Gravity and Pertinence event is conducted properly, wisely, and

excitingly. A theater director shapes the play’s

Gravity and pertinence refer to the significance of
narrative and establishes its style, tempo, and
a play’s central theme and its general relevance
how the actors study and create their characters
to the audience’s interests. To state that a drama
and Interact with one another. However, the
has gravity is to indicate that its core theme has
director’s work in a theater production is not seen
significant and long-lasting importance in the
during the actual performance compared to the
spiritual, moral, or intellectual life of humanity. If
works of the actors and designers whom the
the play radiates power, it can create a deep
audience physically sees and experiences on
connection with the audience, thus, its felt
stage. The director orchestrates everything in the
relevance is high. A play has pertinence when it
production, but the director’s work ends when the
touches current conditions or situations that the
play begins.
audience is presently experiencing. Timely plays
are those plays that resonate feelings and
sentiments of the public, hence, they can have
Types of Director
more impact on the audience.
Traditional director
Compression, Economy, and Intensity
- the script is the starting point of the production.
Compression refers to the playwright’s device in
Also called the text-based method, the director
compressing a story that usually spans days or
chooses the script to be staged, analyzes it and
years into one staging time (usually between one
prepares for the production mounting. The
hour to two hours). Economy refers to the
director then decides the theatrical style of
conscious decision of the playwright on what
presenting the play. Developing a style means
events that happen to the character should be
creating a directorial concept, a unified blueprint
included in the play. Compression and economy
to guide the creative process in terms of idea,
in playwriting help to heighten audience
vision or point of view of the director. Through this
anticipation and generate interest. A play that is
directorial treatment, the director presents the
tightly written gives a feeling of thrill as if we
interpretation of the play by creating the overall
intently follow what happens next. This
image or metaphor based on the text.
experience gives the intensity to the play which
allows for dramatic actions to create strong
impact to the audience.
Auteur

- French “author”. The directors also serve as

Celebration authors who can easily create changes or
transformations of the material. This type of
Plays should celebrate life, more than just purely
director weaves various elements from many
depicting or analyzing it. The purpose of theater is
sources to produce a theater production that we
to broaden our horizons of experience, to
can see on-stage. An auteur director takes full
enlighten life, and to elevate existence to the level
responsibility for every transformation or change
of art. A good play resonates the experience of the
that is made in the production including the
community and mirrors social realities on stage.
script.
Writing, creating, and attending plays are also
affirmative acts. These demonstrate a want to
share and communicate, as well as a desire to
Postmodern
celebrate human existence, involvement, and
communion. - director creates productions that are radical,
free-form and sometimes rebellious. This kind of
production employs a process called
THE DIRECTOR deconstruction, which involves taking a part of
the text which may be altered, reassembled,
The director is responsible for rehearsing the
deleted, or taken out of context. It also abandons
actors and coordinating the works of the
the classical linear or narrative structure.
designers (scenic, costumes, lighting, sound) and
other members of the team to ensure that the
performance is both coherent and interesting.
The director is responsible for ensuring that the
Responsibility of the Director members are seated in four sections. The
performance space is situated at the center of the
The theater director brings together all the
theater space, allowing 360 degrees of
aspects of production. Directors are responsible
perspectives of the actors.
to produce a unified and coherent piece that can
move us, enlighten us or even amuse us. If the
director has carefully orchestrated the whole
Found Stage
production involving good complementation of
all production elements, he will produce A found stage is any space that can be utilized for
meaningful, unforgettable and exciting a theater performance. It can be in shopping
experiences for the audience. The director is malls, churches, garages, factories, school
responsible for the overall design and execution grounds, and train stations. These spaces, which
of all other elements in theater creation. can be inside or outside, private or public, provide
open possibilities for creative pieces to be
developed inspired by the unique actor-audience
THE THEATER SPACE relationship and exciting design possibilities.

Another important element is the theater space,

where performers and audience members come
THE DESIGN ELEMENTS
together. It is important to have a separate
performance space for the actors and audience Design elements in theater include all the visual
seats for the audience. It Is likewise essential to and auditory aspects of the production. The
have a dressing room for performers where they scenic, costume, lighting, and sound designers
can change costumes. This space also serves as are important aspe of any production. They bring
the entrances and exits of the actors. In theater, to life visually and audibly the playwright’s an
this space requires three dimensional features, director’s ideas. They create the world for the
hence stage space and audience need to be performers as well as a setting in which the
placed in different configurations to allow the audience can place the play and enjoy the
actual three-dimensionality of the space. performance.

