Heaven") as
the prime spiritual force, rather than ancestors, limited wine in religious rites, in
favour of food. The use of ritual bronzes continued into the early Han dynasty (206
BC–220 AD).
One of the most commonly used motifs was the taotie, a stylized face divided
centrally into two almost mirror-image halves, with nostrils, eyes, eyebrows, jaws,
cheeks and horns, surrounded by incised patterns. Whether taotie represented real,
mythological or wholly imaginary creatures cannot be determined.
The enigmatic bronzes of Sanxingdui, near Guanghan (in Sichuan province), are
evidence for a mysterious sacrificial religious system unlike anything elsewhere
in ancient China and quite different from the art of the contemporaneous Shang
at Anyang. Excavations at Sanxingdui since 1986 have revealed four pits containing
artefacts of bronze, jade and gold. There was found a great bronze statue of a
human figure which stands on a plinth decorated with abstract elephant heads.
Besides the standing figure, the first two pits contained over 50 bronze heads, some
wearing headgear and three with a frontal covering of gold leaf. Tubular bronze
fragments with little branches were discovered here as well, probably representing
trees, and also bronze leaves, fruits and birds. Over 4000 objects were found at
Sanxingdui in 1986.
Succeeding the Shang Dynasty Zhou (1050–221 BC) ruled more than any other one
from Chinese history. Its last centuries were characterized by violence, the era being
known as the Warring States period. During this troubling time, some philosophical
movements appeared: Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism.
The Warring States period was ended by Qinshi Huangdi, who united China in 221
BC. He ordered a huge tomb, guarded by the Terracotta Army. Another huge project
was a predecessor of the Great Wall, erected for rejecting pillaging tribes from the
north. After the death of the emperor, his dynasty, the Qin (221–206 BC), lasted only
three years. Qinshi Huangdi was followed by the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD),
during which the Silk Road developed considerably, bringing new cultural influences
in China.[27][28]

Ding; c. 1384-1050 BC; bronze; height: 22.9 cm; Shanghai Museum (Shanghai, China)[27]

Lifesize figure; c. 1200–1000 BC; bronze; height: 2.62 m; Sanxingdui Museum (Guanghan, Sichuan,
China)[29]
 

Fang Lei; c. 925–875 BC; bronze; height: 22.8 cm; National Museum of China (Beijing, China)[27]

Funerary banner; c.180 BC; silk; 205 x 92 cm (upper part); Hunan Museum (Changsha, Hunan,
China)[30]

Ornamental handle with a bi disc; c.100 BC; jade; 18 x 14 cm; Museum of the Mausoleum of the
Nanyue King (Guangzhou, Guangdong, China)[30]

Greek[edit]
Main article: Ancient Greek art
Unlike how most of us see them today, all Egyptian, Greek and Roman sculptures and temples were
initially painted in bright colours. They became white because of hundreds of years of neglect and
vandalism provoked by Christians during the Early Middle Ages, who saw them as 'pagan' and believed
that they promoted idolatry.[31] To us they look odd, although all of them were very colourful back in Ancient
times

Through harmonious proportion and a focus on aesthetics, ancient Greek and

Roman art became the foundation and inspiration of all Western art, being the
standard to which most European artists aspired, until the 19th century.[32] The Latin
poet Horace, writing in the age of Roman emperor Augustus (1st century BC to 1st
century AD), famously remarked that although conquered on the battlefield, "captive
Greece overcame its savage conqueror and brought the arts to rustic Rome." The
power of Greek art lies in its representation of the human figure and its focus on
human beings and the anthropomorphic gods as chief subjects. The artworks of the
Greeks were meant to decorate temples and public buildings, to celebrate battle
victories and remarkable personalities, and to commemorate the dead. They were
also given as offerings to the gods.
Although there was no definitive transition, the art is usually divided stylistically into
the four periods of Geometric, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic. During
the Classical period (5th and 4th centuries BC), realism and idealism were delicately
balanced. In comparison, the works of the earlier Geometric (9th to 8th centuries BC)
and Archaic (7th to 6th centuries BC) ages can seem appear primitive, but these
artists had different goals: naturalistic representation was not necessarily their
aim. Greek and artists built on the artistic foundations of Egypt, further developing
the arts of sculpture, painting, architecture, and ceramics. Among the techniques
they perfected include methods of carving and casting sculptures, fresco painting
and building magnificent buildings.
Roman art lovers collected ancient Greek originals, Roman replicas of Greek art, or
newly created paintings and sculptures fashioned in a variety of Greek styles, thus
preserving for posterity works of art otherwise lost. Wall and panel paintings,
sculptures and mosaics decorated public spaces and private homes. Greek imagery
also appeared on Roman jewellery, vessels of gold, silver, bronze and terracotta,
and even on weapons and commercial weights. Rediscovered during the
early Renaissance, the arts of ancient Greece, transmitted through the Roman
Empire, have served as the foundation of Western art until the 19th century.[33]
Since the advent of the Classical Age in Athens, in the 5th century BC, the Classical
way of building has been deeply woven into Western understanding of architecture
and, indeed, of civilization itself.[34] From circa 850 BC to circa 300 AD, ancient Greek
culture flourished on the Greek mainland, on the Peloponnese, and on
the Aegean islands. Five of the Wonders of the World were Greek: the Temple of
Artemis at Ephesus, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Mausoleum at
Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria. However,
Ancient Greek architecture is best known for its temples, many of which are found
throughout the region, and the Parthenon is a prime example of this. Later, they will
serve as inspiration for Neoclassical architects during the late 18th and the 19th
century. The most well-known temples are the Parthenon and the Erechtheion, both
on the Acropolis of Athens. Another type of important Ancient Greek buildings were
the theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and
balanced ratios.
Looking at the archaeological remains of ancient buildings it is easy to perceive them
as limestone and concrete in a grey taupe tone and to make the assumption that
ancient buildings were monochromatic. However, architecture was polychromed in
much of the Ancient world. One of the most iconic Ancient buildings,
the Parthenon (c. 447–432 BC) in Athens, had details painted with vibrant reds,
blues and greens. Besides ancient temples, Medieval cathedrals were never
completely white. Most had colored highlights on capitals and columns.[35] This
practice of coloring buildings and artworks was abandoned during the early
Renaissance. This is because Leonardo da Vinci and other Renaissance artists,
including Michelangelo, promoted a color palette inspired by the ancient Greco-
Roman ruins, which because of neglect and constant decay during the Middle Ages,
became white despite being initially colorful. The pigments used in the ancient world
were delicate and especially susceptible to weathering. Without necessary care, the
colors exposed to rain, snow, dirt, and other factors, vanished over time, and this
way Ancient buildings and artworks became white, like they are today and were
during the Renaissance.[36]

Horse figurine (Geometric); c. 800-700 BC; bronze; height: 17.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of
Art (New York City)

Pedestalled krater (Geometric); c. 750 BC; terracotta; height: 108.3 cm, diameter: 72.4 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art[37]
 

New York Kouros (Archaic); c. 600 BC; marble and pigment; height: 1.95 m; Metropolitan Museum of
Art[38]

Panathenaic amphora (Archaic); c. 530 BC; ceramic; height: 62.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[39]

 Red-figure kylix (Classical); c. 480 BC; ceramic; height: 12.7 cm, diameter: 27.2 cm; Kimbell Art
Museum (Fort Worth, Texas, US)[40]

Zeus of Artemision (Classical); c. 460 BC; bronze; height: 209 cm; National Archaeological
Museum (Athens, Greece)[41]

Temple of Segesta (Calatafimi-Segesta, present-day Italy), 5th century BC[42]

 

Erechtheion (Athens), with its Ionic columns and caryatid porch, 421-405 BC[42]

[43]
Centuripe vase (Hellenistic); c.300-100 BC; ceramic; height: 9.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Rome[edit]
Main article: Roman art

Augustus of Prima Porta (left: a painted reconstruction; right: the original statue); c. 20 BC; marble; height:
2.06 m; Vatican Museums (Vatican City).[44]

No civilization has had an impact as enduring and powerful on Western art as

the Roman Empire. The legacy of ancient Rome is evident through
the medieval and early modern periods, and Roman art continue to be reused in the
modern era in both traditionalist and Postmodern artworks.[45] Sometimes it is viewed
as derived from Greek precedents, but also has its own distinguishing features,
some of them inherited from Etruscan art. Roman sculpture is often less idealized
than its Greek precedents, being very realistic. Roman architecture often
used concrete, and features such as the round arch and dome were invented.
Luxury objects in metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are
sometimes considered in modern terms to be minor forms of Roman art,[46] although
this would not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries. An innovation
made possible by the Roman development of glass-blowing was cameo glass. A
white 'shell' was first created, into which coloured glass was then blown so as to
produce an interior lining. The white shell was then cut down to create relief patterns
of white against a darker background. They also made mosaics, this way producing
durable pictorial art with cut-stone cubes (tesserae) and/or chips of coloured
terracotta and glass. Some villas of wealthy Romans had their walls covered
with frescos, aimed at dazziling and entertaining guests. Much of Roman wall
painting that survives comes from sites around the Bay of Naples, in
particular Pompeii and Herculaneum, thriving towns that were preserved under
metres of volcanic debris when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD. As a result,
Roman wall painting is often discussed in terms of four 'Pompeian styles'. [47]
The Romans were deeply influenced by all aspects of Hellenistic culture. In
architecture, just like in other art media, they essentially adopted the Classical
language and adapted it to new situations and uses. The Romans also have their
own innovations brought to Classical architecture. They used
the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders in a far freer manner than the Greeks had,
creating their own version of the Doric and using the Corinthian far more frequently.
They also added two new orders to the repertoire: the Tuscan, a simpler, more
massive version of the Doric derived from Etruscan architecture; and the Composite,
a combination of the scroll-like volutes of the Ionic with the
Corinthian's acanthus leaves. Other important innovations include the arch, and
the dome. Using arches, they built aqueducts and monumental triumphal arches.
Roman emperors were proud of their conquests, and commemorated them at home
and in the conquered territories through triumphal arches, a good example of this
being the Arch of Constantine in Rome. Between 30 and 15 BC, the architect and
civil and military engineer Marcus Vitruvius Pollio published a majore treatise, De
Architectura, which influenced architects around the world for centuries.[48][49]
After the Middle Ages, with the Renaissance that started in Florence (Italy), a
growing interest for ancient Rome started. During it, for the first time since Classical
Antiquity, art became convincingly lifelike. The Renaissance also sparked interest for
ancient Greek and Roman literature, not just for art and architecture.[50]

Mysteries Fresco; mid-1st century BC; fresco; height: 1.62 m; Villa of the Mysteries (Pompeii, Italy)[51]
 

Portland Vase; late 1st century BC; glass; height: 24 cm; British Museum (London)[52]

The Maison Carrée (Nîmes, France), one of the best-preserved Roman temples, c. 2nd century AD

Marine mosaic (central panel of three panels from a floor); 200–230; mosaic (stone and glass
tesserae); 2,915 mm x 2,870 mm; Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, US)

Arch of Constantine (Rome), that commemorates the triumph of Constantine the Great after his
victory over Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, 316[53]

Islamic[edit]
Main article: Islamic art
Islamic art is well-known since the Middle Ages for the use of elaborate geometric
patterns, colourful tiles, stylized natural motifs and detailed calligraphy. Rarely has
lettering had such a profound impact on applied arts and architecture. Islam
appeared in western Arabia in the 7th century AD through revelations delivered to
the prophet Muhammad in Mecca. Within a century of Muhammad's death the
Islamic empires controlled the Middle East, Spain and parts of Asia and Africa.
Because of this, similarly with Roman art, Islamic art and architecture had regional
versions. As the Islamic world extended into centres of late antique culture, it was
enriched by philosophical and intellectual movements. The translation of Greek
works into Arabic and advances in mathematics and science were encouraged by
early caliphates. This is in contrast with the modern perception that Islamic art is
dogmatic and unchanging. Human and animal representation wasn't rare. Only
certain periods restricted it (similar with the Byzantine Iconoclasm).[54]

Perfume box; 950–975; ivory; height: 11.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[55]

Mihrab; 961–976; stucco and glass mosaic; diameter (internal arch): c. 2.3 m; Mosque–Cathedral of
Córdoba (Córdoba, Spain)[55]

Mosque lamp; c. 1285; glass, enamels and gold; height: 26.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[56]
 

Court of the Lions (Alhambra, Granada, Spain), 1362-1391[57]

Ardabil Carpet; 1539–1540; wool pile on silk; length: 10.51 m; Victoria and Albert Museum (London)
[58]

Americas[edit]
Main article: Pre-Columbian art
Mesoamerica[edit]
Main articles: Ancient Maya art and Aztecs § Art and cultural production
Some of the first great civilizations in the Americas developed
in Mesoamerica (meaning 'middle Americas'), the most well known being
the Mayans and the Aztecs.
The Olmecs (c.1400–400 BC) were the first major civilization in modern-day Mexico.
Many elements of Mesoamerican civilizations, like the practice of building of
pyramids, the complex calendar, the pantheon of gods and hieroglyphic writing have
origins in Olmec culture. They produced jade and ceramic figurines, colossal
heads and pyramids with temples at the top, all without the advantage of metal tools.
For them, jadeite was a stone more precious than gold and symbolized divine
powers and fertility. 17 Olmec colossal heads have been discovered, each weighing
a few tons. Each head, with the flattened nose and thick lips, wears a helmet, similar
with the ones worn during official ball games, possibly representing kings of officials.
The Maya civilization began around 1800 BC and grew until the arrival of Spanish
colonizers in the 1500s. They occupied southeast Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and
parts of Honduras and El Salvador. The Mayans were trading with cities,
like Teotihuacán, but also with many Mesoamerican civilizations, like the Zapotecs or
the other groups from central or coast areas of Mexico, and also with populations
that did not inhabit Mesoamerican territories, like the Taíno from the Caribbean.
They produced impressive king portraits, polychrome ceramic vessels, earthenware
figures, wooden sculptures, stelas, and built complex cities with pyramids. Most of
the well preserved polychrome ceramic vessels were discovered in the tombs of
nobles.
 Arising from humble beginnings as a nomadic group, the Aztecs created the largest
empire in Mesoamerican history, lasting from 1427 to 1521. They did not call
themselves 'Aztecs', but Mexica. The term Aztecs was assigned by historians. They
transformed the capital of their empire, Tenochtitlan, into a place where artists of
Mesoamerica created impressive artworks for their new masters. The present-
day Mexico City was built over the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.[59][60][61]

