BASIC WINE KNOWLEDGE

Wine Information Covered On Basic Test

1. Winemaking - 3
2. Wine Tasting - 7
3. Food and Wine Pairing - 11
4. Flavors in Wine – 13
5. Wine and Cheese Pairing - 14
6. “Corked” Wine - 16
7. Wine Bottle History - 17
8. Wine Bottle Styles – 18
9. Alternative Closures – 21
10. Wine Storage - 24
11. Wine Glasses - 27
12. Fun Wine Facts – 29
13. Popular Anecdotes – 30
14. Short Stories/Anecdotes – 31
15. History of Toasting – 34
16. Basic Wine Knowledge Test - 35
Winemaking
or vinification, is the process of wine production, from the selection of grapes to the bottling of
finished wine.
After the harvest, the grapes are crushed and allowed to ferment. Red wine is made from the must
(pulp) of red or black grapes that undergo fermentation together with the grape skins, while white
wine is usually made by fermenting juice pressed from white grapes, but can also be made from
must extracted from red grapes with minimal contact with the grapes' skins. Rosé wines are made
from red grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to
pick up a pinkish color, but little of the tannins contained in the skins.
During this primary fermentation, which often takes between one and two weeks, yeast converts
most of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol (alcohol). After the primary fermentation, the
liquid is transferred to vessels for the secondary fermentation. Here, the remaining sugars are
slowly converted into alcohol and the wine becomes clear. Some wine is then allowed to age in
oak barrels before bottling, which add extra aromas to the wine, while others are bottled directly.
The time from harvest to drinking can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines to
over ten years for certain Bordeaux wines. However, most wine on the market tastes best between
one and three years after the harvest.
Variations on the above procedure exist. Sweet wines are made by ensuring that some residual
sugar remains after fermentation is completed. This can be done by adding a substance to kill the
remaining yeast, such as port wines where a high proof brandy is added well before the
fermentation is completed. In other cases the winemaker may choose to hold back some of the
sweet grape juice and add it to the wine after the fermentation is done, a technique known as
süssreserve. With sparkling wines such as Champagne, an additional fermentation takes place
inside the bottle, trapping carbon dioxide and creating the characteristic bubbles.
The Grapes
Of all factors affecting the quality of a wine, the quality of the grapes more than any other factor
determines the quality of the wine. Their quality is not only affected by their variety, but also by
the weather during the growing season, the soil, the time of harvest, and the way they are pruned.
The combination of these effects is often referred to as their terroir.
The grapes are usually harvested from the vineyard in the fall, in the northern hemisphere from
the middle of October until the beginning of November, or the middle of February until the
beginning of March in the southern hemisphere.
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Crushing and primary fermentation
A cap of grape skins forms on the surface of fermenting red wine.
In smaller-scale wine making, the harvested grapes are sometimes crushed by trampling them
bare-footed. However, in larger wineries, a mechanical crusher/destemmer is used. Because the
stems of the grapes have relatively high tannin content, they are usually removed beforehand.
However the winemaker can decide to leave them in if the grapes themselves contain less tannin
than desired. For red wine, the broken skins stay in contact with the juice (maceration) throughout
the fermentation process, while for white wines, the crushed grapes are pressed to ferment the
wine without the skins. In the case of rosé wines, the dark skins are left in contact with the juice
just long enough to extract the color that the winemaker desires. The must is then pressed, and
fermentation continues as if the wine maker was making a white wine.
Yeast is normally already present on the grapes, often visible as a powdery appearance of the
grapes. The fermentation can be done with this natural yeast, but since this can give unpredictable
results depending on the exact types of yeast that are present, cultured yeast is often added to the
must.
During the primary fermentation, the yeast cells feed on the sugars in the must and multiply,
producing carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. The temperature during the fermentation affects both
the taste of the end product, as well as the speed of the fermentation. For red wines, the
temperature is typically 22 to 25 °C, and for white wines 15 to 18 °C. For every gram of sugar
that is converted, about half a gram of alcohol is produced, so to achieve a 12% alcohol
concentration, the must should contain about 24% sugars. The sugar percentage of the must is
calculated from the measured density, the must weight, with the help of a saccharometer. If the
sugar content of the grapes is too low to obtain the desired alcohol percentage, sugar can be added
(chaptalization). In commercial winemaking, chaptalization is subject to local regulations.
During or after the alcoholic fermentation, malolactic fermentation can also take place, during
which specific strains of bacteria convert malic acid into the milder lactic acid. This fermentation
is often initiated by inoculation with desired bacteria.
With red wines, the must is pressed after the primary fermentation, which separates the skins and
other solid matter from the liquid. With white, and rosé wine, there is no need to press. The wine
is separated from the dead yeast (called its lees), and transferred to a new container for its
secondary fermentation.
Secondary fermentation and Bulk Aging
During the secondary fermentation and aging process, which takes three to six months, the
fermentation continues very slowly. The wine is kept under an airlock to protect the wine from
oxidation. Proteins from the grape are broken down and the remaining yeast cells and other fine
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particles from the grapes are allowed to settle. Potassium bitartrate will also preticipate, a process
which can be enhanced by cold stabilization to prevent the appearance of (harmless) tartrate
crystals after bottling. The result of these processes is that the originally cloudy wine becomes
clear. The wine can be racked during this process to remove the lees.
The secondary fermentation usually takes place in either large stainless steel vessels with a
volume of several cubic meters of wine, or oak barrels, depending on the goals of the
winemakers. Amateur winemakers often use glass carboys with a capacity of 5 to 25 liters (1 to 6
gallons) to produce their wine. The vessel used for the process depends on both the amount of
wine that is being produced, the grapes being used, and the goals of the winemaker.
Blending and Bottling
Different batches of wine can be mixed before bottling in order to achieve the desired taste. The
winemaker can correct perceived inadequacies by mixing wines from different grapes and batches
that were produced under different conditions. These adjustments can be as simple adjusting acid
or tannin levels, to as complex as blending different varieties or vintages to achieve a consistent
taste.
A final dose of sulfite is added to help preseve the wine and prevent unwanted fermentation in the
bottle. The wine bottles then are traditionally sealed with a cork, although alternative wine
closures such as synthetic corks and screwcaps, which are less subject to cork taint, are becoming
increasingly popular.
Wine barrels, especially those made of oak, have long been used as containers in which wine is
typically aged. Aging in oak imparts desirable vanilla, butter and spice flavors to wine.
French Oak was for many years considered especially desirable for use in constructing wine
barrels. In France, Oak typically comes from one or more primary forests: Allier, Limousin,
Nevers, Trancais and Vosges. The wood from each of these forests has slightly different
characteristics. For example, tightly grained wood tends to impart its flavors more slowly than
does that which is loosely grained. Winemakers can select wood from different forests to
influence how their wine ages.
Early experiments using American Oak as well as oak from many other countries, were
disappointing because the oak imparted too much flavor to the wine. It was assumed at first that
the difficulty lie with the oak. However, experimentation revealed that the problem was in the
preparation of the wood and the way the barrels were constructed.
While oak barrels are generally used for aging wine, they can also be used for fermenting
One major difference in preparing the oak was that French coopers aged the wood for at least two
years whereas American coopers used a kiln-dry method to season the wood. A second major
difference was that French coopers split the wood whereas Americans sawed the staves.