Types of Theater Stages The design elements in a theater production are

the following:
Proscenium Stage
Scenic design
A proscenium theater space has audience seats
facing opposite the performance space. It is Scenic design refers to the set that is created to
usually constructed in rectangular form with the support the make-believe reality of the actors on
performance stage on one end and the audience stage. A scenic design provides space for the
seats on the other end, allowing the illusion that director in telling the story to the audience.
audience members are looking through the other
end of the box. This audience view is framed by
the proscenium arch which defines the Scenic design of Dango, an adaptation of A
rectangular opening in the performance space. Midsummer Night’s Dream

Thrust Stage

A thrust stage has three-sided audience seats. Its Lighting design

stage extends to the audience area, allowing
Lighting design refers to the illumination of the
audience members to be fully aware of the performance space. This design involves the use
presence of other audience members. In this
of color and mixture of lights, intensity of the
arrangement, different sections of the seating
darkness and brightness of light, number of
arrangement look across the other seating areas.
lights, angle of lights in relation to actors in the
space, and the amount of time for fade in and
fade out.
Arena Stage

Arena stage or Theater in the Round is a circle or

square stage configuration where audience
Costume and makeup design Some different schools and theaters that opened
for the sake, of Improv. One of the most popular is
Costume and makeup design refer to recreating
the Covert Theater with the tagline, Home of
characters using costumes and makeup. A
improv Comedy. These three forms of Improv are
costume can totally change the physical
found in this theater. In this theater, the actors
appearance and appeal of the character. When
and the audience are Involved in the Improv. So,
makeup is used for the character, it adds more
the storytelling on stage will sometimes depend
layer to the characterization on stage.
on the audience. Audience comes to this theater
not only for the comedy show but to be able to
feel and participate in the act because in this
ATNAI
theater, even Improv Games create a very strong
Importance of costume and makeup in Hugis way of developing a character and story.
Sound design

A sound design refers to the overall blending of Improv’s Benefits

sound from all sources. These may refer to the
This might look like another theater technique but
recorded sound effects, digitized music, or live
Improv has been proven beneficial. This is the
accompaniment that aid the performance on
kind of art form that will give opportunities to a
stage.
person to improve himself or herself in many
strata. This is more than the capability to come
IMPROVISATION THEATER Up on stage and let the audience laugh at your
performance. This is one that will train a person in
Improvisation is also known as Improv or Impro is
real-life situations.
a theater where actors create acts on the spot.
Most of the situations are comedic. With the training to undergo in Improv, one will
realize that the activities done are not only fun but
This is a very old kind of performing art basically
learning experiences on the level of intellect,
on acting and music traditions. This acting art was
physical body and emotion. This is also self-
established over the years. At present, all the
directive. With constant exercise, one is able to
theater schools use improv as means of training
self-realize and mostly make better choices in
actors.
life. The training that a person goes through
Viola Spolin, Keith Jolinstone and Del Close were Improv can directly be applied in daily life
the forerunners of the modern Improv technique situations. This can be personal, professional or
in the 20th century. With the works of these three formal if you are enrolled in a school.
pioneers, a professional performing Improv was
Improvisation is also a great tool to encourage the
born. Short Improv performances was developed
development of leadership as it conveys
by Spolin and Johnstone while Harold or long
important life skills that all people need.
Improv performance was created by Close.
Furthermore, Improv improves the multiple
There are three forms of Improv: short, long and
intelligences. With a single act of even the short
narrative. Short form Improv is also called Improv
Improv, the 8 intelligences are used.
Games where a very short situation is thrown to
the actor and does an Improv with it. The Long Improv also improve what Professor Robert
form Is called Improv Scene in which different Stenberg refers to as The Triarchic Mind has three
scenes are created and with a punchline the types Academic (book worms), Practical (street
scene changes which is sometimes unrelated to smart) and Creative (ability to think new ways).
the previous scene. The Narrative form Improv is
For Improv, creative intelligence is the one that is
more of telling a story in an instance. This will give
used. The seven aspects of the said intelligence
the actor a longer time to prepare and develop
are a) Self Intelligence, b) Social Intelligence, c)
characters and other related parts of a story.
Physical Intelligence, d) Verbal Intelligence, e)
Mostly, the actor will draw the Improv from
Spatial Intelligence, f) Musical Intelligence, and g)
experience.
Creative Intelligence.
With the use of these seven Intelligences by easy. It is also very hard to crack jokes if you
Stenberg, the actors or even students trained to cannot follow with punchlines. So, as an Improv
do Improv will gain a lot of advantages that they actor you should not force yourself to be funny
can use in real life. The different Intelligences and you don’t have to be funny. Occasionally, the
consist of components of life. When all of these joke will simply slip out because you are unsure
will be triggered with Improv, the actor will always how to crack it and the audience finds it amusing.
come out as a successful person in his life.
In Improv you should be doing “stimulating”
scenes and not really “humorous” scenes. When
you will do a “stimulating” scene, an out-of-the-
Basic Improv Rules
box event (maybe funny) jumps out all by itself.
According to Improv Encyclopedia, there are 5
The best thing to do In this situation is to stay
basic rules in doing an Improv. These are: 1) Don’t
within your character, saty with the story, and
deny; 2) Don’t ask open-ended questions; 3) You
stick with the reality of what you are doing in the
don’t have to be funny; 4) You can look good if you
scene.
make your partner look good; and 5) Tell a story.

You can look good if you make your partner look

Don’t deny.
good.
When an actor doing the Improv denies the act,
In doing Improv, the actors should not be
the story goes off track. For Improv to be
outdoing each other on stage. You need to let your
successful, when the other actor says a line,
partner shine also. When the conversation begins
make sure that your reply will be within the topic.
make sure that you don’t have any hidden agenda
You should do this: Actor 1: “Hello, Jillian. This is
to outdo your partner. Doing this on stage will be
our new office.” Not like this: Actor 1: “Hello,
very obvious and the audience will realize it easily
Jillian. This is our new office.”
that you are putting your partner down. In that
Actor 2: “Our new office is beautiful. Thank you, case, you will receive the boos and the act will
Bobby.” fail.