Colossal head; c.1050 BC; steatite; height: 2.2 m; Museo de Antropología de

Xalapa (Xalapa, Mexico)[62]

 Seated shaman in ritual pose-shaped pendant (Olmec); 9th-5th century BC; serpentine and cinnabar;
height: 18.5 cm; Dallas Museum of Art (Dallas, Texas, US)[62]

Bat effigy (Zapotec); c.50 BC; jadeite and shell; height: 28 cm; National Museum of
Anthropology (Mexico City)[63]

Portrait of K'inich Janaab Pakal I (Maya; 615–683; stucco; height 43 cm; National Museum of
Anthropology[64]
 

Vessel with a throne scene (Maya); late 7th–8th century; ceramic; 21.59 cm; Metropolitan Museum of
Art (New York City)

Yaxchilán Lintel 24 (Maya); 702; limestone; 109 x 74 cm; British Museum (London)[65]

Warrior columns (Toltec); c.1000; basalt; height: c.460 cm; Tula de Allende (Mexico)

Double-headed serpent (Aztec); c. 1450–1521; cedar, turquoise, shell and traces of gilding; length:
43.3 cm; British Museum[66]
 

Coyolxauhqui Stone (Aztec); c. 1469–1481; stone; diameter: 3 m; Templo Mayor Museum (Mexico
City)[66]

Tlāloc effigy vessel (Aztec); c. 1440–1469; painted earthenware; height: 35 cm; Templo Mayor
Museum[66]

Colombia[edit]
Further information: Muisca art
Similarly with Mesoamerica, the present-day territory of Colombia is an area where
multiple cultures developed before the arrival of Spanish colonizers. Here, gold body
accessories were produced, many golden ones, but also many other ones made
of tumbaga, a non-specific alloy of gold and copper given by
Spanish Conquistadors to metals composed of these elements found in widespread
use in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica in North America and South America.

Animal-headed figure pendant (Yotoco); 1st–7th century; gold; height: 6.35 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art (New York City)
 

Lime container (Quimbaya); 5th–9th century; gold; height: 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Male figure/tunjo (Muisca); 10th–mid-16th century; gold; height: 14.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Pendant (Tairona); 10th–16th century; gold; height: 14 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Andean regions[edit]
Further information: Chavín culture § Art, Paracas culture, Nazca culture, Moche
culture § Material culture, Sican culture § Art and ideology, Tiwanaku § Structures,
and Inca empire § Arts and technology

Mantle (Paracas); 50–100 AD; embroidered wool;

height: 1.01 m; Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, US) [67]

The ancient civilizations of Peru and Bolivia nurtured unique artistic traditions,
including one of the world's most aesthetically impressive fibre art traditions. Two of
the first important cultures from this land are the Chavín and the Paracas culture.
The Paracas culture of the south coast of Peru is best known for its complex
patterned textiles, particularly mantels. The Moche controlled the river valleys of the
north coast, while the Nazca of southern Peru held sway along the coastal deserts
and contiguous mountains. The Nazca are best known for the famous Nazca Lines,
a group of geoglyphs in a desert in southern Peru. They also produced polychrome
ceramics and textiles influenced by the Paracas, and used a palette of at least 10
colours for their pottery. Both cultures flourished around 100–800 AD. Moche pottery
is some of the most varied in the world. In the north, the Wari (or Huari) Empire are
noted for their stone architecture and sculpture accomplishments.
The Chimú were preceded by a simple ceramic style known as Sicán (700–900 AD).
The Chimú produced excellent portrait and decorative works in metal, notably gold
but especially silver. Later, the Inca Empire (1100–1533) stretched across the Andes
Mountains. They crafted precious metal figurines, and like other civilizations from the
same area, complex textiles. Llamas were important animals, because of their wool
and for carrying loads.[68][69][70]

The Hummingbird, one of the Nazca Lines (Nazca); c.200 BC-600 AD; rocks, gravel and dirt; length:
50 m; Nasca and Palpa Provinces (Peru)[71]

Portrait head bottle (Moche); 3rd–6th century; painted ceramic; overall: 26.35 x
16.21 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

Mosaic figurine of a noble man (Wari); 7th-9th century; wood, shell, stone and silver; height:
10.2 cm; Kimbell Art Museum (Fort Worth, Texas, US)[72]
 

Ceremonial knife/tumi (Sican); 10th–13th century; gold, turquoise, greenstone and shell; height:
33 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[67]

Royal tunic (Inca); 1476–1534; camelid fibre and cotton; height: 91 cm; Dumbarton
Oaks (Washington, D.C., US)[73]

Asian[edit]
Main article: Eastern art history
Eastern civilization broadly includes Asia, and it also includes a complex tradition of
art making. One approach to Eastern art history divides the field by nation, with foci
on Indian art, Chinese art, and Japanese art. Due to the size of the continent, the
distinction between Eastern Asia and Southern Asia in the context of arts can be
clearly seen. In most of Asia, pottery was a prevalent form of art. The pottery is often
decorated with geometric patterns or abstract representations of animals, people or
plants. Other very widespread forms of art were, and are, sculpture and painting.
Central Asia[edit]
Main article: Central Asian art
Central Asian art developed in Central Asia, in areas corresponding to
modern Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of modern Mongolia, China and Russia.[74][75] The art
of ancient and medieval Central Asia reflects the rich history of this vast area, home
to a huge variety of peoples, religions and ways of life. The artistic remains of the
region show a remarkable combinations of influences that exemplify the multicultural
nature of Central Asian society. The Silk Road transmission of art, Scythian
art, Greco-Buddhist art, Serindian art and more recently Persianate culture, are all
part of this complicated history. Central Asia has always been a crossroads of
cultural exchange, the hub of the so-called Silk Road – that complex system of trade
routes stretching from China to the Mediterranean. Already in the Bronze Age (3rd
 and 2nd millennium BC), growing settlements formed part of an extensive network of
trade linking Central Asia to the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia and Egypt.[76]

Seated figurine (Bactrian); 3rd-2nd millennia BC; chlorite and limestone; height: 9 cm; Metropolitan
Museum of Art (New York City)[76]

Belt buckle; 3rd-1st centuries BC; gold; height: 7.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[77]

Goblet showing The Rape of Europa and of Ganymede, part of the Bagram Treasure; 1st century
AD; painted glass; height: 16 cm, diameter: 10 cm; Guimet Museum (Paris)[78]

 Goddess and celestial musician (Buddhist); 7th century; pigments on plaster; height: 2.03
m; Museum of Asian Art (Berlin, Germany)[79]


Gur-i Amir Mausoleum (Samarkand, Uzbekistan), 15th century[80]

Indian[edit]
Main article: Indian art
Early Buddhists in India developed symbols related to Buddha. The major survivals
of Buddhist art begin in the period after the Mauryans, within North India Kushan art,
the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara and finally the "classic" period of Gupta art.
Additionally, there was the Andhra school which appeared before the Gandhara
school and which was based in South India.[81] Good quantities of sculpture survives
from some key sites such as Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati, some of which
remain in situ, with others in museums in India or around the world. Stupas were
surrounded by ceremonial fences with four profusely carved toranas or ornamental
gateways facing the cardinal directions. These are in stone, though clearly adopting
forms developed in wood. They and the walls of the stupa itself can be heavily
decorated with reliefs, mostly illustrating the lives of the Buddha. Gradually life-size
figures were sculpted, initially in deep relief, but then free-standing.[82] Mathura
art was the most important centre in this development, which applied to Hindu and
Jain art as well as Buddhist.[83] The facades and interiors of rock-cut chaitya prayer
halls and monastic viharas have survived better than similar free-standing structures
elsewhere, which were for long mostly in wood. The caves
at Ajanta, Karle, Bhaja and elsewhere contain early sculpture, often outnumbered by
later works such as iconic figures of the Buddha and bodhisattvas, which are not
found before 100 AD at the least.

The Great Stupa of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh, India), 3rd century-c. 100 BC[84]

Lion Capital of Ashoka; c. 250 BC; polished sandstone; height: 2.2 m; Sarnath Museum (India)[85]
 

Seated Buddha; c. 475; sandstone; height: 1.6 m; Sarnath Museum[86]

Bodhisattva Padmapani; c. 450–490; pigments on rock; height: c. 1.2 m; Ajanta Caves (India)[86]

Shiva as lord of the dance; c. 11th century; bronze; height: 96 cm; Musée Guimet (Paris)[87]

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Khajuraho, India), c.1030[88]

 

Durga killing the buffalo demon; c.1150; argilite; height: 13.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New
York City)[89]

Ganesha; c. 14th-15th century; ivory; height: 18.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[87]

 Basawan Akbarnama; c. 1590; watercolor on paper; 33 x 20 cm; Victoria and Albert

Museum (London)[90]

Taj Mahal (Agra, India), an iconic example of Mughal architecture, 1632-1648[91]

Chinese[edit]
Main article: Chinese art
In Eastern Asia, painting was derived from the practice of calligraphy, and portraits
and landscapes were painted on silk cloth. Most of the paintings represent
landscapes or portraits. The most spectacular sculptures are the ritual bronzes and
the bronze sculptures from Sanxingdui. A very well-known example of Chinese art is
the Terracotta Army, depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of
China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BC whose
purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife.
Chinese art is one of the oldest continuous traditional arts in the world, and is
marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that
tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of
classical styles. The media that have usually been classified in the West since
 the Renaissance as the decorative arts are extremely important in Chinese art, and
much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially
unknown artists, especially in Chinese ceramics. The range and quality of goods that
decorated Chinese palaces and households, and their inhabitants, is dazzling.
Materials came from across China and far beyond: gold and silver, mother of pearl,
ivory and rhinoceros horn, wood and lacquer, jade and soap stone, silk and paper.

Buddha Pagoda (Fogong Monastery, Yingxian, China), 1056[92]

Early Spring; by Guo Xi; 1072; hanging scroll, ink on silk; 1.58 x 1.08 m; National Palace
Museum (Taipei, Taiwan)[93]

Guanyin of the Southern Seas; 11th-12th century; painted and gilded wood; height: 2.41 m; Nelson-
Atkins Museum of Art (Kansas City, Missouri, US)[94]

 Ladies Preparing Silk; after Zhang Xuan; early 12th century; ink and colours on silk; 0.37 x 1.47
m; Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, US)[95]
 

Autumn Colours on the Qiao and Hua Mountains; by Zhao Mengfu; 1296; handscroll (detail), ink and
colours on paper; 28.4 x 93.2 cm; National Palace Museum (Taipei, Taiwan)[96]

 Lacquer dish with garden scene; late 14th century; carved red lacquer; diameter:
19.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

David Vases; 1351; glazed porcelain; height: 63.5 cm; British Museum (London)[97]

Assistant to a judge of hell; c. 1522–1620; stoneware; height: 137 cm; British Museum[98]

Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, Temple of Heaven (Beijing), 1545, rebuilt in 1890[99]
 

Cloisonné box; 18th century; cloisonné enamels on copper with gilt bronze; 20.5 × 19.8 cm; Walters
Art Museum (Baltimore, Maryland, US)

Japanese[edit]
Main article: Japanese art
Japanese art covers a wide range of art styles and media, including ancient
pottery, sculpture, ink painting and calligraphy on silk and paper, ukiyo-e paintings
and woodblock prints, ceramics, origami, and more recently manga—modern
Japanese cartooning and comics—along with a myriad of other types.
The first settlers of Japan, the Jōmon people (c. 11,000–300 BC). They
crafted lavishly decorated pottery storage vessels, clay figurines called dogū. Japan
has been subject to sudden invasions of new ideas followed by long periods of
minimal contact with the outside world. Over time the Japanese developed the ability
to absorb, imitate, and finally assimilate those elements of foreign culture that
complemented their aesthetic preferences. The earliest complex art in Japan was
produced in the 7th and 8th centuries in connection with Buddhism. In the 9th
century, as the Japanese began to turn away from China and develop indigenous
forms of expression, the secular arts became increasingly important; until the late
15th century, both religious and secular arts flourished. After the Ōnin War (1467–
1477), Japan entered a period of political, social, and economic disruption that lasted
for over a century. In the state that emerged under the leadership of the Tokugawa
shogunate, organized religion played a much less important role in people's lives,
and the arts that survived were primarily secular.

Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kitayama, Kyoto), a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto, 1398[100]

 Female figure; c. 1670–1690; porcelain with overglaze polychrome enamels; height:

39.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

 Noh robe; 1750–1800; silk embroidery and gold leaf on silk satin; length: 1.66 m; Metropolitan
Museum of Art[101]
 

The Great Wave off Kanagawa, by Katsushika Hokusai; c. 1830–1832; full-colour woodblock print;
25.7 x 37.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[102]

Plum Park in Kameido; by Hiroshige; 1857; full-colour woodblock print; 36.4 x

24.4 cm; Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam, the Netherlands)

Sub-Saharan Africa[edit]
Main article: African art
Further information: Igbo art, Yoruba art, Benin art, Kuba art, and Luba art
Sub-Saharan African art includes both sculpture, typified by the brass castings of
the Benin people, Igbo Ukwu and the Kingdom of Ifẹ, and terracottas of Djenne-
Jeno, Ife, and the more ancient Nok culture, as well as folk art. Concurrent with the
European Middle Ages, in the eleventh century AD a nation that made grand
architecture, gold sculpture, and intricate jewelry was founded in Great Zimbabwe.
Impressive sculpture was concurrently being cast from brass by the Yoruba
people of what is now Nigeria. In the Benin Kingdom, also of southern Nigeria, which
began around the same time, elegant altar tusks, brass heads, plaques of brass, and
palatial architecture were created. The Benin Kingdom was ended by the British in
1897, and little of the culture's art now remains in Nigeria. Today, the most significant
arts venue in Africa is the Johannesburg Biennale.
Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by a high density of cultures. Notable are
the, Dogon people from Mali; Edo, Yoruba, Igbo people and the Nok
civilization from Nigeria; Kuba and Luba people from Central Africa; Ashanti
people from Ghana; Zulu people from Southern Africa; and Fang
people from Equatorial Guinea (85%), Cameroon and Gabon; the Sao
civilization people from Chad; Kwele people from eastern Gabon, Republic of the
Congo and Cameroon.
The myriad forms of African art are components of some of the most vibrant and
responsive artistic traditions in the world and are integral to the lives of African
people. Created for specific purposes, artworks can reveal their ongoing importance
through physical transformations that enhance both their appearance and their
potency. Many traditional African art forms are created as conduits to the spirit world
and change appearance as materials are added to enhance their beauty and
potency. The more a work is used and blessed, the more abstract it becomes with
the accretion of sacrificial matter and the wearing down of original details.