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"Once the French barrel building techniques were applied to Oak from other countries, the results
improved substantially. It is now common to find American Oak as well as that of several other
countries including Hungary in the construction of wine barrels. Barrels made from American
Oak typically cost less than half the price of French Oak Barrels and are now capable of
achieving similar results."
Winemakers can order barrels with the wood on the inside of the barrel having been lightly
charred or “toasted” with fire, medium toasted, or heavily toasted. The amount (depth) of
charring has an influence on the wine. The decision regarding depth of charring is made on the
basis of the grape variety used and style of wine desired. Barrels can also be ordered in different
shapes and sizes or ordered made of Redwood or other woods.
New barrels impart more flavors than do previously used barrels. By the time they have been
used for about five years, they impart virtually no flavor to wine. Therefore, winemakers must
decide on the ratio of new to older barrels to use each year.
Barrels are expensive and several techniques have been devised in an attempt to save money. One
is to shave the inside of used barrels and insert new thin inner staves that have been toasted.
Another is to place bags containing oak shaving into tanks of wine. However, such cost-cutting
measures have not been able to achieve the results of traditional barrel aging.
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Wine Tasting
Wine tasting is the sensory evaluation of wine, encompassing more than taste, but also mouthfeel,
aroma, and color. The main aims of wine tasting are to:
assess the wine's quality
determine the wine's maturity and suitability for aging or immediate drinking
detect the aromas and flavors of the wine
discover the many facets of wine, so as to better appreciate it
To assess a wine's quality, one must gauge its complexity of aroma and flavor, determine the
intensity of the aroma and flavor, check that the flavors and structural elements — such as acid,
tannin and alcoholic strength — are well balanced, and finally see how long the wine persists in
the mouth after tasting.
Practiced wine tasters will gauge the wine's quality in other ways too. These include, whether the
wine is of high quality with respect to other wines of its price, region or vintage; if it is typical of
the region it is made in or diverges in style; if it uses certain wine making techniques, such as
barrel fermentation or malolactic fermentation; or if it has any wine faults. Many professional
wine tasters, such as sommeliers or buyers for retailers, look for characteristics in the wine which
are desirable to wine drinkers or which indicate that the wine is likely to sell or mature well.
Serving Temperature
For a tasting, still wines should be served at between 16 and 18°C (60 and 64°F), even if the
wines would usually be served chilled. At this temperature, the aromas and flavors of the wine are
believed to be most easily detectable. It also ensures that the wines can be judged in a
standardized way.
Serving of a wine cool can help to mask the flaws seen in young or cheap wines, whereas serving
wine warmer can allow the bouquet and complexity to be expressed, which ideal for aged and
expensive wines. Lower temperatures also repress the 'bite' that alcohol can give in lighter bodied
wines.
The exception to this convention is sparkling wine which is usually tasted chilled. The thinking
behind this is that many sparkling wines can be unpleasant in the mouth when they are warm.
A good rule of thumb is the Rule of 20: place red wines in the refrigerator 20 minutes before
serving, and remove whites from the refrigerator 20 minutes before serving.
Order of tasting
Tasting order is very important, as heavy or sweet wines can dominate lighter wines and skew the
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taster's assessment of those wines. As such, wines should be tasted in the following order:
sparkling wines; light whites, then heavy whites; roses; light reds; heavy reds; sweet wines.
Without having tasted the wines, however, one does not know if, for example, a white is heavy or
light. Before tasting, try and determine the order the wines should be assessed in, by appearance
and nose alone. Remember that heavy wines will be deeper in color and generally more intense
on the nose. Sweeter wines, being denser, will leave thick, viscous streaks (called legs) down the
inside of the glass, when swirled.
How to taste the wine…The Five S’s
Sight- observe color of the wine and the legs on the wineglass (indicators of viscosity)
Swirl- gently swirl the wine in the glass. This opens the wine and makes it more
approachable, also releasing the wine’s aromas.
Sniff- quickly sniff the wine, observing the aromatic qualities. What does the wine smell
like? What does the aroma remind you off? Get creative. The majority of a wine’s
flavor lies in its aroma profile.
Sip- sip the wine, and letting it coat your palate. Use the “reverse whistle” technique to
enhance the wine’s flavors as it enters your mouth
Spit- if there are too many wines to taste, it’s always a good idea to spit. Swallowing
works too.
Evaluation
The best way to improve one's wine tasting ability is to taste as much wine as possible, on a
regular basis. The sensory experience of wine is highly subjective; the wines temperature, the
ambient temperature, psychological and physical states and many other factors contribute to the
impression of a wine. It is of utmost importance to take notes on your evaluation. Two things
make a master taster: knowing what you like and dislike, and knowing how to describe it. When
tasting, the following characteristics of the wine are generally evaluated:
Color
The color of the wine. Does its color give any indication of age or maturity?
Young white wines are often pale in color while older white wines take on a color of straw or can
even be golden. Young red wines can be dark and opaque purple while older red wines can take
on a red brick or even amber hue, particularly at the rim of the glass.
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Nose
Distinct aromas. How intense are they?
Any wine can have many different aromas and the best will often have a complex collection. As
knowledge of different wine grape varieties increases, so will ability to identify different aromas
and which belong to each grape.
Wine's not to be sniffed at: smelling should not be rushed. The aroma of the wine, which in most
wines corresponds to its flavor, is one of the most important aspects of tasting a wine. It tells the
taster about most aspects of the wine's quality, thus inhale deep and long to learn the wine's
secrets.
Palate
Is the wine acidic? Is it tannic? Are the tannins fine or are they hard and difficult to drink? Is the
wine light, medium or full bodied? What does the wine taste like and how intense are those
flavors? How alcoholic is it? Is the wine dry or sweet? How long does it persist in the mouth after
tasting?
To assess the palate of a wine is to look at its structure: sugar, tannin, acid, alcohol and intensity
of flavors. Ideally, these structural attributes should balance each other, except in wines designed
to be out of balance (such as Barolo, which is very tannic and acidic, and Rutherglen Muscat,
which is very sweet with low acid).
The term Palate as used here is a matter of debate. Both the physiological hard and soft palates
have no sensory organs beyond the tactile sensation, though this may impart information about
the viscosity, spritzig (carbonation) and, as a counterpoint of friction to the tongue, the astringent
(tannic) qualities of wine this information is processed more efficiently and precisely with the
tongue.
It has been suggested that Palette (as 'painter's palette') be used as a metaphor to describe the
over-all experience of a wine, the cumulative impression on the five senses.
Body
Body is the tasting term referring to viscosity, consistency, thickness, or texture. Wine with
"Body" often has a higher alcohol or sugar content than normal. The tannin, also, is a major
component of what is called "body" in a wine. A best way to comprehend the feeling of "body" in
a wine is to think of milk. Recall the difference in mouthful of skim then full cream milk, then
cream. Wine is usually classified as light / medium/ or full-bodied.