Actor 2: “This is a stage not an office and I am not In Improv, you should help each other in pushing
Jillian.” the story in a way that both of you are helping in
every step of the way. Because no matter how
So, if you will go against the storyline, the Improv
wonderful your ideas are if you put down your
will fail. Just be with the moment and don’t deny
partner, they would be insignificant and the whole
it.
act will go down the drain.

Don’t ask open-ended questions

Tell a story.
If questions are thrown during the Improv, open-
You might think that storytelling is easy because
ended questions should be avoide questions are
we are used to tell hearsays with our neighbors
throw dions will burden the actor answering
but when this discipline is put on stage,
them. As if you are asking ford essay from the
storytelling will be difficult. The true charm of
other actor. Questions like, “How do you see your
Improv is when you notice that the actors. Pick up
future?", "Why did you choose that answer?”, etc.
entirely arbitrary proposals and make them work.
By questioning you are no longer making an act
For example, you had
with your partner. Instead, you are compelling
your partner to do more work than you do. An arbitrary proposal of a student and a carpenter
building a hut for the animals You should make it
So, it is always good to do everything through a
happen by creating a good story and narrate the
regular conversation. No questioning is better.
animals way that the audience can follow. You
should also make it very the story in a the
audience to hold on with your act.
You don’t have to be funny.

We are all aware that forcing laughter for the

audience when you are not a natural jester is not WHAT IS THEATER?
To begin, let us examine the origin of the word performances are based on community life
theater. Theater comes from the Greek word experiences. It mirrors social realities, thus,
theatron, which means “seeing place.” Thus, at its encouraging intercultural communication
most basic definition, a theater is a location throughout its history. Theater performances
where something is seen. With this simple reflect the distinct cultures of every society.
definition, we already have a good idea of what Because people enjoyed performing and
theater is. After all, for something to be seen, watching such performances, it did not take long
there must be observers. Theater entails both for theatrical performances to evolve into a
those who watch and those who are watched the separate aspect of culture and society. As a
audience and the actors. However, theater can result, almost every civilization has its unique
have many different meanings. Additionally, we theatrical heritage.
use it to indicate the location of film screenings,
By studying the history of theater, we will be able
as in “movie theater.” It is also used to refer to a
to appreciate the long traditions of performance
location where wars and surgeries take place, as
practice and understand how each culture
in “theater of operations” and “operating theater.”
influenced these traditions. We will also see how
These are all examples of the word in its physical
the community of creatives in the early days of
sense.
civilization created performances to build a
cohesive community.