Seated figure; by artists of the Nok culture; 5th century BC-5th century AD; earthenware (central
Nigeria); height: 38 cm; Musée du Quai Branly, Paris[103]

Pot; from Igbo-Ukwu (Nigeria); 9th century; bronze; unknown dimensions; Nigerian National
Museum, Lagos

Head of a king or dignitary; by artists of the Yoruba people; 12th-15th century; terracotta; 19 cm;
discovered at Ife (Nigeria); Ethnological Museum of Berlin, Germany

Seated figure; by artists of the Djenné-Djenno culture (Mali); 13th century; earthenware; width:
29.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City[103]
 

Pendant mask; by artists of the Edo people (Nigeria); 16th century (?); ivory and iron; height:
24.5 cm; British Museum, London[104]

Plaque with warriors and attendants; by artists of the Edo people; 16th-17th century (Nigeria); brass;
height: 47.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

N'dop, king Mishe miShyaang maMbul; by artists of the Kuba Kingdom (Democratic Republic of the
Congo); 18th century; wood; 49.5 cm; Brooklyn Museum, New York City[105]


Mandu Yenu (throne of Nsangu); by artists of the Kingdom of Bamun; c.1870; wood, beads of glass,
porcelain and shell; height: 1.75 m; Ethnological Museum of Berlin[106]

Royal mask; by artists of the Bamum people (Cameroon); before 1880; wood, copper, glass beads,
raffia and shells; height: 66 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[105]

Ngaad-A-Mwash mask; by artists of the Kuba people; late 19th-early 20th centuries; wood, shells,
glass beads, raffia and pigment; height: 82 cm; Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan, US[105]

Headrest; by artists of the Luba people; 19th century; wood; height: 18.5 cm; Musée du quai
Branly (Paris)[107]

Oceania[edit]
Main article: Art of Oceania
The Art of Oceania includes the geographic areas of Micronesia, Polynesia,
Australia, New Zealand, and Melanesia. One approach treats the area thematically,
with foci on ancestry, warfare, the body, gender, trade, religion, and tourism.
Unfortunately, little ancient art survives from Oceania. Scholars believe that this is
likely because artists used perishable materials, such as wood and feathers, which
did not survive in the tropical climate, and there are no historical records to refer to
most of this material. The understanding of Oceania's artistic cultures thus begins
with the documentation of it by Westerners, such as Captain James Cook, in the
18th century. At the turn of the 20th century the French artist Paul Gauguin spent
significant amounts of time in Tahiti, living with local people and making modern art
— a fact that has become intertwined with Tahitian visual culture to the present day.
[citation needed]
The indigenous art of Australia often looks like abstract modern art, but it has
deep roots in local culture.
The art of Oceania is the last great tradition of art to be appreciated by the world at
large. Despite being one of the longest continuous traditions of art in the world,
dating back at least fifty millennia, it remained relatively unknown until the second
half of the 20th century.
The often ephemeral materials of Aboriginal art of Australia makes it difficult to
determine the antiquity of the majority of the forms of art practised today. The most
durable forms are the multitudes of rock engravings and rock paintings which are
found across the continent. In the Arnhem Land escarpment, evidence suggests that
paintings were being made fifty thousand years ago, antedating the Palaeolithic rock
paintings of Altamira & Lascaux in Europe.

Hoa Hakananai'a, an example of a moai; c. 1200 AD; flow lava; height: 242 cm; British
Museum (London)[108]

Statue of A'a from Rurutu; probably 18th century; wood; height: 117 cm; British Museum[109]
 

Taurapa (māori canoe sternpost); late 18th-early 19th century; wood and sheel; height:
148 cm; Musée du Quai Branly (Paris)[110]

Australian painting of a kangaroo totemic ancestor; c. 1915; painting on bark; 92.5 × 35.5 cm; Musée
du Quai Branly

European[edit]
Main article: Art of Europe
Medieval[edit]
Main article: Medieval art
With the decline of the Roman Empire in c. 300 AD, the Medieval era began, lasting
for about a millennium, until the beginning of the Renaissance in c. 1400. Early
Christian art begins the period, followed by Byzantine art, Anglo-Saxon art, Viking
art, Ottonian art, Romanesque art and Gothic art, with Islamic art dominating the
eastern Mediterranean. Medieval art grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman
Empire and Byzantium, mixed with the 'barbarian' artistic culture of northern Europe.
[111]

In Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church
resulted in a large amount of religious art. There was extensive use of gold in
paintings, which presented figures in simplified forms.
Byzantine[edit]
Main article: Byzantine art
The Hagia Sophia (Istanbul, Turkey), c. 532–537 BC, by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus[112]

Byzantine art refers to the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the Eastern
Roman (Byzantine) Empire,[113][114] as well as the nations and states that inherited
culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from Rome's decline
and lasted until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453,[115] the start date of the Byzantine
period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise.
Many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree
the Muslim states of the eastern Mediterranean, preserved many aspects of the
empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.
Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is
highly conventionalised, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled
church theology into artistic terms. Painting in fresco, illuminated manuscripts and on
wood panel and, especially in earlier periods, mosaic were the main media, and
figurative sculpture very rare except for small carved ivories. Manuscript painting
preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger
works.[116] Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe,
where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the
period. This was especially so in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified
form through the 12th century, and became formative influences on Italian
Renaissance art. But few incoming influences affected the Byzantine style. With the
expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread
throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.[117] Influences from Byzantine
architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from
Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania.
Byzantine architecture is notorious for the use of domes. It also often featured
marble columns, coffered ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive
use of mosaics with golden backgrounds. The building material used by Byzantine
architects was no longer marble, which was very appreciated by the Ancient Greeks.
They used mostly stone and brick, and also thin alabaster sheets for windows.
Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface where fresco wouldn't
resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are in Hagios
Demetrios in Thessaloniki (Greece), the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo and
 the Basilica of San Vitale, both in Ravenna (Italy), and Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.
Greco-Roman temples and Byzantine churches differ substantially in terms of their
exterior and interior aspect. In Antiquity, the exterior was the most important part of
the temple, because in the interior, where the cult statue of the deity to whom the
temple was built was kept, only the priest had access. The ceremonies here held
outside, and what the worshipers view was the facade of the temple, consisting of
columns, with an entablature and two pediments. Meanwhile, Christian liturgies were
held in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no
ornamentation.[118][119]

Christ as the Good Shepherd; c. 425–430; mosaic; width: c. 3 m; Mausoleum of Galla

Placidia (Ravenna, Italy)[120]

Diptych Leaf with a Byzantine Empress; 6th century; ivory with traces of gilding and leaf; height:
26.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)[121]

Collier; late 6th–7th century; gold, an emerald, a sapphire, amethysts and pearls; diameter: 23 cm;
from a Constantinopolitan workshop; Antikensammlung Berlin (Berlin, Germany)[122]

 Page of the Gospel Book with Commentaries: Portrait of Mark; 1000–1100; ink, tempera,
gold, vellum and leather binding; sheet: 28 × 23 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)
 

Ladder of Divine Ascent; late 12th century; tempera and gold leaf on panel; 41 x 29.5 cm; Saint
Catherine's Monastery (Sinai Peninsula, Egypt)[123]
Ottonian[edit]
Main article: Ottonian art
The Essen cross with large enamels with gems and large senkschmelz enamels, c. 1000. Otto II, by
the Gregory Master. Apotheosis of Otto III, Liuthar Gospels. Henry II being crowned by Christ, from
the Sacramentary of Henry II.

Ottonian art is a style in pre-romanesque German art, covering also some works
from the Low Countries, northern Italy and eastern France. It was named by the art
historian Hubert Janitschek after the Ottonian dynasty which ruled Germany and
northern Italy between 919 and 1024 under the kings Henry I, Otto I, Otto II, Otto
III and Henry II.[124] With Ottonian architecture, it is a key component of the Ottonian
Renaissance (circa 951–1024). However, the style neither began nor ended to neatly
coincide with the rule of the dynasty. It emerged some decades into their rule and
persisted past the Ottonian emperors into the reigns of the early Salian dynasty,
which lacks an artistic "style label" of its own.[125] In the traditional scheme of art
history, Ottonian art follows Carolingian art and precedes Romanesque art, though
the transitions at both ends of the period are gradual rather than sudden. Like the
former and unlike the latter, it was very largely a style restricted to a few of the small
cities of the period, and important monasteries, as well as the court circles of the
emperor and his leading vassals.
After the decline of the Carolingian Empire, the Holy Roman Empire was re-
established under the Saxon Ottonian dynasty. From this emerged a renewed faith in
the idea of Empire and a reformed Church, creating a period of heightened cultural
and artistic fervour. It was in this atmosphere that masterpieces were created that
fused the traditions from which Ottonian artists derived their inspiration: models of
Late Antique, Carolingian, and Byzantine origin. Surviving Ottonian art is very largely
religious, in the form of illuminated manuscripts and metalwork, and was produced in
a small number of centres for a narrow range of patrons in the circle of the Imperial
court, as well as important figures in the church. However much of it was designed
for display to a wider public, especially of pilgrims.[126]
The style is generally grand and heavy, sometimes to excess, and initially less
sophisticated than the Carolingian equivalents, with less direct influence
from Byzantine art and less understanding of its classical models, but around 1000 a
striking intensity and expressiveness emerge in many works, as "a solemn
monumentality is combined with a vibrant inwardness, an unworldly, visionary quality
with sharp attention to actuality, surface patterns of flowing lines and rich bright
colours with passionate emotionalism".[127]
Romanesque[edit]
Main article: Romanesque art
 The Romanesque was the first pan-European style to emerge after the Roman
Empire, spanning the mid-tenth century to the thirteenth. The period saw a
resurgence of monumental stone structures with complex structural programmes.
Romanesque churches are characterized by rigid articulation and geometric clarity,
incorporated into a unified volumetric whole. The architecture is austere but
enlivened by decorative sculpting of capitals and portals, as well as frescoed
interiors. Geometric and foliate patterning gives way to increasingly three-
dimensional figurative sculpture.
St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim, Germany, 1001–1030, is seen as a Proto-
Romanesque church.[128]
From the mid-eleventh to the early thirteenth centuries, Romanesque paintings were
two-dimensional, defined by bold, linear outlines and geometry, particularly in the
handling of drapery; symmetry and frontality were emphasised. Virtually all Western
churches were painted, but probably only a few wall painters were monks; instead,
itinerant artists carried out most of this work. Basic blocking out was done on
wet plaster with earth colours. A limited palette, dominated by white, red, yellow
ochres and azure, was employed for maximum visual effect, with dense colouring
forming a backdrop of bands, a practice that originated in late Classical art as an
attempt to distinguish earth and sky.
During the later eleventh and twelfth centuries, the great age of Western
monasticism, Europe experienced unprecedented economic, social and political
change, leading to burgeoning wealth among landowners, including monasteries.
There was increasing demand for books, and economic wealth allowed many
manuscripts to be richly illuminated.
One of the outstanding artefacts of the age is the 70 m long Bayeux Tapestry.[129][130]
[131]
It depicts the events leading up to the Norman conquest of England with
protagonists William, Duke of Normandy, and Harold, Earl of Wessex, later King of
England, and culminating in the Battle of Hastings. It is thought to date from the 11th
century. It tells the story from the point of view of the conquering Normans, but is
now agreed to have been made in England most likely by women, although the
designer is unknown. It is housed in France.
 'Holy Face'; 904–1018; wood with polychromy; height: 2.9 m; Sansepolcro Cathedral (Sansepolcro,
Italy)[132]

Speyer cathedral (Speyer, Germany), 1030-1106[133]

 

Maria Laach Abbey (Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany), 1093-1230[134]

 Head of pope Alexander; 1145; wood, silver, gilt bronze, gems, pearls and champlevé enamel;
height: c. 45 cm; Art & History Museum (Brussels, Belgium)[135]

The stoning of Saint Stephen; 1160s; fresco; height: 1.3 m; Saint John Abbey (Val Müstair, Canton of
Grisons, Switzerland)[136]

Manuscript Illumination with Initial V, from a Bible; c. 1175–1195; tempera on parchment; 27.5 x
15.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Gothic[edit]
Main article: Gothic art
Gothic art developed in Northern France out of Romanesque in the 12th century AD,
and led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all
of Western Europe, and much of Southern and Central Europe, never quite effacing
more classical styles in Italy. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style
of International Gothic developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th
century.
The imposing Gothic cathedrals, with their sculptural programmes and stained glass
windows, epitomize the Gothic style.[137] It differs from Romanesque through its rib-
shaped vaults, and the use of ogives. Instead of the thick Romanesque walls, Gothic
buildings are thin and tall. Spiral stairs in towers are specific to Gothic architecture. [138]
Gothic painting, much of it executed in tempera and, later, oils on panel, as well as
fresco, and with an increasingly broad palette of secondary colours, is generally
seen as more 'naturalistic' than Romanesque. The humanity of religious narrative
was highlighted, and the emotional state of the characters individualized.[139] The
increased urbanity of the medieval economy and the rise of the clerical and lay
patron saw a change in the nature of the art market, which can be seen in
developments in Gothic manuscript illumination. Workshops employed specialists for
different elements of the page, such as figures or marginal vine motifs. [140]