Aftertaste
The sensation that lingers in your mouth just after you sip the wine is called the aftertaste. Its
important in wine tasting because it can reveal an extra attribute or a fault. Certain flavors can
become prominent in the aftertaste, eg. chocolate. On the other hand, an undesirable aftertaste in
champagne which, should be crisp and clean with no lingering aftertaste.
Overall Assessment
Once the aftertaste has vanished, ask yourself what’s the overall general impression of that wine.
Did you like it? Are all of its components in balance? If it’s a young red wine and is too
astringent, you might want to consider that it could mellow and improve with time. Or is if it’s
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ready to drink today, what kinds of food will enhance and go nicely?
Spitting out wine during tasting*
As an alcoholic drink, wine can affect the consumer's judgment. As such, at formal tastings,
where dozens of wines may be assessed, wine tasters generally spit out the wine while they are
assessing its quality.
The correct method for the spitting out of wine is:
only a small amount of wine is taken into the mouth — less than 20 milliliters (approx.
one oz)
the lips are pursed so that they pout
the head is directed toward the spittoon — as close as possible when learning
the wine is pushed through the pursed lips with the assistance of the tongue while looking
into the spittoon. This will ensure that the aim is consistent.
It is best to practice with water to hone this technique.
Caution: Spittoons fill up quickly. For formal tastings, it is customary to place sawdust in the
spittoon to absorb the liquid as it is spat out and to prevent splash back.
*Of course, for in home tastings, we recommend drinking the wines for maximum pleasure.
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Food and Wine Pairing
If you are taking wine as a gift to a dinner party, don't worry about matching the
wine to the food unless you have been requested to do so and have enough information
about what is being served to make an informed choice. Just bring a good wine. A grand
dinner party with multiple courses of elaborately prepared dishes deserves a better wine
than hamburgers on the grill with chips in a bag.
When you're serving more than one wine at a meal, it's customary to serve lighter wines
before full-bodied ones. Remember dry to sweet. (Chardonnay before sweet Riesling)
Balance flavor intensity. Pair light-bodied wines with lighter food, and fuller-bodied
wines with heartier, more flavorful, richer and fattier dishes.
Think about how the food is prepared. Delicately flavored foods (poached or steamed)
pair best with delicate wines. It's easier to pair wines with more flavorfully prepared
food. Pair the wine with the sauce, seasoning or dominant flavor of the dish.
Match flavors. An earthy Pinot Noir goes well with mushroom soup and the
grapefruit/citrus taste of Sauvignon Blanc goes with fish for the same reasons that lemon
does.
Balance sweetness. But, beware of pairing a wine with food that is sweeter than the wine,
although I do like chocolate with Zinfandel or Cabernet Sauvignon. I also like chocolate
with good dark beer.
Consider pairing opposites. Very hot or spicy foods (Thai dishes, or hot curries) work
best with sweet desert wines. Opposing flavors can play off each other, creating new
flavor sensations and cleansing the palate. Think about how milk puts out the fire in your
belly. Sweet wine does the same thing.
Match by geographic location. French food, French wine. Italian food, Italian wine.
Regional foods and wines, having developed together over time, often have a natural
affinity for each other. Take the guesswork out of food.
Pair wine and cheese. In some European countries the best wine is reserved for the cheese
course. Red wines go well with mild to sharp cheese. Pungent and intensely flavored
cheese is better with a sweeter wine. Goat cheeses pair well with dry white wine, while
milder cheeses pair best with fruiter red wine. Soft cheese like Camembert and Brie, if
not over ripe, pair well with just about any red wine including Cabernet, Zinfandel and
Red Burgundy.
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Adjust food flavor to better pair with the wine. Sweetness in a dish will increase the
awareness of bitterness and astringency in wine, making it appear drier, stronger and less
fruity. High amounts of acidity in food will decrease awareness of sourness in wine and
making it taste richer and mellower — sweet wine will taste sweeter.
Bitter flavors in food increase the perception of bitter, tannic elements in wine. Sourness
and salt in food suppress bitter taste in wine. Salt in food can tone down the bitterness
and astringency of wine and may make sweet wines taste sweeter.
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Basic flavors found in Wine
The basic flavors that occur in food are also found in wine, which is, after all,
another type of food. They are sweet, tart (sour, acidic), bitter (puckery, astringent
sensation) and salty (which isn’t found in wine, but affects its flavor). In addition, wine
has alcohol which adds aromas and body, making the wine feel richer.
The sugar that is present in grapes is converted during fermentation to differing
degrees. A wine with very little sweetness is called "dry." Sweet white wines are Chenin
Blanc, many Rieslings and Spumante. Sweet red wines include Lambrusco, late harvest
wines, and Port.
If a dish is acidic (citrus or vinegar), then an acidic wine would be appropriate,
although a lightly acidic dish can be balanced with a lightly sweet wine. Acidic white
wines are Sauvignon Blanc and most sparkling wines. Acidity in wine cuts saltiness, so
sparkling wines generally pair with salty foods better than less tart wines such as most
red wines.
Tannins from the skins and sometimes stems of grapes and the oak barrels used
for aging cause the bitter or astringent aftertaste in some red wines. Tannins mellow with
age and are one of the components that add complexity to a mature wine. Foods with a
prominent salty, sour or bitter taste will make a wine seem sweeter and less tannic. Bitter
red wines include Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Zinfandel and Syrah.
Alcohol gives wine a sense of body and weight, the higher the alcohol, the more
full-bodied the wine. Rich meat, fish or chicken dishes that include cream are well suited
to full-bodied wines (13–15 percent alcohol) whereas light, simply prepared and flavored
dishes pair better with low alcohol wines (7–10 percent).