Britannica.com defines theater as a form of art

that is almost entirely concerned with
THE ORIGINS OF THEATER
performances that are live, which are carefully
planned to produce a unified and meaningful The origins of the theater are unclear. While it is
sense of drama. On the other hand, the theater is clear that ancient Athens’ traditions have
also a combination of people, plays, ideas, and influenced Western theater and theories of
place as well as the result of the interplay of Western drama to the present day, it is difficult to
various elements. It is a collaborative form of art tell with certainty what the theater was like even a
that requires the collaboration of dozens, if not few years before the emergence of Greek plays.
hundreds, of people working on a single Along with human civilization, theater very likely
production. Hence, one can say that theater is originated in Africa. Between 5,000 and 3300
both a profession and an art, a structure, a B.C., the first documented theatrical
business, and an occupation. performances happened in northern Africa, along
the Nile River in ancient Egypt.
This Chapter discusses the history, basic
principles and practices of theater. It consists of Hundreds of old African tribal groups’ activities
four lessons that introduce the various elements provide evidence of performances going back to
and aspects of theater production. Each lesson 6000 B.C. Although we know very little about
comes with activities to help you better these performances which left no permanent
understand every concept. records they are likely to be similar to tribal
performances that are still frequently performed
in rural Africa today. Two pillars of theater, as
Introduction these have been known and loved throughout
human history, are visible: ritual and storytelling.
The history of theater can be traced back to the
Both have existed since ancient times and
development of the art form over the last 2,500
continue to exist now, although in somewhat
years. While theatrical or performative
different forms.
components may be found in every culture
across the world, it is common to distinguish
between theater as an art form and as
Ritual
entertainment. The history of theater is largely
concerned with the emergence and subsequent The roots of theater may be traced back to ritual,
development of performance traditions all over in which actors re-create, magnify, and make
the world. meaningful shared myths, beliefs, tales, and
traditions. The term ritual refers to a particular
Theater, as a cultural expression, reflects the
ceremonial observance that is performed to
cultures of society. Stories and themes of
confer certain benefits on the participants. A
ritual is a religious or cultural practice performed Storytelling originated shortly after ceremonial
by members of a community. Rituals are highly activities began. The two forms began blending
coded occurrences having significant symbolic together quite quickly. In fact, humans have been
meaning. There are secular holy ceremonies and telling tales of their everyday exploits since the
rites. Ritual, according to Cohen and Sherman dawn of speech, including tales of the hunt as
(2017), is the theater’s distant cousin more well as tribal history. Storytelling was crucial to
precisely, its great-great-great-grandparent. Or the evolution of speech. Not for the sake of
embellishing a tale but rather for the sake of
Community rituals bind people together by
creating new adjectives like wonderful, bold, and
reinforcing their common history and goals. They
lovely.
help to create the yearly calendar as well as the
various rites of passage in the human life cycle, Storytelling depends on a single voice, therefore,
including birth, death, marriage, and coming of it a single point of view. It is more personalized
age. Rituals provide symbolic meaning to than a collective ritual performance. Every
physical motions and objects. Everything narrative must have a listener-spectator who
becomes more significant during a rite. Rain either does not know the story being told or is
dances and healing rites were among the oldest eager to hear it again. Because of the use of
ancient rituals devised to invoke gods and impersonation-creating voices and facial
manipulate nature. expressions that represent the characteristics of
the characters and the aim to communicate
Though performed largely for the participants
distinct emotions. Storytelling develops
collective devotion, these theatricalized
character. To entertain, it gives a planned story,
ceremonies also serve to educate observers,
rather than an unstructured collection of
including tribe children and visitors. Over time,
observations, which in turn encourages viewer
early tribal rituals began to incorporate elements
involvement through suspense and graphic
now considered essential to the theatrical event,
details as well as a controlled pace of rising
such as staging, costuming, makeup masks,
events. The plot consists of all of these
dance, speech, music, chanting, and singing.
components of organized action in a drama. This
These also include physical props such as
means that storytelling may be considered a
spears, skulls, and staffs which could contain
stripped-down version of drama: all you need is a
spiritual or totemic properties.
storyteller and a witness.
The dramatist is often characterized as a
successor of the priest in ideas that view theater
as a progression from primordial religious rituals. Mga Kuwento ni Lola Basyang (credits to Teatro
The replacemem of an animal for a human Guindegan)
sacrifice, such as a goat for a virgin young lady ora
If ritual brings an event to life, storytelling makes
young warrior, may have led to the development
it personal and moving. The marriage ceremony
of theatrical representation. The procedure for
confers dignity to wedlock by integrating its
the sacrifice may have been performed
participants into wider cultural and historical
ceremoniously without the actual animal
traditions. However, by selecting the wedding’s
sacrifice throughout time.
attire, language, music, venue, and staging,
On the other side, the wedding ceremony may be married couples communicate their own tale to
the most widespread communal ritual in Western the audience. Personal touches are added to
civilization today. With its clothing, formal weddings to blend the familiarity of tradition with
language, symbolic gift exchanges, and the uniqueness of the tale being conveyed. As a
traditional music, the wedding is very ritualistic consequence, the ensuing ceremony mixes
despite the fact that much of the original meaning communal formality with a personal story,
has been lost over time. For example, the slow portraying the newlyweds as both part of a
march down the aisle maintains the traditional tradition and as distinct people.
symbolism of fathers handing their child away to
the groom.