North transept windows; c. 1230–1235; stained glass; diameter (rose window): 10.2 m; Chartres
Cathedral (Chartres, France)[141]

The Sainte-Chapelle (Paris), 1243–1248, by Pierre de Montreuil[142]

Ekkehard and Uta; attributed to the Master of Namburg; 1245–1260; limestone and polychromy;
height: c. 1.9 m; Naumburg Cathedral (Naumburg, Germany)[143]


Arrest of Christ and Annunciation of the Virgin; by Jean Pucelle; 1324–1328; grisaille and temprea on
vellum; 8.9 x 12.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[140]

The Wilton Diptych; c. 1395–1459; tempera and gold on panel; 53 × 37 cm; National
Gallery (London)[139]

Renaissance[edit]
Main article: Renaissance art
Encompassing Early, Northern and High Renaissance, the term Renaissance
describes the 'rebirth' in Europe of a new interest for Classical antiquity. For the first
time since antiquity, art became convincingly lifelike. Besides the ancient past,
Renaissance artists also studied nature, understanding the human body, animals,
plants, space, perspective and the qualities of light. The most common theme were
religious subjects, but depictions of mythological stories were produced as well. Also,
there was no uniform Renaissance style. Each artist developed their own distinct
visual language, influenced by their predecessors and contemporaries.
The Early Renaissance was a period of great creative and intellectual activity when
artists broke away completely from the parameters of Byzantine art. It is generally
accepted that it started in Florence in present-day Italy in the early 15th century. It is
characterized by a surge of interest in classical literature, philosophy and art, the
growth of commerce, the discovery of new continents, and new inventions. There
was a revival of interest in the art and literature of ancient Rome, and the study
of ancient Greek and Latin texts instigated concepts of individualism and reason,
which became known as humanism. Humanists considered life in the present and
emphasized the importance of individual thought, which affected artists' approaches.
Despite being highly associated with Italy, particularly with Florence, Rome, and
Venice, the rest of Western Europe participated to the Renaissance as well. [144] The
Northern Renaissance occurred in Europe north of the Alps from the early 15th
century, following a period of artistic cross-fertilization between north and south
known as 'International Gothic'. There was a big difference between the Northern
and Italian Renaissance. The North artists did not seek to revive the values of
ancient Greece and Rome like the Italians, while in the south Italian artists and
patrons were amazed by the empirical study of nature and the human society, and
by the deep colors that northern artists could achieve in the newly developed
medium of oil paint. The Protestant Reformation increased the northern interest in
secular painting, like portraits or landscapes. Two key northern artists
are Hieronymus Bosch, known for his surreal paintings filled with hybrid creatures
like The Garden of Earthly Delights, and Albrecht Dürer, who brought the new art of
printmaking to a new level.
The High Renaissance took place in the late 15th-early 16th centuries and was
influenced by the fact that as papal power stabilized in Rome, several popes
commissioned art and architecture, determined to recreate the city's former
glory. Raphael and Michelangelo produced vast and grandiose projects for the
popes. The most famous artwork of this part of the Renaissance is probably the
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
Mannerism broke away from High Renaissance ideals of harmony and a rational
approach to art, to embrace exaggerated forms, elongated proportions, and more
vibrant colors. It developed in Italy between 1510 and 1520, among artists who
prized originality above all. The name of this movement comes from the
Italian maniera, meaning 'style or 'manner'. The word was meant to describe the
standard of excellence achieved during the High Renaissance, to which all art should
now adhere, but in practice it led to stylization and art 'to show art', sometimes with
great success, an example being Raphael's pupil Giulio Romano. Mannerism has
also been used more generally to describe a period following the Renaissance and
preceding the Baroque.[145]

The Florence Cathedral (Florence, Italy), 1294–1436, by Arnolfo di Cambio, Filippo

Brunelleschi and Emilio De Fabris[146]

Crucifix; by Giotto; c. 1300; tempera on panel; 5.78 x 4.06 m; Santa Maria Novella (Florence, Italy)[147]

Arnolfini Portrait; by Jan van Eyck; 1434; oil on panel; 82.2 x 60 cm; National Gallery (London)[148]
 

David; by Donatello; c. 1460s; bronze; height: 1.6 m; Bargello (Florence)[149]

Saint George and the Dragon; by Paolo Uccello; c. 1470; oil on canvas; 55.6 x 74.2 cm; National
Gallery (London)[150]

Primavera; by Sandro Botticelli; c. 1478; tempera on panel; 2 x 3.1 m; Uffizi Gallery (Florence)[151]

The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio, Rome), 1502, by Donato Bramante[152]

 

Mona Lisa; by Leonardo da Vinci; c.1503-1519; oil on poplar panel; 77 × 53 cm; Louvre[153]

The Garden of Earthly Delights; by Hieronymus Bosch; c. 1504; oil on panel; 2.2 x 1.95 m; Museo del
Prado (Madrid, Spain)[154]

Sistine Chapel ceiling; by Michelangelo; 1508–1512; fresco; 13.7 x 39 m; Sistine Chapel (Vatican
City)[155]

The School of Athens; by Raphael; 1509–1510; fresco; 5.8 x 8.2 m; Apostolic Palace (Vatican City)[156]
 

The Rhinoceros; by Albrecht Dürer; 1515; woodcut; 23.5 × 29.8 cm; National Gallery of
Art (Washington, D.C., US)

Château d'Azay-le-Rideau (Loire, France), 1518-1527[157]

The Tower of Babel; by Pieter Bruegel the Elder; 1563; oil on panel; 1.14 x 1.55 m; Kunsthistorisches
Museum (Vienna, Austria)[158]

Cupboard; c. 1580; walnut and oak, partially gilded and painted; height: 2.06 m, width: 1.50 m;
Louvre[159]

Baroque[edit]
Main article: Baroque
See also: Style Louis XIV
The Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France), one of the most iconic Baroque buildings, c.
1660 – 1715, by Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart
The Marble Court

The Salon d'Hercule

The Royal Chapel

The Hall of Mirrors

The gardens

The 17th century was a period of volatile change, both in science, through inventions
and developments, such as the telescope or the microscope, and in religion, as the
Catholic Counter-Reformation contested the growing popularity of Protestant faith.
After the Protestant Reformation the Catholic Church reacted with the Counter-
Reformation, decreeing that art should inspire viewers with passionate religious
themes.
Succeeding Mannerism, and developing as a result of religious tensions across
Europe, Baroque art emerged in the late 16th century. The name may derive from
'barocco', the Portuguese word for misshaped pearl, and it describes art that
combined emotion, dynamism and dramawith powerful color, realism and strong
tonal contrasts. Between 1545 and 1563 at the Council of Trent, it was decided that
religious art must encourage piety, realism and accuracy, and, by attracting viewers'
attention and empathy, glorify the Catholic Church and strengthen the image of
Catholicism. In the next century the radical new styles of Baroque art both embraced
and developed High Renaissance models, and broke new ground both in religious
art and in new varieties of secular art – above all landscape. The Baroque and its
late variant the Rococo were the first truly global styles in the arts, dominating more
than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from
circa 1580 to circa 1750. Born in the painting studios of Bologna and Rome in the
1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second
and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly
throughout Italy, Spain and Portugal, Flanders, France, the Netherlands, England,
Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres
from Munich (Germany) to Vilnius (Lithuania).
The Portuguese, Spanish and French empires and the Dutch treading network had a
leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and
Asia, to places such as Lima, Mozambique, Goa and the Philippines.
Just like paintings and sculptures, Baroque cathedrals and palaces are characterised
by the use of illusion and drama as well. They also frequently use dramatic effects of
light and shade, and have sumptuous, highly decorated interiors that blurred the
boundaries between architecture, painting and sculpture. Another important
characteristic of Baroque architecture was the presence of dynamism, done through
curves, Solomonic columns and ovals. In France, Baroque is synonymous with the
reign of Louis XIV between 1643 and 1715, since multiple monumental buildings
were built in Paris, Versailles and other parts of France during his rule, such as
the Palace of Versailles, the Château de Maisons, the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte,
the Louvre Colonnade or The Dôme des Invalides. Besides the building itself, the
space where it was placed has a role too. Baroque buildings try to seize viewers'
attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as
the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome, or on a massive one, like the new
facade of the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, designed to tower over the city.
Applied arts prospered during this period as well. Baroque furniture could be as
bombastic as the rooms they were meant to adorn, and their motifs and techniques
were carefully calibrated to coordinate with the architect's overall decorative
programme. One of the most prestigious furniture makers was André Charles Boulle,
known for his marquetry technique, made by gluing sheets of tortoiseshell
and brass together and cut to form the design. His works were also adorned with
gilded bronze mounts. Complex Gobelins tapestries featured scenes inspired
by classical antiquity, and the Savonnerie manufactory produced big highly detailed
carpets for the Louvre. These carpets with black or yellow backgrounds had a central
motif or a medallion. Chinese porcelain, Delftware and mirrors fabricated at Saint-
Gobain (France) spread rapidly in all princely palaces and aristocratic residences in
France. During the reign of Louis XIV, big mirrors are put above fireplace mantels,
and this trend will last long after the Baroque period.[160]
 

The Four Continents; by Peter Paul Rubens; c.1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; Kunsthistorisches
Museum (Vienna, Austria)

Château de Maisons (France), by François Mansart, 1630-1651[161]

The Rape of the Sabine Women; by Nicolas Poussin; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 ×
2.1 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[162]

The Night Watch; by Rembrandt; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam,
the Netherlands)[163]
 

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; Santa Maria
della Vittoria (Rome)[164]

Las Meninas; by Diego Velázquez; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; Museo del Prado (Madrid,
Spain)[165]

 Vanitas Still Life; by Maria van Oosterwijck; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches
Museum[166]

Carpet with fame and fortitude; by the Savonnerie manufactory; 1668–1685; knotted and cut wool
pile, woven with about 90 knots per square inch; 909.3 x 459.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

Dôme des Invalides (Paris), 1677–1706, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart[167]

Commode; by André Charles Boulle; c. 1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and marquetry of
engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art[168]

Rococo[edit]
Main article: Rococo
See also: Style Louis XV

Coiffure à l’Indépendance ou Le Triomphe de la

Liberté, 1778, depicting a fashionable aristocratic woman is applying the finishing
touches to her toilette [169]

Originating in c.1720 Paris, Rococo is characterized by natural motifs, soft colours,

curving lines, asymmetry and themes including love, nature and light-hearted
entertainment. Its ideals were delicacy, gaiety, youthfulness and sensuality.
Beginning in France as a reaction against the heavy Baroque grandeur of Louis
XIV's court at the Palace of Versailles, the rococo movement became associated
particularly with the powerful Madame de Pompadour (1721–1764), the mistress of
the new king Louis XV (1710–1774). Because of this, the style was also known as
'Pompadour'. The name of the movement derives from the French 'rocaille', or
pebble, and refers to stones and shells that decorate the interiors of caves, as similar
shell forms became a common feature in Rococo design. It began as a design
and decorative arts style, and was characterized by elegant flowing shapes.
Architecture followed and then painting and sculpture. The French painted with
whom the term Rococo is most often associated is Jean-Antoine Watteau, whose
pastoral scenes, or fêtes galantes, dominate the early part of the 18th century.
Although there are some important Bavarian churches in this style, such as
the Wieskirche, Rococo is most often associated with secular buildings, principally
great palaces and salons where educated elites would meet to discuss literary and
philosophical ideas. In Paris, its popularity coincided with the emergence of the salon
as a new type of social gathering, the venues for which were often decorated in the
Rococo style. Among the most characteristically elegant and refined examples is the
Salon Oval de la Princesse of the Hôtel de Soubise, one of the most beautiful 18th
century mansions in Paris. The Rococo introduced dramatic changes to elite
furniture, as it favoured smaller pieces with narrow, sinewy frames and more
delicate, often asymmetrical decoration, often including elements of chinoiserie. The
taste for Far Eastern objects (mainly Chinese) lead to the use of Chinese painted
and lacquered panels for furniture.
The movement spread quickly throughout Europe and as far as Ottoman Turkey and
China thanks to ornament books featuring cartouches, arabesques and shell work,
as well as designs for wall panels and fireplaces. The most popular were made
by Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier (1695–1750), Jacques-François Blondel (1705–
1774), Pierre-Edmé Babel (1720–1775) and François de Cuvilliés (1695–1768).[170]

The Embarkation for Cythera; by Jean-Antoine Watteau; 1718; oil on canvas; 1.29 x 1.94 m; Schloss
Charlottenburg[171]

The Salon Oval de la Princesse of the Hôtel de Soubise (Paris), 1737–1739, by Germain
Boffrand, Charles-Joseph Natoire and Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne[172]
 

Candelabrum; by Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain; c.1750; gilt bronze; overall: 72.4 x 49.3 x
39.7 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)

Fire; by Jean-Pierre Defrance; c.1750-1760; limestone; height: 223 cm; Metropolitan Museum of
Art (New York City)

Side table (commode en console); by Bernard II van Risamburgh; c.1755-1760; Japanese lacquer,
gilt-bronze mounts and Sarrancolin marble top; height: 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art


 Madame de Pompadour; by François Boucher; 1756; oil on canvas; 2.01 x 1.57 m; Alte
Pinakothek (Munich, Germany)[172]

Coffeepot; 1757; silver; height: 29.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

 Covered tureen (terrine du roi); by the Manufacture nationale de Sèvres 1756; soft-paste porcelain
with enamel and gilt decoration; overall: 24.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art

The Swing; by Jean-Honoré Fragonard; 1767; oil on canvas; 81 x 64 cm; Wallace

Collection (London)[172]

 Marie-Antoinette with the Rose; by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun; 1783; oil on canvas; 130 x
87 cm; Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France)