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Wine and Cheese Pairing
Cheese Country Type Wine
Asiago Italy Hard Bardolino
Bel Paese Italy Semi-soft Chardonnay
Baby Swiss U.S. Semi-soft Asti Spumanti
Blue Varied Hard Tawny Port, Madeira, Sherry
Blue Castello Denmark Soft Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc
Boschetto al Tartufo
Bianchetto
Italy Soft Barolo, Sangiovese
Boursin France Soft Gewürztraminer
Brick U.S. Semi-hard Chardonnay
Brie France Soft Champagne, Sweet Sherry, Merlot
Bucheron France Soft Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc
Camembert France Soft Cabernet, Chenin Blanc
Cambozola Bavaria. Softripened
Chardonnay
Cheddar,mild England Semi-hard Champagne, Chardonnay
Cheddar, sharp England Semi-hard Cabernet, Rioja, Sauvignon Blanc
Cheshire England Semi-hard Riesling
Chevre France Semi-hard Gewürztraminer, Champagne
Colby U.S. Semi-soft Riesling, Champagne
Cotija Mexico
Semi-
Hard Chardonnay, Riesling
Cream Cheese U.S./varied Soft White Zinfandel
Crème fraiche France Soft Dessert wine
Danish Blue Denmark Semi-hard Cabernet
Derby England Hard Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc
Double Gloucester England Semi-hard Sancerre
Dry Jack U.S. Hard Sancerre
Edam Switzerland Hard Riesling, Dry Champagne, Pinot Noir
Emmentaler Switzerland Hard Beaujolais, Châteauneuf-du-Pape
Feta Greece Soft Beaujolais
Fontina Denmark, Italy Semi-soft Barolo, Barbaresco, Nebbiolo
Fresh Mozzarella Italy Soft Light Reds, Whites
Goat Cheese France/varied Soft Sancerre, Vouvray
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Gorgonzola Italy Soft Sauternes - Bordeaux
Gouda Holland Semi-hard Riesling, Champagne
Graddost Sweden Semi-hard Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc
Grafton Village Cheddar U.S. Vermont Hard Cabernet, Rioja, Sauvignon Blanc
Grana Padano Italy Hard
Barolo, Barbaresco, Brunello di
Montalcino
Gruyere Switzerland Hard Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc
Havarti Denmark Semi-soft Bordeaux, Rioja
Humbolt Fog, Goat Cheese
U.S.,
California
Natural
Rind California or Australian Chardonnay
Jarlsberg Norway Hard Light Reds, Whites
Kasseri Greece Semi-soft Light Reds, Whites
Limburger Belgium Soft Beer
Madrigal Baby Swiss France Semi-soft Fruity Reds & Whites
Manchego Spain Hard Rioja, Ribera del Duero, Merlot
Mascarpone Italy Soft Sweet, Dessert Wines
Maytag Blue U.S. Semi-hard Light Reds, Whites
Mini Babybel France/U.S. Whites
Monterey Jack U.S. Semi-hard Riesling
Morbier France Semi-soft Fleurie, Beaujolais
Mozzarella Bufala Italy Soft Chianti
Muenster France Soft Beaujolais, Zinfandel
Neufchatel France, U.S. Soft Sauvignon Blanc, Sancerre
Panela Mexico Semi-hard Chardonnay, Riesling
Parmigiano- Reggiano Italy Hard Chardonnay
Pave Affinois France Soft Sauvignon Blanc, Sancerre
Pecorino Italy Hard Chianti Riserva
Pecorino Romano Italy Hard Chianti Riserva
Port Salut
France /
Denmark Semi-Soft Chinon, Bourgueil
Provolone Italy Semi-hard Chardonnay, Chianti Riserva, Barolo
Raclette France Hard Beaujolais
Roquefort France Semi-hard Tawny Port
Smoked Gouda Holland Hard Reds or White
Sonoma Jack U.S. Semi-hard Sauvignon Blanc
Stilton England Semi-hard Port
Swiss U.S. Hard Gewürztraminer
Teleme U.S. Soft Sauvignon Blanc, Sancerre,
Tillamook Cheddar U.S. Hard Fruity wines, dark beer
Wensleydale England Hard Gewürztraminer, Chardonnay
Zamarano Spain Hard Rioja, Aged Spanish Sherry, Sangria
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“Corked” Wine
Cork taint is a broad term referring to a set of undesirable smells or tastes found in a bottle of
wine, especially spoilage that can only be detected after bottling, aging and opening. Though
modern studies have shown that other factors can also be responsible for taint – including wooden
barrels, storage conditions and the transportation of corks and wine – the cork is normally
considered to be responsible, and a wine found to be tainted on opening is said to be "corked".
How to Detect a “Corked” Wine
The chief cause of cork taint is the presence of 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA) in the wine. Corked
wine containing TCA has a characteristic odor, variously described as resembling a moldy
newspaper, wet dog, or damp basement. In almost all cases of corked wine the wine's native
aromas are reduced significantly, and a very tainted wine is completely undrinkable (though
harmless). While the human threshold for detecting TCA is measured in the single-digit parts per
trillion, this can vary by several orders of magnitude depending on an individual's sensitivity.
If a wine smells “corked” during the first sniff, it probably is. Subsequent sniffs will diminish
your sense of the “corkiness” of the wine, as humans quickly adapt to the smell. If a wine smells
corked, set it aside, wait a few minutes, then come back to the wine and sniff it again. If the
moldy, musty, damp basement smell remains, or is even intensified, the wine is definitely corked.
The incidence of bottles with cork taint is estimated to be between 1 and 15 percent. The former
figure is from the cork-industry group APCOR, which cites a study showing a 0.7-1.2% taint rate.
Anecdotal evidence from wine professionals suggests that the rate may be substantially higher. In
a 2005 study of 2800 bottles tasted at the Wine Spectator blind-tasting facilities in Napa,
California, 7% of the bottles were found to be tainted.
Improvements in cork and winemaking methodology continue to strive to lower the incidence,
but the media attention given to cork taint has created a controversy in winemaking, with
traditional cork growers on one side and the makers of newer synthetic closures and screwcaps
(such as Alcan's Stelvin cap) on the other.
There are now filtration and purification systems available which attempt to remove the TCA
from corked wine to make it drinkable again.
If a wine is “corked,” take it back! Quality producers, restaurants, and wine shops will gladly
provide a new bottle or refund the price of the wine. Never settle for a corked wine!
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Wine Bottle History
• 5400BC - The first mention of wine dates back to 5,400BC in Samaria. Being drunk was
acceptable in those days, as even the gods got drunk.
• 3100BC-2890BC - Wine stored in amphorae, large pottery vessel stopped with cloth,
leather, cork or clay and mortar.
• 2000BC - Wine presses and grapes present in Crete, the start of the Greek wine industry.
• 1500BC - Glass vessels invented by the Syrians. A strand of molten glass is wrapped
around a core of sand. The sand is removed after the glass has cooled.
• 900BC - Wine rations given to soldiers and travelers. Wine imported from other countries
in earthenware jugs. Wooden barrels mentioned in Samaria.
• 550BC - Samaria absorbed into Persia. Salaries sometimes paid in wine. Herodotus (the
Greek “father of history”) commented that leaders would often reconsider an
opinion made while drunk, but would conversely get drunk to reconsider an opinion
made while sober!
• 300BC - Syrians producing glass "blown" vessels using a blowpipe. This led the way to
greater consistency in bottle sizing and more creativity.
• 300AD - Romans serving wine from blown glass bottles. Glass is great for storing wine
but the one problem they have is producing consistent size bottles.
• 1400AD - Italy is the world leader in glass production. Glass is very fragile from this era.
Various sizes and colors are produced. The shape of bottles is changing as well. The
original blown balloon shape is moving towards a longer flatter shape that is easier to
store. Size is around 700-800ml.
• 1635AD - Englishman Sir Kenelm Digby becomes the father of the modern wine bottle.
By proclamation of King James I all glassmakers stop using wood in their furnaces so as
to not deplete the forests. Coal fires produce a hotter flame and a better product. Digby
uses a blower to make the furnace even hotter and makes the bottles thicker and stronger
along with the benefit of being darker in color. The darker color helps preserve the wine.
The bottles now have a fairly consistent neck size that is essential for a cork to seal
properly.
• 1636AD - Illegal to sell wine by the bottle for the next two centuries because of
inconsistent bottle sizes. Wine would be measured, poured into the bottle and then
corked.
• 1740AD - Predominant bottle shape is a fat cylinder.
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• 1790AD - The bottle shape has been pretty much finalized. It's a smooth cylinder that can
be stored on its side to keep the cork wet. The cork itself was one of the most important
parts of maturing wine in the bottle. The Romans used it, then we seemed to lose it for a
while and now it's back in full fashion.
• Mid 1800's - We finally found a way, using a mold, to make a standard bottle size, but
then couldn't agree on the size itself. Some were 700ml, some 750ml and some up to
800ml.