Storytelling
Shamanism GREEK DRAMA

Amanistirama, an early kind of theater, arose The fifth-century B.C. theater of Athens remains
from the combination of ritu Dance-dramanee- one of the finest bodies of dramatic production of
dramas originated from the Afr und and all time. The Athenian theater developed the
storytelting over the world, where they are being essential genres of tragedy and comedy via a
performed even until toda tribal groups all over spectacular combination of legend, myth. Social
the enhanced with audience-appealing stories criticism, philosophy, dance, music, poetry,
derived from They perfio experience. Ritual visual magnificence and audience involvement.
provided the celebrants with the zeal to comm Its characters have become cultural icons
themselves, body and soul, to the imitation of magnificence and not only for future Western
heavenly spirits and recreatio word reflecting the plays, but also for ongoing disputations about
ancient culture’s underlying religious drive, refers how life should be lived. Aristotle and other
to the belief in the ability of such spin culture’s academics believe that Greek tragedy evolved
underlying relie same broad sense, shamaths are from dithyrambs, ancient orgiastic rites in songs
humans who take on a animist duty to mediate and dances in homage to the deity of fertility and
between spirit and earthly reality. The shaman wine, Dionysus. Adoring Dionysus involved
(usually male in the ancient times) may cure ecstatically worshipping fertility symbols like
illness, aid hunters, conjure rain, and promote phalluses, while chanting ancient poetry and
agricultural growth. Sharmans can also appear as drinking lavish wine.
mediums, taking on the foma of otherworldly
While it was enjoyable to celebrate Dionysus, the
spirits, most of which are animals or demonic. In
stakes were high: his death and rebirth
most shamanic practices, the shaman operates
symbolized the return of the harvest and thus life
in a state of trance: a higher level of consciousnes
thing his happiness necessitated adding a year to
Because the shaman’s trance transports him to
his life. By the late sixth century B.C., classical
otherworldly places, his performance takes on a
Greek tragedies were being performed on the
supernatural character. Shamanism is often
Athenian acropolis. The demigod’s apparent
distinguished by intense dancing and
reappearance was commemorated at the Great
impassioned chanting, which usually ends in
Theater of Dionysus, during the yearly springtime
violent shaking at rapid speeds.
festival known as the City Dionysia (or Great
Masks, costumes, headdresses, and, most Dionysia). Dionysus has since been regarded as
significantly, body paint completely cover the the founding deity of Western theater.
shaman-performer, transforming him into a spirit
While the specific shift from orgiastic festivals to
presence. Masks evolved from the cuphoric
tragic drama is unknown, we do know that by the
contortion of the face of the shaman during
end of the fifth century B.C., three great
trance and were later considered to symbolize the
tragedians-Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides
shaman’s distinctive spirit. However, the mask
had written and produced over 300 plays. Thirty-
has outlived the circumstances that inspired it
three of the world’s finest dramatic masterpieces
and has become a globally recognized emblem of
has been handed down to us. Furthermore,
theater.
Aristophanes, a renowned playwright of comedy,
left us with eleven plays. Greek tragedies examine
the religious, -social, and psychological
THEATER IN THE WEST
meanings of ancient heroes and gods of Greek
During the middle of the first millennium B.C., the myth and history. Greek comedies address
city-state of Athens produced four of the finest current concerns that affect all Athenians. Both
playwrights and the most influential dramatic forms of drama were initially staged on the ground
theorist in the theater's long history. Greek in a basic wheat-threshing area (called the
theater established the formal foundations of orchestra), with a dressing/retiring space (skene)
Western theater, which developed and defined behind it. The audience was situated on a nearby
key concepts such as tragedy. Comedy, slope (called the theatron). Actors entered and
characters, and plotlines, all of which are still vital exited in the parodos. The words orchestra,
in play as we know today. scene, and theater are retained up to these days.
Thespis was considered to have invented tragedy Greek Tragedians
when he presented the first actor in Greek
theater. While standing opposite the chorus, the
first actor spoke with them. Aeschylus introduced Aeschylus. He is considered the Father of Greek
the second actor (called the deuteragonist), tragic drama. Aeschylean tragedy is concerned
through whom the first conversations between with the plights, destinies, and choices of people
the two characters occurred. Sophocles later with whom the fate of the state or community is
added a third character (dubbed a tritagonist), inextricably linked. Both person and community,
resulting in more complex dialogue. All of the in turn, stand in intimate connection to the gods.
ancient Greek actors were men. Furthermore, He wrote over 80 plays, but unfortunately, only
one actor played many parts, utilizing masks to seven survived.
reflect the characters’ age, gender, attitude, and
social status. A chorus of singer-dancers (usually
about twelve or fifteen members representing the Persians (472 BC)
local people) supported the players by singing Seven Against Thebes (467 BC)
their lines in unison or via a single chorus leader.
The chorus singers remained in the orchestra Suppliants (463 BC)
below, away from the main exchanges, when the Oresteia (Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and
skene became an elevated stage for the primary The Eumenides) (458 BC)
players. The actors wore high shoes (called
kothurnoi), an ornate headpiece (called onkos), Prometheus Bound
and a long colorful gown (called himation) over
which a tunic (chlamys) was draped. The
elaborate costumes and sets added to the larger Sophocles. He is believed to have written more
than life problems presented in the play in a way than 100 plays, however, only seven have
that no ordinary-looking actors could survived. Sophoclean plays usually concentrate
on a few people and emphasize their strong
characteristics and stubborn natures, which
The Greek tragedy was not spoken but chanted or ultimately lead to catastrophe. The plays that
sung. Regrettably, the music has perished. And, survive are:
as it did at the dithyrambic rituals, the chorus Ajax
danced, sometimes properly, sometimes, with
unrestrained abandon. Antigone

The City Dionysia in ancient Greece was a week- Trachinian Women

long festival of festivities and theatrical contests. Oedipus the King
As part of the first day’s festivities, each
Electra
playwright presented his cast and declared his
play's theme in front of the whole audience. On Philoctetes
the second day, there were processions with
Oedipus at Colonus
sacrifices and 10 dithyrambs presented. On the
third day, five comedies were performed. A trilogy
of tragedies was performed on the fourth, fifth,
Euripides. He is believed to have written
and sixth days by the three competing
approximately 90 plays, that include satire plays
playwrights, followed by a parody (a satyr play) on
as well as tragedies. His plays depict in grueling
the same subject. The playwrights were the
detail the devastation of human life as a result of
directors of their own works. Final judgment took
the pressures that the gods appear to put on
place on the seventh day, and awards were given
people on purpose. His surviving plays are:
for the best play and leading performer.
Alcestis

Medea

Heracleidae

Hippolytus
Andromache mistaken identity and similar tactics. His plays
were probably close to 50. Some of his plays
Hecuba
include the following:
The Suppliants
Amphitruo (Amphitryon)
Elelctra
Asinaria (The Comedy of Asses)
Herakles
Aulularia (The Pot of Gold)
The Trojan Women
Bacchides (The Two Bacchides
Iphigenia in Tauris
Captivi (The Captives)
Ion
Casina (Casina)
Helen
Cistellaria (The Casket)
Phoenician Women
Curculio (Curculio)
Orestes
Epidicus (Epidicus)
Bacchae
Menaechmi (The Twin Menaechmi)
Iphigenia in Auli
Mercator (The Merchant)
Cyclops
Miles Gloriosus (The Braggart Warrior)