Neoclassicism[edit]
Main article: Neoclassicism

Oath of the Horatii, by Jacques-Louis David, 1784, oil

on canvas, Louvre [173]

Inspired by the excavations of the ancient Roman cities

of Pompeii and Herculaneum from 1748, a renewed interest in the arts of antiquity
 occurred. Neoclassicism dominates Western art from the mid to late 18th century
until the 1830s. Embracing order and restraint, it developed in reaction to the
perceived frivolity, hedonism and decadence of Rococo and exemplifying the rational
thinking of the 'Age of Enlightenment' (aka the 'Age of Reason'). Initially, the
movement was developed not by artists, but by Enlightenment philosophers. They
requested replacing Rococo with a style of rational art, moral and dedicated to the
soul.[174] This fitted well with a perception of Classical art as the embodiment of
realism, restraint and order. Inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art, the classical
history paintings of the French artist Nicolas Poussin (1594–1665) and the ideas of
the German writer Anton Raphael Mengs (1728–1779) and the archaeologist and art
historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768), Neoclassicism began in
Rome, but soon spread throughout Europe. Rome had become the main focus of
the Grand Tour by the mid-18th century, and aristocratic travellers went there in
search of Classical visions to recreate on their country estates, thus spreading the
style across Europe, particularly in England and France. The tour was also an
opportunity for collecting Classical antiquities. Neoclassical paintings tended to be
populated with figures posed like Classical statues or reliefs, set in a locations filled
with archaeological details. The style favoured Greek art over Roman, considering it
purer and more authentically classical in its aesthetic goal.
In 1789, France was on the brink of its first revolution and Neoclassicism sought to
express their patriotic feelings. Politics and art were closely entwined during this
period. They believed that art should be serious, and valued drawings above
painting; smooth contours and paint with no discernible brushstrokes were the
ultimate aim. Both painting and sculpture exerted calmness and restraint and
focused on heroic themes, expressing such noble notions as self-sacrifice and
nationalism.
This movement paved the way for Romanticism, that appeared when the idealism of
the revolution faded away and after the Napoleonic period came to an end in the
early 19th century. Neoclassicism should not be seen as the opposite of
Romanticism, however, but in some ways an early manifestation of it.[175][176]
 Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome, by Giovanni Paolo Panini,
1737, oil on canvas, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, US

 The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . ., by Giovanni Battista
Piranesi, c.1750, etching, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City

Hôtel de la Marine, Paris, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761–1770[177]

 

Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[178]

A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery, by Joseph Wright of Derby, c.1766, oil on canvas, Derby
Museum and Art Gallery, Derby, England[179]

The Hall, Osterley Park, London, by Robert Adam, 1767[180]

The Artist and her Daughter, by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, c.1785, oil on canvas, Louvre[181]
 

Washstand (athénienne or lavabo), 1800–1814, legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze
mounts, iron plate beneath shelf, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes, by Marie-Denise Villers, 1801, oil on canvas, Metropolitan
Museum of Art[182]

The Three Graces, by Antonio Canova, 1813–1816, marble, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg,
Russia[183]

Western art after 1770[edit]

 The Ghost of a Flea; by William Blake; 1819; tempera
with gold on panel (21.4 × 16.2 cm); Tate Britain, London
Many art historians place the origins of modern art in the late 18th century, others in
the mid 19th century. Art historian H. Harvard Arnason stated "a gradual
metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years."[184] Events such as
the age of enlightenment, revolutions and democracies in America and France, and
the Industrial Revolution had far reaching affects in western culture. People,
commodities, ideas, and information could travel between countries and continents
with unprecedented speed and these changes were reflected in the arts. The
invention of photography in the 1830s further altered certain aspects of art,
particularly painting. By the dawn of the 19th century, a long and gradual paradigm
shift was complete, from the Gothic when artists were viewed as craftsmen in the
service of the church and monarchies, to the idea of art for art's sake, where the
ideas and visions of the individual artist were held in the high regard, with patronage
from an increasingly literate, affluent, and urban middle and upper class population
that had been emerging for 200 years (particularly in Paris and London). A
dichotomy began in the late 18th century between neoclassicism and romanticism
that subdivided and continued to run through virtually every new movement in
modern art: "Spreading like waves, these "isms" defy national, ethnic, and
chronological boundaries; never dominant anywhere for long, they compete or
merge with each other in endlessly shifting patterns."[185]
Modern art has consistently moved toward international influences and exchanges,
from the exotic curiosity of Orientalism, the deeper influence of Japonisme, to the
arts of Oceania, Africa, and the Americas. Conversely modern art has increasingly
extended beyond western Europe. In Russia and the US the arts were developing to
a degree that rivaled the leading European countries by the end of the 19th century.
Many of the major movements appeared in Latin America, Australia, and Asia too
and geography and nationality became increasingly insignificant with each passing
decade. By the 20th century important and influential artists were emerging around
the world: e.g. Foujita (Japan), Arshile Gorky (Armenia), Diego Rivera and Frida
Kahlo (Mexico), Wifredo Lam (Cuba), Edvard Munch (Norwegian), Roberto
Matta (Chilean), Mark Rothko (Lithuanian-American), Fernando Botero
Angulo (Colombia), Constantin Brâncuși and Victor Brauner (Romania).[186][187][188][189][190]
 

Newton's Cenotaph, exterior by night; by Étienne-Louis Boullée; 1784; ink and wash, 40.2 ×
63.3 cm.; Bibliothèque Nationale

The Dog; Francisco de Goya; ca. 1819–1823; mural transferred to canvas, 131.5 × 79.3 cm.; Museo
del Prado

Death on a Pale Horse; J. M. W. Turner; c. 1830; oil on canvas, 60 × 76 cm.; Tate Britain

 Toothless Man Laughing, Charles Philipon form Célébrités du Juste milieu; Honoré Daumier; 1832–
33; painted clay, 6.12 high; Musée d'Orsay

Still life with statue of Jupiter Tonans; by Louis Jacques Daguerre; c. 1839; daguerreotype

19th century[edit]
Romanticism (c. 1790–1880)[edit]
Main article: Romanticism § Visual arts
 English landscape garden at Stourhead (the

UK), the 1740s, by Henry Hoare [191]

Wanderer above the Sea of
Fog by Caspar David Friedrich
Romanticism emerged in the late 18th century out of the German Sturm und
Drang movement and flourished in the first half of the 19th century with significant
and international manifestations in music, literature, and architecture, as well as the
visual arts. It grew from a disillusionment with the rationalism of 18th century
Enlightenment. Despite being often viewed as the opposite of Neoclassicism, there
were some stylistic overlapping with both movements, and many Romantic artists
were excited by classicism. The movement focused on intense emotions,
imagination, and on the impressive power of nature, a bigger and more powerful
force than the one of men, with its potential for disaster. "Neoclassicism is a new
revival of classical antiquity... while Romanticism refers not to a specific style but to
an attitude of mind that may reveal itself in any number of ways."[192]
One of the earliest expressions of romanticism was in the English landscape garden,
carefully designed to appear natural and standing in dramatic contrast to the formal
gardens of the time. The concept of the "natural" English garden was adopted
throughout Europe and America in the following decades. In architecture, the
romantics frequently turned to alternative sources other than the Greek and Roman
examples admired by the neo-classicist. Romantic architecture often
revived Gothic forms and other styles such as exotic eastern models. The Palace of
Westminster (Houses of Parliament), London is an example of romantic architecture
that is also referred to as Gothic Revival.[192] In painting romanticism is exemplified by
the paintings of Francisco Goya in Spain, Eugène Delacroix and Théodore
Géricault in France, William Blake, Henry Fuseli, Samuel Palmer, and William
Turner in England, Caspar David Friedrich and Philipp Otto Runge in
Germany, Francesco Hayez in Italy, Johan Christian Claussen Dahl in Norway,
and Thomas Cole in America. Examples of sculptors of the romantic period
include Antoine-Louis Barye, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Auguste Préault,
and François Rude. As romanticism ran its course, some aspects of the movement
evolved into symbolism.[193][194][189][195][196]
 

Elohim Creating Adam; by William Blake; 1795; color print finished in ink and watercolour on paper;
43.1 × 53.6 cm; Tate Britain (London)[197]

The Third of May 1808; by Francisco Goya; 1814; oil on canvas; 2.68 × 3.47 m; Museo del
Prado (Madrid, Spain)[198]

 The Raft of the Medusa; by Théodore Géricault; 1819; oil on canvas; 4.91 × 7.16 m; Louvre[199]

The Death of Sardanapalus; by Eugène Delacroix; 1827; oil on canvas; 3.92 × 4.96 m; Louvre[200]

Palace of Westminster (London), 1840–1870, by Sir Charles Barry and A. Welby Pugin[201]


Schwerin Castle, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Germany, 1845-1857, by Gottfried Semper, Friedrich
August Stüler, Georg Adolf Demmler and Ernst Friedrich Zwirner

Neuschwanstein Castle, Bavaria Germany, 1869-1886, by Eduard Riedel

Academism[edit]
Main article: Academic art
Academism is the codification of art into rules that can be learned in art academies.
It promotes the Classical ideals of beauty and artistic perfection. There was also a
very strict hierarchy of subjects. At the top, there were paintings that depicted historic
events, including the biblical and Classical ones, followed by the portrait and by
the landscape. At the bottom of the hierarchy were still life and genre
painting. Nicolas Poussin was the artist whose works and theories played the most
significant role in the development of academism. The vales of academism were
situated in the centre of the Enlightenment project of discovering the basic principles
and ideals of art.
During the 18th century, across all Europe, many academies were founded, that will
later dominate the art of the 19th century. In order to study at an art academy, young
artists had to take an admission exam, and after being admitted, they would study
there for multiple years. Most of the 19th century French art movements were
exterior or even opposing the values of academism.
Some of the most important artists of the French academy were William
Bouguereau (1825–1905), Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904), Alexandre
Cabanel (1823–1889) and Thomas Couture (1815–1879). Academic art is closely
related to Beaux-Arts architecture, which developed in the same place and holds to a
similar classicizing ideal. The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the École des
Beaux-Arts in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of
the style studied.[202][203]

Palais Garnier (Paris), 1860–1875, by Charles Garnier[204]

 

Pollice Verso (Thumbs Down); by Jean-Léon Gérôme; 1872; oil on canvas; height: 96.5 cm; Phoenix
Art Museum (Phoenix, Arizona, US)

The Birth of Venus; by William-Adolphe Bouguereau; 1879; oil on canvas; 300 x 215 cm; Musée
d'Orsay (Paris)[205]

Phaedra; by Alexandre Cabanel; 1880; oil on canvas; 194 x 286 cm; Musée Fabre (Montpellier,
France)[206]

The Roses of Heliogabalus; by Lawrence Alma-Tadema; 1888; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 2.1 m; private
collection of Juan Antonio Pérez Simón[207]
Revivalism and Eclecticism[edit]
When it comes to architecture and applied arts, the 19th century is best known as
the century of revivals. One of the most well-known revivalist styles is the Gothic
Revival or Neo-Gothic, which first appeared in the mid-18th century in a few houses
in England, like the Strawberry Hill House in London. However, these houses were
isolated cases, since the beginning of the 19th century was dominated
by Neoclassicism. Later, between 1830 and 1840, a taste and nostalgia for the
rediscovery of past styles, ranging from the Middle Ages to the 18th century,
developed under the influence of romanticism. Approximatively until World War I,
rehashes of the past dominated the world of architecture and applied arts.
Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: Egyptian for
prisons, Gothic for churches, or Renaissance Revival for banks and exchanges.
These choices were the result of other associations:
the pharaohs with death and eternity, the Middle Ages with Christianity, or the Medici
family with the rise of banking and modern commerce. Sometimes, these styles were
also seen in a nationalistic way, on the idea that architecture might represent the
glory of a nation. Some of them were seen as 'national styles', like the Gothic Revival
in the UK and the German states or the Romanian Revival in Romania. Augustus
Pugin called the Gothic style the 'absolute duty'[208] of the English architect, despite
the fact that the style is of French origin. This way, architecture and the applied arts
were used to grant the aura of a highly idealized glorious past. Some architects and
designers associated historic styles, especially the medieval ones, with an idealized
fantasy organic life, which they put in comparison with the reality of their time. [209]
Despite revivalism being so prevalent, this doesn't mean that there was no originality
in these works. Architects, ébénistes and other craftsmen, especially during the
second half of the 19th century, created mixes of styles, by extracting and
interpreting elements specific to certain eras and areas. This practice is known
as eclecticism. This stylistic development occurred during a period when the
competition of World's Fairs motivated many countries to invent new industrial
methods of creation.