• 1894AD - The first wine bottle-making machine appears in Cognac.
• 1979AD - The United States requires all bottles to be 750ml. The European Union agrees
to standardize on 750ml to help with export sales to the US.
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Wine Bottle Styles
Shapes
Wine producers in Spain, France and Germany follow the tradition of their local areas in
choosing the shape of bottle most appropriate for their wine.
Port, sherry, and Bordeaux varieties: straight-sided and high-shouldered with a
pronounced punt. Port and sherry bottles may have a bulbous neck to collect any residue.
Burgundies and Rhône varieties: tall bottles with sloping shoulders and a smaller punt.
Rhine (also known as hock or hoch), Mosel, and Alsace varieties: narrow and tall with
little or no punt.
Champagne and other sparkling wines: thick-walled and wide with a pronounced punt
and sloping shoulders.
Many North and South American, South African, and Australasian wine producers select the
bottle shape they wish to associate their wines with. For instance, a producer who believes his
wine is similar to Burgundy may choose to bottle his wine in Burgundy-style bottles.
Other producers (both in and out of Europe) have chosen idiosyncratic bottle styles for marketing
purposes. Pere-Anselme markets its Châteauneuf-du-Pape in bottles that appear half-melted. This
melted half is supposedly to fit the hand of the Pope himself- Châteauneuf-du-Pape means “New
house of the Pope.”
The home wine maker may use any bottle, as the shape of the bottle does not affect the taste of
the finished product. The sole exception is in producing sparkling wine, where thicker-walled
bottles should be used to handle the excess pressure.
Colors
The traditional colors used for wine bottles are:
Bordeaux: dark green for reds, light green for dry whites, clear for sweet whites.
Burgundy and the Rhone: dark green.
Mosel and Alsace: dark to medium green, although some producers have traditionally
used amber.
Rhine: amber, although some producers have traditionally used green.
Clear bottles have recently become popular with white wine producers in many countries,
including Greece, Canada and New Zealand. Most red wine worldwide is still bottled in green
20
glass.
Punts
A punt, also known as a kick-up, is the term used to refer to the dimple at the bottom of a wine
bottle. There is no consensus as to the reason why wine bottles today have punts, though
everyone seems to be adamant that their explanation is the correct one. The more commonly cited
explanations are:
The punt as a historical artifact:
They are an historical remnant of old-fashioned glass-blowing techniques
They once had the function of making the bottle less likely to topple over. A bottle
designed with a flat bottom only needs a small imperfection to make it unstable. In the
past, it may have been safer to give the bottle a dimple to allow for a margin of error
They once had (and may still have) the function of strengthening the bottle, particularly
useful in the case of sparkling wine
The punt as having a function:
Sediment deposits at the bottom or side of the bottle (depending on how the wine was
stored), which the punt can help to consolidate
They allow bottles of sparkling wine to be turned upside-down and then stacked
(depending on their shape)
They can make the bottle look bigger
They lessen the chance for breaking bottles when cases are stacked on top of one another
They allow one to pour the wine with class and dramatic emphasis with the thumb in the
punt and the fingers on the outside.
The punt also helps to force out the pressure in a sparkling wine bottle when popped out
and also directs the sudden flow of wine outside the bottle as the bottle might not take
this sudden pressure and burst out.
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Alternative Wine Closures
are substitutes used in the wine industry for sealing wine bottles in place of traditional cork
closures. The emergence of these alternatives has grown in response to quality control efforts by
winemakers to protect against "cork taint" caused by the presence of the chemical
Trichloroanisole or (TCA). In March 2006, the Spanish government outlawed the use of
alternative wine closures in 11 of Spain's wine producing regions as part of their (Denominacion
de Origen) D.O. regulations.
Synthetic Corks
Synthetic corks are made from plastic compounds that are design to look and "pop" like natural
cork but with no risk of TCA contamination. The US company Supreme Corq is the world's
largest producer of synthetic corks. Disadvantages to synthetic corks include difficulty in
extracting them from the bottle and lack of ease in trying to use the plastic cork to reseal the wine.
The Wine Spectator's James Laube notes that they can also impart a slight chemical flavor to the
wine. Unlike natural corks, many synthetic corks are made from material that is not
biodegradable.
Synthetic Cork
Notable wine producers using synthetic corks
Van Duzer Winery- Willamette Valley, Oregon
Cantina Produttori di San Michele Appiano- Alto Adige, Italy
Hogue Cellars-Columbia Valley, Washington
Screwcaps
A screwcap is a type of alternative wine closure that is gaining increasing support as an
alternative to cork for sealing wine bottles. A screwcap is a metal cap that screws onto threads on
the neck of a bottle. A layer of plastic, cork, rubber, or other soft material makes a seal with the
mouth of the bottle.
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The two parts of a Stelvin-brand screwcap
Traditionally associated in the US with extremely inexpensive jug wines or even "skid row"
wines, the screwcap is making a comeback due to concern about premature (or sporadic)
oxidation and cork taint. Screwcaps have a much lower failure rate than cork, and in theory will
allow a wine to reach the customer in perfect condition, with a minimum of bottle variation.
Cork, of course, has a centuries-old tradition behind it, and there are also concerns about the
impact of screwcaps on the aging of those few wines that require decades to be at their best.
Some argue that the slow ingress of oxygen plays a vital role in aging a wine, while others argue
that this amount is almost zero in a sound cork and that any admitted oxygen is harmful. Various
studies are underway, although one data point is that producers in Champagne have aged their
wines under crown cap for quite some time with no apparent outcry. This is a debate that will
take quite a while to settle. Even though most wine is consumed within a year of production, it
may be advantageous to use screwcaps due to the relatively high incidence of cork taint
[approximately 8% according to Chehalem's Harry Peterson-Nedry, for example].
Screwcap adoption in fine wines is proceeding in fits and starts. In July 2000, a group of
producers of Clare Valley Rieslings bottled a portion of their wines in screwcap, and earlier that
year Plumpjack announced it would bottle half its production of US$130 1997 Reserve Cabernet
Sauvignon in screwcap. Other announcements have followed, including one from Bonny Doon
Vineyards in July 2002 that 80,000 cases of its "Big House" red and white wine would be bottled
under screwcaps - followed by almost all the rest of their production by late 2004 (200,000 cases
total). In July 2004 Corbett Canyon became the first million plus case brand to switch to
screwcaps for their entire production, shipping just over three million cases a year. Other notable
producers that have switched to screwcaps are R.H. Phillips in 2004 (300,000 cases), Hogue
Cellars in 2004 (500,000 cases), and Villa Maria, also in 2004 (200,000 cases).
Notable wine producers using screw caps
• Bonny Doon Vineyards- Santa Cruz, California
• Corbett Canyon Vineyards- San Luis Obispo, California
• PlumpJack Winery- Napa Valley, California
• Kim Crawford Wines- Marlborough, New Zealand
• David Coffaro Winery- Dry Creek Valley, California
• Whitehall Lane Winery- Napa Valley, California
Vino-Seal
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Vino-Seal is a plastic/glass closure released by the German aluminum production company
Alcoa. Since its introduction into the European market (under the name Vino-Lok) in 2003, over
300 wineries have utilized Vino-Seal. Using a glass stopper with an inert o-ring, the Vino-Seal
creates a hermetic seal that prevents oxidation and TCA contamination. A current disadvantage
with the Vino-Seal is the relatively high cost of each plug (average 70 cents each) and excess
labor in manual bottling due to the current lack of compatible bottling equipment outside of
Europe. The design has won a Worldstar Award for Packing Excellence from the World
Packaging Organization.