Mostellaria (The Haunted House)

ROMAN DRAMA
Persa (The Girl from Persia)
More than two hundred Roman stage structures
Poenulus (The Carthaginian)
have survived to the current day. Roman builders
abandoned the Greek hillside theatron and Pseudolus (Pseudolus)
threshing-circle orchestra in favor of designing a
Rudens (The Rope)
theater that surrounded the audience while
remaining open to the sky. They also divided the Stichus (Stichus)
orchestra in half and built tunnel entrances
Trinummus (The Three Penny Day
(called vomitoria) on both sides. The basic Greek
skene evolved into an ornate three-story wall Truculentus (Truculentus)
(called the frons scaenae) adorned with hundreds
of sculptures. The Romans introduced the use of
stage traps (openings in the stage floor for the Terence. Terence’s plays are all about young love
ascent and descent of actors). and usually have a double goryline. Terence’s
language achieves perfection in proper
For Roman drama works, most plays usually drew
expression, lightness, clarity, and elegance.
on Greek material (characters and problems).
While everyday speech may be recognized, but in
They adapted Greek comedies but did not employ
the colloquial of the common people, but that of
the use of the Greek chorus. Like the Greeks, all a more sophisticated society. His most known
Roman actors were males who performed on
plays include the following:
stage with masks in open spaces. Plautus,
Terence, and Seneca were the famous Roman Andria
dramatists during this period in theater history. Hecyra
They were extremely popular and well-liked by
writers and audiences. Many of their works Heauton
survive and are still occasionally staged. Timorumenos
Plautus. Plautus is a well-known dramatist Eunuchus
whose comedic impact stems from exaggeration,
burlesque and frequently harsh humor, fast Phormio
movement, and a purposely upside-down Adelphoe
depiction of reality. His plots are well-organized
Seneca. Seneca’s plays, best renowned for their
and carefully developed; focused on intrigue,
depictions of brutality and terror, were reworkings
of Greek tragedies (Euripides, Aeschylus and Mystery Play. A mystery play was based on
Sophocles plays). They differ from their originals stories derived from the Holy Bible. Stories
in their extended declamatory, narrative ranged from creation story to judgment day.
descriptions of action, intrusive moralizing, and Examples of stories under mystery play are the
grandiose rhetoric, which were most likely following:
intended to be performed at elite meetings. His
Cain killing his brother Abel
known plays are:
• Noah and the Great Flood
The Trojan Women
Trial, crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus
Oedipus
Nativity scenes
Medea

The Mad Hercules

In these mystery plays, ordinary citizens,
The Phoenician Women
especially those who mastered the major roles,
Phaedr became actors and were paid for their
performances. Authors of these plays were
Agamemnon
usually anonymous, but they were highly
Thyestes regarded by the people because of their skills in
translating Biblical text into a gripping drama on
an open stage.
Roman dramatists contributed to the world
theater vocabulary which we continue to use up
to the present, such as auditorium, actor, and Miracle Plays. A miracle play, or saint’s play,
histrionics. depicted the saints’ real and apocryphal lives.
Actors were usually from the communities and
organized by the play master, their version of the
director. Scenes were often spectacular showing
events of transformations and miracles. Some of
MEDIEVAL DRAMA
these plays were staged using processional
Medieval drama in Europe began with the staging (use of wagons) or pageants (the use of
celebration of divine resurrection during Easter floats). Examples of miracle plays are the
service. As part of the service, officiating monks following:
reenacted th Biblical story of the visitation of the
• Magdalene
Three Marys in the tomb of Jesus. This plavim
popularly known as Quem Quaeritis (Whom seek Virgin Mary
ye?) reenacted the appearance of an angel who
Saint Nicholas
told Mary that Jesus of Nazareth has risen
already. The Three Marys then burst into songs of Passion Play
hallelujahs. This gave birth to liturgical drama, a
playlet included as part of Church worship
service. Church-sponsored dramatizations Morality Plays. A morality play tackled stories of
included traditional Judeo-Christian stories of the struggle of humans between good and evil.
Adam and Eve, creation of the Universe, heaven This type of play, often called allegorical drama,
and hell. The t followed the life’s journey of the main character
that personifies allegoricaladresa, follought
moral lessons. Everyman was the most famous
Types of Medieval Plays morality play written in about 1500, which
dramatized the final hours of man before his
During the Medieval Period, most plays were
death. Other morality plays include the following:
religious in nature, and were intended to teach
people about the Bible, how to live a good life, or
the lives of saints. There were three types of plays
\
that were developed: Mystery Plays, Miracle Plays
and Morality Plays.
ENGLISH RENAISSANCE DRAMA Damgo (an adaptation of A Midsummer Night’s
Dream) (credits to Teatro Guindegan)
In the works of William Shakespeare (1564-1616),
the Renaissance produced the greatest theatrical
masterpieces of that age. England during this
THEATER IN THE EAST
period saw the emergence of flourishing
theatrical culture, with magnificent court Asia, which accounts for over two-thirds of the
theaters, freestanding outdoor public theater world’s population, is made up of dozens of
(and at least one indoor one), and itinerant countries, hundreds of languages, and, as a
professional players who entertained in court and result, thousands of theatrical forms. Hence,
public. The Renaissance theater had hundreds of there is no such thing as “Asian theater.” Rather,
writers whose works are still popular today. While there is a plethora of Asian theaters, each as
Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and John unique as the Asian civilizations that produced
Webster were three of Shakespeare’s most them.
renowned contemporaries and excellent authors
Even though, types of theater in Asia differ
in their own way, none can match Shakespeare.
remarkably, they have general principles and
Shakespeare was nearly alone among the world’s
practices in contrast to Western traditions:
greatest authors in his ability to create
exceptional masterpieces of both comedy and Asian theater forms are generally danced,
tragedy. His plays dare still the most-produced mimed, chanted or sung. It is not just purely
dramas in literally hundreds of theaters “spoken”.
throughout the world, even four centuries after Text in Asian theaters is rhythmic and melodic.
they were written (roughly from 1580 to 1610).
Rhyme, imagery, and alliteration are very
Shakespeare’s plays are well-known among important in these theater forms.
literary academics for their poetic brilliance, Asian theater forms are highly visual and sensual,
persistent examination of the human condition, with the interplay of dance, song, music, mime,
and insightful character depictions, but they also puppetry, gesture, acrobatics, costumes and
contain live music, dance, ribaldry, puns, satire, makeup.
pageantry, and comedy. Both are masterpieces of
dramatic art as well as magnificent theatrical Storytelling and myths are given emphasis in
entertainment. Shakespeare was not just an Asian theaters, rather than escalating plot
author, he was also an actor and co- owner of his structures.
own theater company, the King’s Men, as well as Asian theaters are generally stylized in approach.
of London’s The Globe theater, which his These forms are highly non-realistic theaters with
company constructed and ran. the combination of colored costumes, intricate
makeup, artificial long beards, and
choreographed dance battles with live musical
Shakespeare’s most famous plays include the
accompaniment.
following:

Hamlet
Asian actors are trained intensively through an
Macbet
apprenticeship system beginning from early
A Midsummer Night’s Dream childhood to middle age. Training in this system
can last seven years.
Much Ado About Nothing
Asian theater forms are very traditional.
King Lear

Othello
CLASSICAL INDIA
Twelfth Night
Asian theater is most likely to have originated in
The Tempest
India, where it sprang from the same Middle
Romeo and Juliet Eastern origins as its Western Counterpart. Some
academics think that the Greek deity Dionysus
The Merchant of Venice
hailed from India (Cohen & Sherman, 2017).
During this period, India had developed three
classical art systems: Sanskrit plays, Kutiyattam, Neta abhinaya (eye expression)
and Kathakali.
Hasta abhinaya (language of gestures)

Sanskrit Plays
Kathakali
In Classical India, Sanskrit play emerged in the
Kathakali is considered as the most dominant
Hindu culture in the second century B.C. up to the
classical art form in India. Originating from the
10th century. The comprehensive study of the
villages of Kerala in 17th century, the stories
principles of performance and staging, music,
come from the great Indian epics: Ramayana and
gestures, dance and dramatic texts of these plays
Mahabharata. Performances start in the evening
are recorded in the Natyasastra (loosely
and last until dawn of the next day. Audience are
translated as Treatise on Theater). This treatise
free to leave and eat during these performances.
describes the major Sanskrit plays, including the
two primary plays: Traditionally, kathakali is performed by all-male
actors. However, in modern times, women artists
Nataka plays that are based on famous king’s
have joined performances. Two singers sing the
heroic stories
text accompanied by percussion instruments of
Prakarana plays that are based on the theme of gongs, drums and cymbals. With elaborate hand
love. gestures, intricate footwork patterns, sharp eye
movements and body contortions, actors dance
Features of Sanskrit Plays
and mime the dramatic actions. Actor-dancers
There have been no ruins or drawings that survive sometimes perform violent scenes, which were
in these Sanskrit plays. But some features of not present in Sanskrit plays. Costumes and
these types of plays have been noted: makeup are highly stylized to convey the
character and attitude of the characters. There
The plays were performed on an open stage inside
are no sceneries in the performance, but only four
roofed buildings.
simple poles to define the performance area.
The stage was rectangular in structure and the
building could set between 200 to 500 audiences.
Theater spaces were decorative and symbolic. CLASSICAL CHINA