Egyptian Revival - Coin cabinet; 1809–1819; mahogany (probably Swietenia mahagoni), with applied
and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art

Gothic Revival - Pair of vases; manufactured in 1832, decorated in 1844; hard-paste porcelain; 36.4
x 32.7 x 20 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
 

Eclectic - Église Saint-Augustin de Paris, 1860–1868, by Victor Baltard

Renaissance Revival - Buffet; by Henri-Auguste Fourdinois, Nivillier, Party, Hugues Protat, Primo and
Maigret; 1867; walnut, jasper and lapis lazuli marquetry, and ivory and silver-inlayed interior;
unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts Décoratifs (Paris)

Rococo Revival - Apartment building no. 8 on Rue de Miromesnil (Paris), 1900, by P. Lobrot
Realism (c. 1830–1890)[edit]
Main article: Realism (art movement)
Realism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, c. 1840, and had counterparts in
sculpture, literature, and drama, often referred to as Naturalism in literature. In
nineteenth-century painting, the term Realism refers more to the subject matter
depicted than to the style or technique. Realist paintings typically represent ordinary
places and people engaged in everyday activities, as opposed to grand, idealized
landscapes, mythological gods, biblical subjects, and historical figures and events
that had often dominated painting in western culture. Courbet said "I cannot paint an
angel because I have never seen one".[192]
Realism was also in part a reaction to the often dramatic, exotic, and emotionally
charged work of romanticism. The term realism is applied relative to the idealized
imagery of neo-classicism and the romanticized imagery of romanticism. Artists such
as Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot and Honoré Daumier had loose associations with
realism, as did members of the Barbizon School, particularly Jean-François Millet,
but it was perhaps Gustave Courbet who was the central figure in the movement,
self identifying as a realist, advocating realism, and influencing younger artists such
as Édouard Manet. One significant aspect of realism was the practice of painting
landscapes en plein air and its subsequent influence on impressionism.
Beyond France, realism is exemplified by artists such as Wilhelm Leibl in
Germany, Ford Madox Brown in England, and Winslow Homer in the United States.
Art historian H. H. Arnason wrote, "The chronological sequence of neo-classicism,
romanticism, and realism is, of course, only a convenient stratification of movements
or tendencies so inextricably bound up with one another and with the preceding
movements that it is impossible to tell where one ended and another began",[210] and
this becomes even more pertinent and complex as one follows all of the movements
and "isms" into the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[211][212][213][213][214]

The Painter's Studio; by Gustave Courbet; 1854–1855; oil on canvas; 3.59 x 5.98 m; Musée
d'Orsay (Paris)[215]

The Gleaners; by Jean-François Millet; 1857; oil on canvas; 0.84 x 1.12 m; Musée d'Orsay[215]

The Third-Class Carriage; by Honoré Daumier; c.1862–1864; oil on canvas; 65.4 x

90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
 

The Iron Rolling Mill; by Adolph von Menzel; 1875; oil on canvas; 153 x 253 cm; Alte
Nationalgalerie (Berlin, Germany)[216]

 The Poor, Picking up Pieces of Coal; by Nikolay Kasatkin; 1894; oil on canvas; 80 x 107 cm; Russian
Museum (Saint Petersburg, Russia)[216]
Impressionism (c. 1865–1885)[edit]
Main article: Impressionism

Impression, Sunrise; by Claude Monet; 1872; oil on

canvas; 48.1 x 62.8 cm; Musée Marmottan Monet (Paris) [217]

Impressionism emerged in France, under the influences of Realism, the Barbizon

School, and en plein air painters like Eugène Boudin, Camille Corot, Charles-
Francois Daubigny, and Johan Barthold Jongkind. Starting in the late 1850s, several
of the impressionists had made acquaintances and friendships as students in Paris,
notably at the free Académie Suisse and Charles Gleyre's studio. Their progressive
work was frequently rejected by the conservative juries of the prestigious Académie
des Beaux Arts salons, a forum where many artist turned to establish their
reputations, and many of the young artist were included in a highly publicized, but
much ridiculed Salon des Refusés in 1863. In 1874 they formed the Société
Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, independent of
the academy, and mounted the first of several impressionist exhibitions in Paris,
through to 1886 when their eighth and final exhibition was held. Important figures in
the movement included Frédéric Bazille, Gustave Caillebotte, Mary Cassatt, Paul
Cézanne, Edgar Degas, Armand Guillaumin, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Berthe
Morisot, Camille Pissarro, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Alfred Sisley. Although
impressionism was primarily a movement of painters, Degas and Renoir also
produced sculptures and others like Auguste Rodin and Medardo Rosso are
sometimes linked to impressionism. By 1885 impressionism had achieved some
prominence, and yet a younger generation were already pushing the limits beyond
impressionism. Artist from Russia, Australia, America and Latin America soon
adopted impressionist styles. A few of the original impressionist continued producing
significant work into the 1910s and 1920s.[212][218][219]
Although not unprecedented, many of the techniques used were in contrast to
traditional methods. Paintings were often completed in hours or days with wet paint
applied to wet paint (opposed to wet on dry paint, completed in weeks and months).
 Rather than applying glazes and mixed colors, pure colors were often applied side
by side, in thick, opaque, impasto strokes; blending in the eye of the viewer when
observed from a distance. Black was used very sparingly, or not at all, and defining
lines replaced with nuanced strokes of color forming the subjects, contours, and
shapes. Art historian H. W. Janson said "instead of adding to the illusion of real
space, it strengthens the unity of the actual painted surface."[192] Impressionist
paintings typically depict landscapes, portraits, still lifes, domestic scenes, daily
leisure and nightlife, all treated in a realist manner. Compositions were often based
on unusual perspectives, appearing spontaneous and candid. The paintings were
usually void of didactic, symbolic, or metaphoric meanings, and rarely addressed the
biblical, mythological, and historical subjects that were so highly regarded by the
academies or the darker and psychological interest explored by the symbolist. The
nuances of light, shadow, atmosphere, and reflections of colors from surfaces were
examined, sometimes emphasizing changes of these elements in time. The painting
itself was the subject of the painting. It was art for art's sake, an idea that had been
floating around for a few of decades but it perhaps reached a new high and
consistency in impressionism.[188][212][218][219]

At the Races in the Countryside; by Edgar Degas; 1869; oil on canvas; 36.5 x 56 cm; Museum of
Fine Arts (Boston, US)[217]

 Boulevard des Capucines; by Claude Monet; 1873; oil on canvas; 80.5 x 60.2 cm; Nelson-Atkins
Museum of Art (Kansas City, Missouri, US)[217]

Hoarfrost: Old Road to Ennery, Pontoise; by Camille Pissarro; 1873; oil on canvas; 64.7 x
92.6 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)[217]

 Banks of the Seine near Bougival; by Alfred Sisley; 1873; oil on canvas; 46.2 x 62.1 cm; Montreal
Museum of Fine Arts (Montreal, Canada)[217]
 

La Loge; Pierre-Auguste Renoir; 1874; oil on canvas; 80 x 63.4 cm; Courtauld Gallery (London)[217]

The Floor Scrapers; by Gustave Caillebotte; 1875; oil on canvas; 1 x 1.54 m; Musée d'Orsay[220]

Paris Street; Rainy Day; by Gustave Caillebotte; 1877; oil on canvas; 2.12 x 2.76 cm; Art Institute of
Chicago[220]

Summer's Day; by Berthe Morisot; 1879; oil on canvas; 45.7 cm × 75.2 cm; National Portrait
Gallery (London)[220]


A Bar at the Folies-Bergère; by Édouard Manet; 1881–1882; oil on canvas; 0.96 ×
1.30 cm.; Courtauld Institute of Art (London)[221]

Ox-Drawn Cart; by Nicolae Grigorescu; 1899; oil on canvas; 66 x 81 cm; National Museum of Art of
Romania (Bucharest, Romania)
Symbolism (c. 1860–1915)[edit]
Main article: Symbolism (art)
Symbolism emerged in France and Belgium in the 3rd quarter of the nineteenth
century and spread throughout Europe in the 1870s, and later to America to a lesser
extent. It evolved from romanticism without a clear or defining demarcation point,
although poetry, literature, and specifically the publication of Charles
Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil) in 1857 were significant in the
development of symbolism. It had international expression in poetry, literature,
drama, and music. In architecture, the applied arts, and decorative arts symbolism
closely paralleled and overlapped into Art Nouveau. Symbolism is often inextricably
linked to other contemporary art movements, surfacing and finding expression within
other styles like Post-Impressionism, Les Nabis, the Decadent Movement, the Fin-de
Siecle, Art Nouveau, The Munich Secession, The Vienna Secession, Expressionism,
and even the Pre-Raphaelites, which had formed before and influenced symbolism
as well. Artist as diverse as James McNeill Whistler, Eugène Carrière, Ferdinand
Hodler, Fernand Khnopff, Giovanni Segantini, Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer, Jean Delville,
and James Ensor all had varying degrees of association with symbolism. Art
historian Robert L. Delevoy wrote "Symbolism was less a school than the
atmosphere of a period."[222] It quickly began to fade with the onset
of Fauvism, Cubism, Futurism and had largely dissipated by the outbreak of the First
World War, however it did find some sustained development and relevance in
the metaphysical school, which in turn had a profound influence on surrealism.[222][188][223]
The subjects, themes, and meanings of symbolist art are frequently veiled and
obscure, but at its best still manage to resonate deeply on psychological or
emotional levels. The subjects are often presented as metaphors or allegories,
aiming to evoke highly subjective, personal, introspective emotions and ideas in the
viewer, without clearly defining or addressing the subject directly. The poet Stéphane
Mallarmé wrote "depict not the thing but the effect it produces"[224] and "To name an
object is to suppress three quarters of the pleasure of the poem which is made to be
understood little by little".[223] The English painter George Frederic Watts stated "I
paint ideas, not things."[222][188][223]
 

Thracian Girl with Head of Orpheus on his Lyre; by Gustave Moreau; 1865; oil; 154 ×
99.5 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)

Vision After the Sermon (Jacob Wrestling with the Angel); 1888; oil on canvas; 73 x 92 cm; Scottish
National Gallery (Edinburgh, Scotland)[225]

 The Scream; by Edvard Munch; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; National
Gallery (Oslo, Norway)[225]

Green Death; by Odilon Redon; c.1905; oil on canvas; 54.9 x 46.3 cm; Museum of Modern Art[226]

The Cyclops; by Odilon Redon; c.1914; oil on cardboard on panel; 64 x 51 cm; Kröller-Müller
Museum (Otterlo, the Netherlands)[225]
Post-Impressionism (c. 1885–1910)[edit]
Main article: Post-Impressionism

A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte;

by Georges Seurat; 1884–1886; oil on canvas; 2.08 x 3.08 m; Art Institute of
Chicago [227]

Post-Impressionism is a rather imprecise term applied to a diverse generation of

artists. In its strictest sense, it pertains to four highly influential artists: Paul Cézanne,
[228][229]
Paul Gauguin,[230][231] Georges Seurat,[232][233] and Vincent van Gogh.[234][235] Each
passed through an impressionist phase, but ultimately emerged with four very
original but different styles. Collectively, their work anticipated, and often directly
influenced, much of the avant-garde art that appeared before the First World War
including fauvism, cubism, expressionism, and early abstraction. Cézanne
(particularly influential on cubism) and Van Gogh worked in relative isolation, away
from Paris, at critical points in their careers, while Seurat and Gauguin worked in
groups, more collaboratively, at key points in their development. Another important
artist of the period is Toulouse-Lautrec, an influential painter as well as graphic artist.
[236][237]
In a broader sense, post-impressionism includes a generation of predominantly
French and Belgian artist who worked in a range of styles and groups. Most had
come under the sway of impressionism at some point, but pushed their work beyond
it into a number of factions as early as the mid-1880s, sometimes as a logical
development of impressionism, other times as a reaction against it. Post-
Impressionists typically depicted impressionist subjects, but the work, particularly
synthetism, often contained symbolism, spiritualism, and moody atmospheres that
rarely appeared in impressionism. Unnatural colors, patterns, flat plains, odd
perspectives and viewpoints pushed to extremes, all moved the center of modernism
a step closer to abstraction with a standard for experimentation.[210][238][239]
Neo-Impressionism (Divisionism or Pointillism, c. 1884–1894) explored light and
color based on scientific color theories, creating mosaics of brush strokes in pure
colors, sometimes laid out in rhythmic patterns with lines influenced by Art Nouveau.
The leading artists were Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, others include Henri-
Edmond Cross, Maximilien Luce, Albert Dubois-Pillet, and for a
period Pissarro and Van Gogh. It was influential on fauvism, and elements of the
style appeared in expressionism, cubism, and early
abstraction. Synthetism (Cloisonnism c. 1888–1903) Cloisonnism was conceived
by Émile Bernard and immediately taken up and developed by Paul Gauguin and
others while at an artists' colony in Pont-Aven (Brittany, France). The style
resembled cloisonné enamel or stained glass, with flat, bold colors outlined in black
or dark colors. Synthetism, exemplified in the work of Gauguin and Paul Sérusier, is
slightly a broader term with less emphasis on dark outlines and cloisonné qualities.
Other artist include Cuno Amiet, Louis Anquetin, Charles Filiger, Jacob Meyer de
Haan, Charles Laval, and Armand Seguin. Their work greatly influenced fauvism and
expressionism. Les Nabis (c. 1890–1905: Hebrew for prophets or illuminati) was a
larger movement in France and Belgium that eclectically drew on progressive
elements in synthetism, neo-impressionism, symbolism, and Art Nouveau. Perhaps
more influential than the art, were the numerous theories, manifestoes, and
infectious enthusiasm for the avant-garde, setting the tone for the proliferation of
movements and "isms" in the first quarter of the 20th century. La Revue
Blanche often published Les Nabis and symbolist content. The work of Édouard
Vuillard,[240][241] and Pierre Bonnard,[242][243] ca. 1890–1910 is exemplary of Les Nabis,
though both evolved in their styles and produced significant work into the 1940s.
Other artist include Maurice Denis, Maxime Dethomas, Meyer de Haan, Henri-
Gabriel Ibels, Georges Lacombe, Aristide Maillol, Paul Ranson, Ker-Xavier
Roussel, Armand Séguin, Paul Sérusier, Félix Vallotton, Jan Verkade, and others.[210]
[238][239]

The Starry Night; by Vincent van Gogh; 1889; oil on canvas; height: 73.7 cm; Museum of Modern
Art (New York City)

Félix Fénéon; by Paul Signac; 1890; oil on canvas; 73.5 x 92.5 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New
York City)[227]

Aha Oe Feii? (Are You Jealous?); by Paul Gauguin; 1892; oil on canvas; 68 x 92 cm; Pushkin
Museum (Moscow, Russia)[227]
 

At the Moulin Rouge; by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec; 1892/1895; oil on canvas, 1.23 × 1.41 m; Art
Institute of Chicago[227]

The Bathers; by Paul Cézanne; 1898–1905; oil on canvas; 210.5 cm × 250.8 cm; Philadelphia
Museum of Art (Philadelphia, US)

Early 20th century[edit]