Notable wine producers using Vino-Seal
• Whitehall Lane Winery- Napa Valley, California
• Sineann- Willamette Valley, Oregon
• Leal Vineyards- San Benito County, California
• Don Sebastiani and Sons - Sonoma, California
Zork
Zork is a new closure developed in South Australia that aimed to create the "popping" sensation
that natural cork has when opening but with quality protection against TCA similar to a screw
cap.[14] Made from recyclable food grade polymers, the Zork enclosure can be removed without
the aid of additional tools and can be easily resealed.
Notable wine producers using Zork
• Don Sebastiani & Sons-Napa Valley, California
• Penny's Hill-McLaren Vale, Australia
• Domain Day-Barossa Valley, Australia
Crown Caps
The traditional crowned bottle cap has been used in the sparkling wine industry as a closure
during the bottle fermentation process of the méthode champenoise. Normally the cap is replaced
with a cork before its distribution, though recently some producers are releasing wines that use
the crown cap as their closure. The crown caps provide a tight seal without the risk of cork-taint
[16], keeping oxygen out while keeping the bubbles in. Although less intimidating and easier to
open correctly, crown caps eliminate part of the ceremony and mystique involved in opening a
bottle of sparkling wine.
Notable wine producers using crown caps
• Mionetto-Veneto, Italy
• Domaine Chandon-Napa Valley, California
• Green Point-Yarra Valley, Australia
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Wine Storage
How to Store Wine
Wine has been around for thousands of years; from the ancient Romans to modern Americans,
this lavish drink is enjoyed worldwide. Nowadays, most people simply buy their wine from the
local grocery store wine rack, oblivious on how to properly store the wine to make sure it lasts as
long as possible. The main thing to keep in mind when storing wine is, of course, avoid light and
heat, as well as vibration. There are other things to remember, though, such as the different
storage methods required for different types of wine, and it is vital to be as careful as possible
whenever considering how to store your particular bottle of wine.
Steps
1. Know the basic rules of storing wine. These are quite simple and, if you follow them well, you
should never be forced to give up a fine wine to spoilage. They are:
• Store all wines away from light, especially direct sunlight and fluorescent fixtures;
these kinds of light maderize wine, or make it go off flavor.
• Store corked wine on their sides. If they are stored upright for a long amount of time,
the corks will dry out, and air will eventually get to the wine, spoiling it. If you store it
label side up, it'll be easier to spot any sediments that may have formed in the wine
over time when you do eventually pick it up.
• Wine storage temperature should never go over seventy-five degrees F, except for
brief spans of time. At seventy-five degrees F, wine begins to oxidize.
• Temperature in a wine storage area should be as steady as possible; changes should be
gradual. A sixty-eight to seventy-three degree storage area is far preferable to one that
is forty-five to sixty-five degrees F, though the first approaches the dangerous seventyfive
figure. Rises in temperature force wine through the cork; drops cause air to be
sucked back in. The greater the changes in temperature a wine suffers, the greater the
premature aging of the wine from overbreathing.
2. Make sure the wine is safe, no matter how you eventually decide to store it. If it's only a shortterm
type of situation, this isn't as big of a problem, however, if you are hoping to keep a bottle of
wine around for a while to help age it, you need to be sure to store it in a safe spot. 'Safe' means,
in this case, out of the light, out of the heat, out of danger of being drunk, out of danger of
breaking, cracking, or being dropped.
3. Place in wine cellar. This is an obvious one- if you have a wine cellar, worry no more! Just
place the bottle of wine on the rack, close the door, and you are set. Make sure to have some type
of system for finding certain bottles of wine in your wine cellar, though, otherwise it can be very
easy to spend a good amount of time searching for that one particular bottle.
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4. Make a makeshift wine cellar. While digging a large hole in the basement would seem the most
effective thing to do, that would be a major undertaking, and will cost you quite a bit. Only do
that if you are an absolute fanatic about wine, and have dozens of bottles in need of long term
storage.
5. Make a closet cellar. This is ideal for the every day wine lover, and will probably only cost you
around two, three hundred dollars. The major problem with this, however, is that if you ever want
to convert this back to a regular closet, you very well may have to replace all of the sheetrock in
the closet.
• Find an empty, out of the way closet on the ground floor of your house.
• Glue strips of 1" foam board to the walls and ceiling of the closet, using construction
cement as a glue.
• Replace the door with an insulated, preferably steel, door. If you would like, also glue
the foam to this, just to make sure it is all even.
• Attach weather stripping to the edges of the door to make sure that no air gets in or
out- heat could ruin the wine.
• Make sure that the temperature is relatively cool. There are numerous devices you can
use to decrease the temperature in the closet- just find one that suits your particular
closet. Somewhere around 55 degrees F is ideal; anything over 80 degrees F will
damage the wine.
6. Store opened wine in the refrigerator. This will only keep the wine for three to five days if you
have already opened it; make sure the cork is in the bottle as tightly as possible. If you want to
keep it in the refrigerator for a longer period of time after opening, purchase a wine stopper and
pump, and hope for the best. The important thing is to minimize the wine's exposure to air. If you
have a smaller bottle, you may wish to transfer the leftover wine to it, because there will be less
air for it to contend with.
7. Leave red wine out. For the sake of the wine, and for yourself, only do this with red wine,
never white. Place the cork in the bottle, put the bottle in a dark place, and don't worry about it.
This will help for a couple of days, but really, if you aren't planning on drinking that wine any
time soon, it would be better to find an alternate means of storage.
8. Keep white wine in your refrigerator. A wine cellar or closet would be better for it, though,
simply because of the long amount of time many people spend with the refrigerator door wide
open, letting in large amounts of light, and, if you leave the door open long enough, heat. If you
happen to have a refrigerator that you do not use often, such as a pool house refrigerator, keep it
there. You may even consider turning a small fridge into a wine refrigerator.
Tips
• If you threw the cork away but still want to store leftover wine, secure the opening
with a piece of plastic wrap and a tightly wound rubber band.
• Some wines are designed to be enjoyed fresh, while others improve with age. You
should only be concerned with long-term storage for the latter. If you have white wine
that you want to improve by aging, do not place them in the refrigerator. This is where
the wine cellar, or closet, or even just a cool, dark place, is key.
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• Purposefully developing a wine's flavor with age by controlling the conditions in
which it is stored is an art and a science that requires far more knowledge than a single
article can cover.
• If you make your own wine, it would be best to have a wine cellar, especially if you
plan on selling any of it. All other kinds of storage could possibly damage the wine
after a long period of time.
• Wine that has been left out and has gone bad isn't worse for you than if it were stored
properly, it just has a different taste. Don't throw it out- it will still be fine for cooking
purposes.
• Talk to a local wine connoisseur who has their own wine cellar. See what they
recommend, or even if they will hold on to a few bottles of your wine for you if you
have no room for storage.
• Now that your wine keeps a lot longer, why not host a wine tasting party? They are
quite enjoyable for wine lovers, and a great way to find out what wines your friends
enjoy.
• Some companies across the U.S. will actually agree to store your wine for you for a
fee; if you are in possession of a rare or delicate bottle of wine that you aren't planning
on drinking any time soon, this is probably your absolute best bet for storage.
• Don't store unopened red wine in the refrigerator, don't leave unopened white wine
out. Leave it at that.
Best Place to Store Wine
Where’s the best place to store wine?
The bottom of the ocean!!! There is no light, constant low temperature, no oxygen, and no
chance of your kids drinking (or breaking) it! When the Titanic was discovered, the explorers
found hundreds of cases of premium champagne- unspoiled by years on the ocean floor.
If you can’t afford ocean floor space, storing your wine in a wine refrigerator, or even under your
bed, will do just fine.
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Wine Glasses
Wine glasses made of fused or cut glass will often interfere with the flavor of the wine, as well as
creating a rough, thick lip, from which it is not as pleasurable to drink. Blown glass results in a
better vessel, with a thinner lip, and is usually acceptable for casual wine drinkers. High quality
wine glasses are made of crystal, which is porous and helps to aerate the wine. Crystal glasses
also produce a better ringing sound when toasting. Wine glasses are generally not colored or
frosted as this would impede the appreciation of its color.
Shapes
The shape of the glass is also very important, as it concentrates the aroma (or bouquet) to
emphasize the varietal's characteristic. The shape of the glass also directs the wine itself into the
best area of the mouth from the varietal. In general the opening of the glass is not wider than the
widest part of the bowl.
The stem of a glass is an important feature as it provides a way to hold the glass without warming
the wine from body heat. It also prevents fingerprints from smearing the glass, and makes the
glass easier to swirl. Except for the wine connoisseur, wine glasses can be divided into three
types: red wine glasses, white wine glasses and champagne flutes.
Red wine glasses
Glasses for red wine are characterized by their rounder, wider bowl, which gives the wine a
chance to breathe. Since most reds are meant to be consumed at room temperature (approx. 68
degrees), the wider bowl also allows the wine to cool more quickly after hand contact has
warmed it. Red wine glasses can have particular styles of their own, such as:
• Bordeaux glass: Tall with a wide bowl, and is designed for full bodied red wines like
Cabernet and Merlot as it directs wine to the back of the mouth.
• Burgundy glass: Larger than the Bordeaux glass, it has a larger bowl to accumulate
aromas of more delicate red wines such as Pinot Noir. This style of glass directs wine to
the tip of the tongue.
28
White wine glasses
White wine glasses are generally narrower, although not as narrow as champagne flutes, with
somewhat straight or tulip-shaped sides. The narrowness of the white wine glass allows the
chilled wine to retain its temperature for two reasons;
1. The reduced surface area of the glass (in comparison to red wine glasses) means less air
circulating around the glass and warming the wine.
2. The smaller bowl of the glass means less contact between the hand and the glass, and so
body heat does not transfer as easily to the wine.
Champagne flutes
Champagne flutes are characterized by a long stem with a tall, narrow bowl on top. The shape is
designed to keep sparkling wine desirable during its consumption. The bottom of the bowl has a
slight imperfection that causes the bubbles to run up the sides of the flute. The glass is designed
to be held by the stem to help prevent the heat from the hand from warming the champagne. The
bowl itself is designed in a manner to help retain the signature carbonation in the beverage-this is
achieved by reducing the surface area at the opening of the bowl.
Riedel
Riedel is the originator of the concept of having many different glasses with characteristics
designed to enhance specific types of wines. These range from the short, narrow-mouthed port
glass, holding around 250 mL, to the balloon-shaped Burgundy glass, capable of holding an entire
bottle of wine. In theory, the different shapes direct the wine to different parts of the mouth,
emphasizing the best characteristics of the class of wines. Another characteristic of Riedel glasses
is that they are designed to hold a small amount of wine relative to the volume of the glass,
allowing the aroma of the wine to collect in the bowl. Typically a normal "glass of wine" will
occupy about a third or less of a Riedel stem. The best Riedel glasses can cost $150.00/glass!
29
Fun Wine Facts
How Many Grapes?
2.4 pounds of grapes for every bottle. 4 glasses for 4 happy people.
1 grape cluster = 1 glass
75 grapes = 1 cluster
4 clusters = 1 bottle
40 clusters = 1 vine
1 vine = 10 bottles
1200 clusters = 1 barrel
1 barrel = 60 gallons
60 gallons = 25 cases
30 vines = 1 barrel
400 vines = 1 acre
1 acre = 5 tons
5 tons = 332 cases
Wine Bottle Sizes
Capacity (Liters) followed by the number of standard size bottles contained:
Standard (.75) 1
Magnum (1.5) 2
Jeroboam (3) 4
Rehoboam (4.5) 6
Methuselah (6) 8
Salmanazar (9) 12
Balthazar (12) 16
Nebuchadnezzar (15) 20
The Wine Diet
Wine is fat-free and contains no cholesterol.
A six ounce glass of wine contains approximately 130 calories.
30
Popular Anecdotes
Chanel No. 5
Few people know that the original formula for the world famous perfume Chanel
No. 5 included grape varietals used for making wine! The grape Scheurebe provided the
perfume hints of grapefruit and mandarin, the Gewurztraminer grape gave aromas of
roses, and the famous orange blossom scent was a product of Muscat grapes.
It’s always fun to quiz your guests on the origins of this legendary perfume!
The Story of Tortellini
“Tortellini literally means the bellbutton of Venus (the Roman Goddess of Love, the
Greek equivalent of Aphrodite) because of the shape of it. As the legend goes, Venus
and Jupiter were going to get together one night. When Venus checked into the inn, the
chef found out. He went to her room, and peeked through the keyhole and saw Venus
there laying half naked in bed on her back, and when the chef saw her navel, he was
inspired to rush to the kitchen to create a stuffed pasta that looked like her navel, and you
have the legend of the famous tortellini.”
From http://www.sicilianculture.com/food/tortellini.htm
“Tortellini hails from the vibrant city of Bologna with a curious “history.” Legend has it
that Tortellini was created as a tribute to Venus, the goddess of love. When Venus stayed
in a tavern on the outskirts of the city, the innkeeper spied on her through the keyhole of
her room, but could catch only a glimpse of her navel. Spellbound, he went to the kitchen
and, to capture this vision, shaped fresh egg pasta into the navel-sized Tortellini.”
From http://www.barillaus.com/Filled_Pasta_Information.aspx
“Neighbouring Modena, Bologna’s fiercest gastronomic rival, also lays claim to the
creation of the tortellini, declaring it to be the invention of a local cook who dreamt that
he saw Venus rising from the waves, glimpsed her perfect navel and rushed into his
kitchen to recreate this perfection in pasta.”
From http://www.knet.co.za/italiancooking/origins.htm
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Short Stories/Anecdotes
• When the British re-took Delhi after the Rebellion of 1857, the Indian leader was
taken before a British officer who asked him if he was Muslim. The
revolutionary said, “Half.” The British colonel asked, “What does that mean?”