See also: 20th-century Western painting
The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search
for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. The art
movements of Fauvism, Expressionism, Cubism, abstract
art, Dadaism and Surrealism led to further explorations of new creative styles and
manners of expression. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an
equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as Pablo Picasso being
influenced by Iberian sculpture, African sculpture and Primitivism. Japonism, and
Japanese woodcuts (which had themselves been influenced by Western
Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and
subsequent artistic developments. The influential example set by Paul Gauguin's
interest in Oceanic art and the sudden popularity among the cognoscenti in early
20th century Paris of newly discovered African fetish sculptures and other works
from non-European cultures were taken up by Picasso, Henri Matisse, and many of
their colleagues. Later in the 20th century, Pop Art and Abstract
Expressionism came to prominence.
Art Nouveau (c. 1890–1914)[edit]
Main article: Art Nouveau
 Porte Dauphine Métro Station (Paris), by Hector
Guimard, 1900 [244]

Art Nouveau (French: new art) was an international and widespread art and design
movement that emerged in the final decades of the 19th century until the First World
War in 1914. It was catapulted into international prominence with the 1900
Exposition Universelle in Paris. Developing almost simultaneously in parts of Europe
and the US, it was an attempt to create a unique and modern form of expression that
evoked the spirit of the new century. It manifested in painting, illustration, sculpture,
jewellery, metalwork, glass, ceramics, textiles, graphic design, furniture, architecture,
costume design and fashion. Art Nouveau artists aimed to raise the status of craft
and design to the level of fine art.
The movement is highly associated with sinuous organic forms, such as flowers,
vines and leaves, but also insects and animals, through the works of artists
like Alphonse Mucha, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, Antoni Gaudí, René
Lalique or Émile Gallé. Art Nouveau designs and buildings can often be
asymmetrical. Although there are identifying characteristics, the style also displayed
many regional and national interpretations.
Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the modern architecture and
design of the 20th century. It was the first architectural style without historic
precedent, the 19th century being notorious for a practice known as Historicism,
which is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a previous artistic
era. Between c.1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the
historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being Friedrich Nietzsche in 1874,
who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a
modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical
progression. Despite this, Art Nouveau was also heavily influenced by styles from
the past such as Celtic, Gothic and Rococo art, and also by the Arts and Crafts
movement, Aestheticism, Symbolism and especially by Japanese art.[245][246]

The Climax, illustration for Oscar Wilde's Salome; by Aubrey Vincent Beardsley; 1893; line block
print; 34 × 27 cm; private collection[247]
 

Divan Japonais; by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec; c.1893–1894; lithograph; 81 × 62.3 cm; Museum of

Fine Arts (Boston, US)

Le Printemps; by Eugène Grasset (designer) and Félix Gaudin (glazier); 1894; glass and lead; 298 x
136 cm; Musée des Arts Décoratifs (Paris)[248]

Casa Batlló (Barcelona, Spain), an iconic Art Nouveau masterpiece, 1904–1906, by Antoni Gaudí[249]

The Kiss; by Gustav Klimt; 1907–1908; oil on canvas; 1.8 x 1.8 m; Österreichische Galerie
Belvedere (Vienna, Austria)[250]
 

Biscuits Lefèvre-Utile, advertisement; by Alfons Mucha; 1897; lithograph; 62 × 43.5 cm; private
collection

 The Dragonfly brooch; by René Lalique; c.1897–1898; gold, vitreous

enamel, chrysoprase, chalcedony, moonstone and diamond; height: 23 cm, width: 26.5 cm; Calouste
Gulbenkian Museum (Lisboa, Portugal)

Desk (Art Nouveau), presented at the 1900 Paris Exposition; by Émile Gallé; 1900; molded and
carved oak, with chiseled and patinated bronze; height: 108.5 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)[248]

Allegory of an applied art; by Georges de Feure; 1900; oil on canvas; 277 x 103 cm; Musée
d'Orsay[248]
 

Mița the Cyclist House (Bucharest, Romania), 1908, by Nicolae C. Mihăescu[251]

Fauvism (c. 1898–1909)[edit]
Main article: Fauvism
Fauvism emerged from post-impressionism, gradually developing into the first major
movement of the 20th century. Its genesis was in 1895 when Henri Matisse, the
oldest and central figure, entered the studio of Gustave Moreau at the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts. There he met Georges Rouault, Charles Camoin, Henri Manguin,
and Albert Marquet. Marquet said "As early as 1898 Matisse and I were working in
what was later to be called the Fauve manner. The first exhibitions at the
Indepéndants in which we were, I believe, the only ones to paint in pure tones, go
back to 1901."[252] By 1902–03 the circle of like-minded artist had grown to
include Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, Jean
Metzinger, Jean Puy, Louis Valtat, Kees van Dongen, and Maurice de Vlaminck.
During this period a number of influential retrospective exhibitions were held in Paris:
Seurat (1900, 1905), Van Gogh (1901, 1905), Toulouse-Lautrec (1902), Gauguin
(1906), Cézanne (1907), all relatively unknown to the public at that time. Matisse and
Derain collected African carvings, a novel but growing curiosity of the time. Matisse
spent the summer of 1904 in Saint-Tropez painting with the neo-impressionist Paul
Signac and Henri-Edmond Cross, followed in 1905 by Camoin, Manguin, and
Marquet. The artist exhibited regularity at the Salon des Indepéndants and the Salon
d'Automne 1903–1908 and in 1905 their work created a sensation and a scandal.
Matisse stated "We were exhibiting at the Salon d'Automne, Derain, Manguin,
Marquet, Puy, and a few others were hung together in one of the larger galleries. In
the center of this room the sculptor Marque exhibited a bust of a child very much in
the Italian style. Vauxcelles [art critic for Gil Blas] entered the room and said, Well!
well! Donatello in the mist of wild beasts! [Donatello chez les fauves]."[253] The
movement had not been perceived as an entity by the public, but once published the
name stuck. Unlike the impressionist and their long struggle for acceptance, the
avant-garde had an eager audience by 1906–1907 and the fauvist were attracting
collectors from America to Russia. However fauvism largely dissolved in 1908, as
cubism appeared, most of the artist began exploring other styles and moving in
different directions. Only Matisse and Dufy continued to explore fauvism into the
1950s.[252][254][255][256][257]
The fauvist painted landscapes en plein air, interiors, figures, and still lifes, following
examples of realism, impressionism, and post-impressionism. They applied paint
with loose brushstrokes, in thick, unnatural, often contrasting, vibrant colors, at times
straight from the tube. Gauguin's influence, with his exploration of the expressive
values and spatial aspects of patterning with flat, pure colors, as well as his interest
in primitivism were significant, as was neo-impressionism. Matisse explained – for a
long time color served as a complement of design, the painters of the Renaissance
 constructed the picture by line, adding local color afterwards – writing:
"From Delacroix to Van Gogh and chiefly to Gauguin, by way of the Impressionist,
who cleared the ground, and Cézanne, who gave the final impulse and introduced
colored volumes, we can follow this rehabilitation of color's function, this restoration
of its emotive power"[252] Fauvism was the culmination in a shift, from drawing and line
as the fundamental foundations of design in painting to color, and they depicted their
subjects on the verge of abstraction.[252][254][255][256][257]

Woman with a Hat; by Henri Matisse; 1905; oil on canvas; 80.7 x 59.7 cm; San Francisco Museum of
Modern Art (San Francisco, US)[258]

 Fauve Landscape; by Louis Valtat; 1905–1906; oil on canvas; Speed Art

Museum (Louisville, Kentucky, US)

Charing Cross Bridge, London; by André Derain; 1906; oil on canvas, 80.3 × 100.3 cm.; National
Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C., US)

La Ciotat; by Othon Friesz; 1907; oil on canvas, 65.7 by 81 cm.; unknown collection
Expressionism (c. 1905–1930)[edit]
Main article: Expressionism
Street, Berlin; by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner; 1913; oil on canvas; 1.21 x 0.91
m; Museum of Modern Art (New York City) [259]
Expressionism was an international movement in painting, sculpture, the graphic
arts, poetry, literature, theater, film, and architecture. Some associate the Second
Viennese School and other music of the period with the movement. Most historians
place the beginning of expressionism in 1905 with the founding of the Die Brücke.
However, several artist were producing influential work that was in the spirit of
expressionism c. 1885–1905 including Lovis Corinth, James Ensor, Käthe
Kollwitz, Paula Modersohn-Becker, Edvard Munch, Emil Nolde, and Christian
Rohlfs among others. Many of these artist later exhibited and associated with various
expressionist groups. Expressionist painting is characterized by loose, spontaneous,
frequently thick, impasto brushwork. It often conveyed how the artist felt about their
subject, opposed to what it looked like, putting intuition and gut feelings over realistic
representations or art theories. Expressionism was frequently infused with an angst
or joy, and an overall engagement with contemporary life and social issues that was
often absent from fauvism's focus on design and color applied to neutral
subjects. Woodcut prints are particularly noteworthy in expressionism.
Expressionism can sometimes overlap and integrate with other styles and
movements, such as symbolism, fauvism, cubism, futurism, abstraction, and dada.
Several groups and factions of expressionist appeared at various times and places.
[210][239][210][260][261]

Die Brücke (The Bridge: 1905 -1913) aspired to connect "all revolutionary and
surging elements."[260] It was founded by four architectural students Ernst Ludwig
Kirchner, Erich Heckel, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, and Fritz Bleyl. Sharing a studio in
Dresden they produced paintings, carvings, prints, and organized exhibitions,
separating in the summer to work independently. Their first exhibit was in 1905, later
joined by Emil Nolde and Max Pechstein in 1906, and Otto Mueller in 1910 among
others. Influences included Gothic art, primitivism, Art Nouveau, and developments
in Paris, particularly Van Gogh and fauvism. The group shifted to Berlin in 1911 and
later dissolved in 1913. Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider: 1911–1914), founded
by Wassily Kandinsky and Franz Marc, was a relatively informal group that
organized exhibitions of art from Paris and Europe, as well their own. It was one in a
series of increasingly progressive groups splitting from the Art Academy in Munich
including The Munich Secession in 1892 (realist and impressionist), Phalanx in 1901
(postimpressionist), Neue Kunstler Vereiningung in 1909, and The Blue Rider in
1911. Artist associated with the latter two groups included
the Burliuk brothers, Heinrich Campendonk, Alexej von Jawlensky, Paul
Klee, August Macke, Gabriele Münter, and Marianne von Werefkin. The euphonious
almanac Der Blaue Reiter, a collection of influential essays, and
Kandinsky's Concerning the Spiritual in Art with his ideas on non-objective art were
both published in 1912. The Blue Rider ended with the outbreak of World War I in
which Macke and Marc both died.[210][239][262][260][261]
Other artists such as Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele, and Richard Gerstl emerged
in Austria. French artist Georges Rouault and Chaïm Soutine had affinities with the
movement. Sculptors include Ernst Barlach, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Gerhard Marcks,
and William Wauer. Architects associated with expressionism include Max
Berg, Hermann Finsterlin, Johann Friedrich Höger, Michel de Klerk, Erich
Mendelsohn, Hans Poelzig, Hans Scharoun, Rudolf Steiner, and Bruno Taut. Der
Sturm (The Storm 1910–1932) was a magazine with much expressionist content
founded by Herwarth Walden, with an associated gallery in Berlin opened in 1912
and a theater company and school in opened 1918. Films regarded as
 expressionistic, some considered as classics, include The Cabinet of Dr.
Caligari (Robert Wiene, 1920), Nosferatu (F. W. Murnau,1922), and Metropolis (Fritz
Lang, 1927).[210][239][262][260][261]
After World War I a tendency to withdraw from the avant-garde by many artist
occurred, seen in the work of the original fauvists during the
1920s, Picasso and Stravinsky's neoclassical periods, and De Chirico's late work.
This tendency was called New Objectivity (ca. 1919–1933) in Germany, and in
contrast to the nostalgic nature of this work elsewhere, it was characterized by
disillusionment and ruthless social criticisms. New objectivity artists mostly emerged
from expressionist and dada milieus including Otto Dix, Christian Schad, Rudolf
Schlichter, Georg Scholz, and Jeanne Mammen. Max Beckmann and George
Grosz also had some association with new objectivity for a period. Although not
intrinsically expressionistic, the Staatliches Bauhaus (School of Building: 1919–
1933) was an influential German school merging crafts, decorative, and fine arts.
Moving from Weimar, to Dessau, to Berlin, it changed and evolved in focus with time.
Directors included architects Walter Gropius (1919–1928), Hannes Meyer (1928–
1930), and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1930–1933). At various points the faculty
included Josef Albers, Theo van Doesburg, Lyonel Feininger, Johannes Itten, Paul
Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, El Lissitzky, Gerhard Marcks, László Moholy-Nagy, Oskar
Schlemmer. Bauhaus architects greatly influenced the International Style, which was
characterized by simplified forms, a lack of ornamentation, a union of design and
function, and the idea that mass production could be compatible with personal
artistic vision. As the Nazi Party rose to power, modern art was dubbed "degenerate
art" and the Bauhaus was closed in 1933, subduing modernism in Germany for
several years.[210][239][262][260][261]
 The Scream; by Edvard Munch; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; National
Gallery of Norway (Oslo)[263]

Tower of Blue Horses; by Franz Marc; 1912; ink and guache on card; 14.3 x 9.4 cm; Bavarian State
Painting Collections (Munich, Germany)[259]


Composition VII; by Wassily Kandinsky; 1913; oil on canvas; 2 x 3 m; Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow,
Russia)[264]

The Einstein Tower (Potsdam, near Berlin, Germany), 1920–1924, by Erich Mendelsohn[265]

Actor's Mask; by Paul Klee; 1924; oil on canvas mounted on board; 36.7 x 33.8 cm; Museum of
Modern Art (New York City)[266]
Cubism (c. 1907–1914)[edit]
Main article: Cubism
Cubism consisted in the rejection of perspective, which leads to a new organisation
of space where viewpoints multiply producing a fragmentation of the object that
renders the predilection for form over the content of the representation
obvious. Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque and other Cubist artists, were inspired by
the sculptures of Iberia, Africa and Oceania exhibited in the Louvre and the
ethnographic museum in the Trocadéro, and which were being offered at flee
markets and in sale rooms.
'A Picasso studies an object the way a surgeon dissects a corpse,' wrote the critic
and poet Guillaume Apollinaire in 1913. Five years earlier, Pablo
Picasso and Georges Braque – friends, colleagues and rivals – had begun to reject
perspectival realism for a form of artistic autopsy: an utterly revolutionary painting
style that looked inside and around objects, presenting them analytically, objectively
and completely impersonally.[267]