The revolutionary replied, “I drink wine; I don’t eat pork.” Having heard this, the
colonel began to laugh.
• Turkey has nearly twice as much vineyard acreage as the United States.
• There are about 400 species of oak, though only about 20 are used in making oak
barrels. Of the trees that are used, only 5% is suitable for making high grade wine
barrels. The average age of a French oak tree harvested for use in wine barrels is
170 years!
• The bill for a celebration party for the 55 drafters of the US Constitution was for
54 bottles of Madeira, 60 bottles of claret, 8 bottles of whiskey, 22 bottles of port,
8 bottles of hard cider, 12 beers and seven bowls of alcohol punch large enough
that "ducks could swim in them."
• In ancient Babylon, the bride's father would supply his son-in-law with all the
mead (fermented honey beverage) he could drink for a month after the wedding.
Because their calendar was lunar or moon-based, this period of free mead was
called the "honey month," or what we now call the "honeymoon."
• Cork was developed as a bottle closure in the late 17th century. It was only after
this that bottles were lain down for aging, and the bottle shapes slowly changed
from short and bulbous to tall and slender.
• The Napa Valley crop described in 1889 newspapers as the finest of its kind
grown in the U.S. was...hops. Hops are one of the main flavoring ingredients of
beer.
• The Irish believe that fairies are extremely fond of good wine. The proof of the
assertion is that in the olden days royalty would leave a keg of wine out for them
at night. Sure enough, it was always gone in the morning. - Irish Folklore
• Jefferson and wine: From Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas
Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West, by Stephen E Ambrose, comes
the following historical note. Jefferson took up residence in the President’s House
32
in 1801, after his inauguration as the 3rd President of the United States.
“Jefferson ran the place with only eleven servants (Abigail Adams had needed
30!), brought up from Monticello. There were no more powdered wigs, much less
ceremony. Washington and Adams, according to Republican critics, had kept up
almost a royal court. Jefferson substituted Republican simplicity - to a point. He
had a French chef, and French wines he personally selected. His salary was
$25,000 per year - a princely sum, but the expenses were also great. In 1801
Jefferson spent $6500 for provisions and groceries, $2700 for servants (some of
whom were liveried), $500 for Lewis’s salary, and $3,000 for wine.”
• Dom Perignon (1638-1715), the Benedictine Abbey (at Hautvillers) cellar master
who is generally credited with “inventing” the Champagne making process, was
blind.
• According to local legend, the great French white Burgundy, Corton-
Charlemagne, owes its existence, not to the emperor Charlemagne, but to his wife.
The red wines of Corton stained his white beard so messily that she persuaded
him to plant vines that would produce white wines. Charlemagne ordered white
grapes to be planted. Thus: Corton-Charlemagne!
• When Mount Vesuvius buried Pompeii in volcanic lava in A.D. 79, it also buried
more than 200 wine bars.
• Wine has so many organic chemical compounds it is considered more complex
than blood serum.
• In 1945, Chateau Mouton-Rothschild began a series of artists’ labels, hiring a
different artist each year to design a unique label for that vintage. The artists have
included such notables as Chagall, Picasso, Miro and Warhol. The 1993 label was
sufficiently controversial in this country (the stylized juvenile nude on the label
offended the Political Correctness Police) that the Chateau withdrew the label and
substituted a blank label instead.
• The world’s most planted grape varietal is Airén. It occupies over 1 million acres
in central Spain where it is made into mediocre white wine, but some quite good
brandy.
• In ancient Rome bits of toast were floated in goblets of wine. There is a story that
a wealthy man threw a lavish party in which the public bath was filled with wine.
Beautiful young women were invited to swim in it. When asked his opinion of the
wine, one guest responded: “I like it very much, but I prefer the toast.” (referring,
presumably, to the women)
• Labels were first put on wine bottles in the early 1700s, but it wasn’t until the
1860s that suitable glues were developed to hold them on the bottles.
33
• Wine is often called the nectar of the gods, but Sangiovese is the only grape
named after a god. Sangiovese means “blood of Jove.”
• As early as 4000 BC, the Egyptians were the first people to use corks as stoppershowever,
cork did not become a widespread method of closure until the late 17th
century! Until then, most bottles were closed with oily rags.
• There is at least one commercial winery in every state of the United States,
including Hawaii and Alaska!
• Putting ice and kosher salt in a bucket will chill white wine or Champagne faster.
• An Italian white wine called Est! Est! Est! got its name from a medieval story. A
bishop was planning to travel the Italian countryside and asked his scout to find
inns that had good wines, marking the door “Est” (“It is” or “This is it”) when he
found one. The scout was so excited about the local wine found in the area that he
marked one inn’s door “Est! Est! Est!” Another version of this story is that a
priest was on his way to minister to a congregation in the boondocks. Upon
discovering the wonderful local wine, he sent the message “Est! Est! Est!” back to
Rome, renounced the priesthood, and spent the rest of his life enjoying the wine.
• In terms of acreage, wine grapes rank #1 among all crops planted worldwide.
• Rose bushes are often planted at the end of a row of grape vines to act as an early
warning signal for infestation by diseases and insects like aphids. A vineyard
manager who notices black spots or root rot on the roses will spray the grape
vines before they are damaged.
• Question - I know you can send a bad bottle of wine back in a restaurant. But
what do you do if friends come around and bring you a bottle of their homemade
wine that tastes awful?
Answer - Send your friends back.
• Punishment for drunken Monks, 11th century A.D.: fifteen days on bread and
water if one drank so much that one vomited; thirty days on bread and water if
one, when drunk, encouraged others to get drunk; and forty days on bread and
water if, through drunkenness, one vomited the communion wine and sacred host.
34
History of Toasting
Toasting comes from the “practice of floating a piece of burnt toast on top of the wine of
the loving cup. The reason for this was that the toast took away some of the acidity of the
wine. Back years ago wine wasn't as good as it is today, so this floating piece of burnt
toast worked well to tone down the sharpness of the wine. It was an ancient custom that
was popular during the roman and Greek times dating as far back as the 6th Century B.C.
After the bowl was passed around and shared by all the people, the host would be the last
one to drink what was left and this included eating the wine saturated piece of toast. This
was always done in honor of the guests.”
From
http://www.german-toasting-glasses.com/information_library/history_of_toasting.html
Basic Wine Knowledge Test
1. The quality and character of wine is determined by 6 factors. Please name them:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
2. What is the Phylloxera?
3. What made the replanting of wines possible?
4. What does a wine get from the soil?
5. There are 2 climate zones for wine. What are they?
6. Why are slopes typically better for quality of grapes?
7. How does red and white wine production differ?
8. What does wine consist of?
9. Explain the stages of making red wine
10. Explain the French wine law
11. Explain the German wine law
12. Explain the Italian wine law
13. Explain the Spanish wine law
14. What are some of the points to have a good tasting?
15. What do you inspect with the eye?
16. The sense of smell is referred to as what?
17. Why do we hold the glass by its stem?
18. What are two terms to describe how to taste wine?

19. Where on your palate do you taste sweet, bitter, etc?