 Les Demoiselles d'Avignon; by Pablo Picasso; 1907; oil on canvas; 2.43 × 2.3 m; Museum of Modern
Art[267]

 Violin and Pitcher; by Georges Braque; 1909–1910; oil on canvas; 1.17 x 0.73 cm; Kunstmuseum
Basel (Basel, Switzerland)[267]

The Eiffel Tower; by Robert Delaunay; 1911; oil on canvas; 2.02 x 1.38 m; Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum (New York City)[268]

Breakfast; by Juan Gris; 1914; gouache, oil and crayon on cut-and-pasted printed paper on canvas;
80.9 x 59.7 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[268]
Art Deco (c. 1920–1940)[edit]
Main article: Art Deco
Art Deco appeared in France as a style of luxury and modernity. Soon, it spread
quickly throughout the world, most dramatically in America, becoming
more streamlined though the 1930s. The style was named after the International
Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts held in Paris in 1925. Its
exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an
escape from the realities of the Great Depression during the 1930s. It had ancient
Greek, Roman, African, Aztec and Japanese influences, but
also Futurist, Cubist and Bauhaus ones. It sometimes blended with the Egyptian
Revival style, due to the discovery in 1922 of the Tomb of Tutankhamun and
the Egyptomania that it caused. Two examples of this are Le Louxor Cinema in
Paris, 1919–1921, by Henri Zipcy, and the Egyptian Theatre in DeKalb (Illinois, US),
1929–1930, by Elmer F. Behrns. In decorative arts, including architecture, low-relief
designs, and angular patterns and shapes were used. Predominant materials
include chrome, brass, polished steel and aluminum, inlaid wood, stone and stained
glass.
Some of the most important Art Deco artists are the Paris-based Polish
painter Tamara de Lempicka, the Ukrainian-born French poster artist Adolphe Jean-
Marie Mouron, known as Cassandre, and the French furniture designer and interior
decorator Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann.[269][270]

Corner Cabinet; by Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann; c.1923; kingwood (amaranth) veneer on mahogany,

and ivory inlay; 126.7 x 80.6 x 59.7 cm; Brooklyn Museum (New York City)

Fortissimo; by Séraphin Soudbinine; 1925–1926; lacquered wood, eggshell, mother-of-pearl, and

gold; 248.9 x 88.9 x 3.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)

La Samaritaine (Paris), 1926–1928, by Henri Sauvage[271]

Chrysler Building (New York City), 1930, by William Van Allen[272]

 

Musée de la Mer (Biarritz, France), 1933, by Joseph Hiriart[273]

Surrealism (c. 1924–1966)[edit]
Surrealism emerged as a faction of Dada, formally announcing its inception in 1924
with André Breton's Manifesto of Surrealism.[274] Originally a literary group of poets
and writers in Paris, it soon developed into an international movement that included
painters, sculptors, photographers, and filmmakers. A Second Manifeste du
Surréalisme was published in 1929.[275] Surrealism did not have significant expression
in applied or decorative arts, architecture, or music, although a few isolated
examples could be identified (e.g. chess sets, furniture, and Las Pozas). The small
and short lived Metaphysical School (c. 1910–1921), with Giorgio de Chirico as its
principal figure, was highly influential on surrealism. The surrealist explored a myriad
of innovative techniques, some had recently been developed in Cubism and Dada,
others were new, including collage, found objects, assemblage, random chance,
rayographs (photograms), painting on sand, dripping and flinging
paint, decalcomania, frottage, fumage, and raclage. Two fundamental approaches
predominate surrealist art. Automatism dominated in the early years which can be
seen in the work of artist like André Masson and Joan Miró. Other artist, swayed by
work of Giorgio de Chirico, used more traditional methods and mediums to illustrate
unfiltered thoughts and incongruous juxtapositions, including Salvador
Dalí and René Magritte. Significant artist include Jean Arp, Hans Bellmer, Victor
Brauner, Luis Buñuel, Joseph Cornell, Óscar Domínguez, Max Ernst, Wifredo
Lam, Yves Tanguy, Man Ray, Alberto Giacometti, Méret Oppenheim, and Roberto
Matta. Other important artist informally accosted with surrealism include Marcel
Duchamp, Pablo Picasso, and Frida Kahlo. Surrealist ideas and theories were
discussed in a successive series of journals, La Révolution Surréaliste (1924–
1929), Le Surrealisme au service de la revolution (1930–1933), Minotaure (1933–
1939), VVV (1942–1944). The automatic paintings produced by André Masson and
Joan Miró, as well as latecomers to surrealism like Roberto Matta and Arshile
Gorky had a considerable influenced on the abstract expressionist in the late 1940s.
[276][277][278][279][280][281]

With a measure of Dada's irreverence and contempt for the traditional political,
religious, and bourgeois values of western culture that they believed had led the
world into the First World War (Breton and other founding members were veterans);
the surrealist explored the possibilities that had been opened up by Sigmund
Freud regarding the subconscious mind: "Pure psychic automatism, by which one
intends to express verbally, in writing or by any other method, the real functioning of
the mind. Dictation by thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason,
and beyond any aesthetic or moral preoccupation."[274] Surrealism sought to express
pure thought, unfiltered and uncensored by political, religious, moral, or rational
principles.[276][277][278][279][280][281]
 

The Song of Love; by Giorgio de Chirico; 1914; oil on canvas; 73 x 59.1 cm; Museum of Modern
Art (New York City)[282]

The Elephant Celebes; by Max Ernst; 1921; oil on canvas; 125.4 × 107.9 cm; Tate Modern (London)

Mid and late 20th century[edit]

Main articles: Abstract Expressionism, Pop art, Minimalism (visual arts),
and Conceptual art
As Europe struggled to recover from World War II, America moved into a position of
political, economic and cultural strength. During the 1940s and 1950s, Abstract
Expressionism emerged as the first specifically American art movement to have an
international impact. In consequence, the art world's focus shifted from Europe to
New York. Abstract Expressionists were a small group of loosely associated artists
who had similar outlooks but different approaches. They were influenced by
Surrealism, and believed in spontaneity, freedom of expression and abandonment of
the themes of American life that had characterized national art of recent decades.
One of the most famous representative of this movement was Jackson Pollock,
known for his painting made by pouring, flicking and dripping paint on to huge
canvases on the ground. Other artists include Willem de Kooning, Franz
Kline, Robert Motherwell, Barnett Newman, Mark Rothko and Clyfford Still.
After World War II, consumerism and the mass media surged, and as a result, Pop
art developed in both London and New York. In a London exhibition in 1956, the
word 'Pop' was used in a collage created by Richard Hamilton (1922–2011) made of
American magazines. Pop art was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, and
interpreted ideas of pop culture. In celebrating and commenting on consumerism,
pop artists, as they became known, produced colorful images based on advertising,
the media and shopping, featuring film stars, comic strips, flags, packaging and food
– things that everyone, rather than just a highbrow few, could relate to.
The term Minimalism was not new, but it gained momentum in the 1960s, specifically
describing a style of art characterized by detached restraint. Originating in New York,
it was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, but it also
 embraced Constructivist ideas that art should be made of modern materials. Thus,
Minimalist artists, primarily sculptors, often used non-traditional materials and
production methods, often employing industrial or specialist fabricators to produce
works to their specifications. The term was chiefly used to describe a group of
American sculptors who re-evaluated the space around them, aiming to challenge
assumptions and present familiar objects in new ways. Their artworks don't have any
symbolism or hidden meaning, as they try to enable viewers to re-evaluate art and
space around forms. Unlike a figural sculpture on which the viewer focuses to the
exclusion of the room in which it stands, Minimalist art becomes one with its space.
By focusing on the effects of context and the theatricality of the viewing experience,
Minimalism exerted an indirect but powerful influence on later developments
in Conceptual and Performance art, as well as providing a foil for the rise
of Postmodernism.
Despite developing almost 50 years after Marcel Duchamp's ideas, Conceptual
art showed that art does not always have to be judged aesthetically. It was never a
single, cohesive movement, but an umbrella term that now covers several types of
art and emerged more or less concurrently in America and Europe, first defined in
New York. Conceptual artists promote the art of ideas, or concepts, suggesting that
they can be more valid in the modern world than technical skill or aesthetics. No
matter the art media of an artwork, it is considered as no more than a vehicle for
presenting the concept. At its most extreme, Conceptual art foregoes the physical
object completely, using verbal or written message to convey the idea.[283][284][285]

Pop art: Just what is it that makes today's homes so different, so appealing?; by Richard Hamilton;
1956; collage; 26 × 26 cm; Kunsthalle Tübingen (Tübingen, Germany)[286]

See also[edit]

 history portal

 arts portal

 Art of Europe
 Art market
 Art movement
 Art periods
 Ancient art
 History of animation
 History of Asian art
 History of film
 History of literature
 History of music
 History of nude art
 History of painting
 History of photography
 History of poetry
 History of theatre
 History of video games
 List of art movements
 List of French artistic movements
 List of music styles
 Timeline for invention in the arts
 Timeline of art
 Western art history
 Women artists

Notes[edit]
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6. ^ "World's Oldest Figurative Art is Now an Official World Treasure".
7. ^ "Earliest music instruments found". BBC News. 24 May 2012.
8. ^ Hodge 2017, p. 12; Fortenberry 2017, pp. 1 & 2.
9. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 2.
10. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 3.
11. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13.
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13. ^ Farthing, Stephen (2020). ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană (in
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15. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 12.
16. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 13.
17. ^ 10,000 YEARS OF ART. Phaidon. 2009. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7148-4969-0.
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20. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 19.
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23. ^ Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 30.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Fortenberry 2017, p. 209.
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33. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 25.
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38. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 33.
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45. ^ Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 46.
46. ^ Toynbee 1971, pp. 439–442.
47. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 57, 56, 55.
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51. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 51.
52. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 57.
53. ^ Irving 2019, p. 36.
54. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 117.
55. ^ Jump up to:a b Fortenberry 2017, p. 119.
56. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 125.
57. ^ Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 120.
58. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 128.
59. ^ Gipson, Ferren (2021). The Ultimate Art Museum. Phaidon. pp. 92, 93, 94. ISBN 978-1-83866-
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60. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 229, 232, 234.
61. ^ Farthing, Stephen (2020). ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană (in
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65. ^ 10,000 YEARS OF ART. Phaidon. 2009. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-7148-4969-0.
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83. ^ Harle 1994, pp. 59–70.
84. ^ Hodge 2019, p. 15.
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86. ^ Jump up to:a b Fortenberry 2017, p. 213.
87. ^ Jump up to:a b Fortenberry 2017, p. 215.
88. ^ Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 114.
89. ^ 10,000 YEARS OF ART. Phaidon. 2009. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-7148-4969-0.
90. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 217.
91. ^ Hodge 2019, p. 99.
92. ^ Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 140.
93. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 82.
94. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 75.
95. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 79.
96. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 84.
97. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 78.
98. ^ British Museum 2014, p. 159.
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100. ^ Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014, p. 144.
101. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 105.
102. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 103.
103. ^ Jump up to:a b Fortenberry 2017, p. 309.
104. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 311.
105. ^ Jump up to:a b c Fortenberry 2017, p. 314.
106. ^ Robertson, Hutton (2022). The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global
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108. ^ British Museum 2014, p. 65.
109. ^ British Museum 2014, p. 52.
110. ^ Brunt et al. 2018, p. 104.
111. ^ Hodge 2017, p. 15.
112. ^ Hodge 2019, p. 62.
113. ^ Cavarnos & Michelis 1956, p. 506.
114. ^ Weitzmann 1981, p. ?.
115. ^ Kitzinger 1977, pp. 1‒3.
116. ^ Rice 1968; Weitzmann 1982.
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262. ^ Jump up to:a b c Daval 1980, p. ?.
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Further reading[edit]
 30,000 Years of Art: The Story of Human Creativity Across Time & Space (2nd ed.). London: Phaidon
Press. 2015.
 Adams, Laurie (2007). Art across Time (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
 Bell, Julian (2010). Mirror of the World: A New History of Art (2nd ed.). London: Thames &
Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28754-5.
 Gombrich, E.H. (1990). The Story of Art (15th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 Janson, H.W.; Davies, Penelope J.E. (2007). Janson's History of Art: The Western Tradition (7th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
 Grau, Oliver, ed. (2007). MediaArtHistories. Cambridge, MA: MIT-Press.
 La Plante, John D. (1992). Asian Art (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
 Miller, Mary Ellen (2006). The Art of Mesoamerica: From Olmec to Aztec. World of Art (4th ed.).
London: Thames & Hudson.
 Pierce, James Smith; Janson, H.W. (2004). From Abacus to Zeus: A Handbook of Art
History (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
 Pohl, Frances K. (2002). Framing America: A Social History of American Art. New York: Thames &
Hudson.
 Stokstad, Marilyn (2008). Art History (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
 Thomas, Nicholas (1995). Oceanic Art. World of Art. New York: Thames and Hudson.
 Thuillier, Jacques (2002). Histoire de l'art. Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 2-08-012535-4.
 Wilkins, David G.; Schultz, Bernard; Linduff, Katheryn M. (2008). Art Past, Art Present (6th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Art history.

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 "Art: The history of ideas in literature and the arts in aesthetic theory and literary
criticism" – The Dictionary of the History of Ideas
 Art History resources
 Ars Summum Project
Timelines[edit]
 Timeline of Art History from Metropolitan Museum of Art
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 Art history is the study of aesthetic objects and visual expression in historical and stylistic
context. Traditionally, the discipline of art history emphasized painting, drawing, sculpture,
architecture, ceramics and decorative arts; yet today, art history examines broader aspects
of visual culture, including the various visual and conceptual outcomes related to an ever-
evolving definition of art. Art history encompasses the study of objects created by different
cultures around the world and throughout history that convey meaning, importance or serve
usefulness primarily through visual representations.
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