The style of performance was presentational, China is Asia’s largest country and home to the
aided with colorful costumes, music and dance, continent’s oldest continuous civilization.
plus sequences of intricate hand gestures that Additionally, it is home to Asia’s longest
convey meaning. continuous theater culture. Chinese theater is
more sung than spoken. It is based on tonal
Sanskrit performers came from priestly castes.
changes and syllabic pronunciation. Hence, all
Women performed prominent roles. classical Chinese theater is referred to as xiqu,
which means tuneful theater, and translated as
“Chinese opera” (Cohen & Sherman, 2017).
Kutiyattum
There have been many forms of classical Chinese
Kutiyattum is another religious theatrical form theater, but the most famous in modern times is
performed in temples about ancient epics. Beijing (Peking) Opera, which is known among the
Originating in the province of Kerala, this theater Chinese as jingju or “theater of the capital”. It was
form reflects the local traditions and Sanskrit founded in 1790 during the Emperor’s 80 birthday
classicism. The performances focus on the when actors from Anhui amazed the court with
feelings and thoughts of the main character. A their acrobatics, music and brilliant singing style.
performance can last up to 40 days due to the
Stunning costumes, glittering headdresses, and
elaboration of details of the story. Actor training is
vibrantly colored face painting make Chinese
usually between ten to fifteen years before the
opera a visual feast. Male and female actors wear
actor can become a fully-fledged Kutiyattam
multi-layered costumes with vivid primary colors;
actor, who has perfected subtle shifts of body
many of them feature long, flowing “water-
face muscles and breathing control. Following a
stylized and codified theatrical language, it Sleeves” that reach the floor. Traditional stories
highlights two distinct features: say that the falsetto was initially used so that
performers could be heard above the clathor the The noh stage is made of highly polished
people call the performance. The singing is Japanese cypress flooring, which is supported
sometimes punctuated by the ringing of gongs underneath by large earthenware jars that
and cymbals, the beating of the drum, and the reverberate with the stomping of the actors. For
rapid plucking of two-stringed violin. There are a solemn entrances and exits, actors use the
variety of movement abilities, such as a heel-to- "hashigakari," a bridge-style landing strip with
toe walk, twisted body bending techniques, four wooden pillars. The only scenery on stage is
abrupt jerks and freezes, and full-stage the painted pine tree on the wall. A four-man
acrobatics. Chinese opera performers must be orchestra, composed of small and large hand
proficient in the following four skills: drums, flute, and stick drum, produces the
musical accompaniment. They are joined by six
• singing (chang)
to 10 singer-chanters. However, the cast is small.
Speech (nian) The actors’ movements are very slow and almost
static, with feet barely leaving off from the ground.
Acting and movement (zuo)
Faces are expressionless and immobile at all
Martial arts and acrobatics (da) times.
The earliest known Chinese opera used stages in Noh training at ITI Singapore (credits to ITI
bare thrusts. Sets include a carpet, a table and Singapore)
two chairs. This type of stage became traditional
Kabuki
for music drama.
Kabuki theater was a more dazzling and
accessible kind of entertainment. Kabuki is
CLASSICAL JAPAN flamboyant and exciting in its presentation. Its
intention was to entertain a wide audience. An
Noh and kabuki are two of Japan’s most famous
extravaganza of spectacular effects is presented
classical theater forms. A living museum
by the Kabuki troupes. On stage, actors flaunt
farmcenturies-old theatrical practice, each is a
their moves and deliver their words with intense
unique experience. However, while noh and
enthusiasm. Spectacular stage equipment adds
kabuki are still performed today in the same
to the excitement. Also, the audience Contributes
manner as they were in the past, they still provide
to the general excitement by yelling out the names
a highly satisfying theatrical experience for
of their favorite actors or other encouraging
modern audiences.
comments during the perfor the man

Legendary shrine maiden Izumo Okuni developed

Noh Kabuki about 1600. Her flashy and theatrical form
2004 As far as Japanese theater is concerned, of dancing quickly became famous in Kyoto’s
Noh is the most respected and cerebral form. brothels and tea rooms. There was a rapid
Aside from that, it is the world’s oldest continually evolution of this exotic form of entertainment. The
performed type of theater. To this day, around 240 term kabuki is a combination of three words: ka
noh plays have survived, virtually all of which (song), bu (dance), and ki (skill), which could
were created by a father-son tandem (Kan’ami mean “song-dance-skill”.
and Zeami) from the fourteenth to the fifteenth Domestic plays (sewamono or “common things”)
century. In all noh plays, the main character and history plays (jidaimono or “period things”)
called shite is probed, prodded, and challenged are the two most popular genres of kabuki
by the secondary character called waki. Shite dramas. History plays portray significant political
characters can be gods, spirits, ladies, animals events from the distant past, generally in a
and even warriors, while waki characters are dramatic way. Playwrights and performers, on the
always male humans. As opposed to the waki, the other hand, often use historical settings as a
shite wears a mask. In Noh, all actors are males. shield for portraying controversies of the day.
They specialize in only one character throughout Domestic plays, on the other hand, center on the
their lives. For dance and chant performances, daily lives of the townsfolk and merchants, lovers
actors undergo extensive training to learn exact and courtesans of the playwright’s day, typically
choreography and musical notations. emphasizing the tension between love and duty.
As a result, many domestic dramas end in
suicide, with the lovers promising to meet again in Scenic design (also known as scenography, set
the next world. design or stage design) is the creative process in
theater production, where the scenographer
In general, Kabuki is an actor’s theater, with many
plans, designs, and creates the needed sceneries
of its plays having no known creator and having
for each act in the play. The scenographer designs
been added by performers throughout the ages.
the stage using the mixture of color, line, and form
to achieve a stage setting that supports the
performance.
THE THEATRICAL TRA”ITION TODAY: EAST AND
WEST A scene designer creates the visual interpretation
and expression of the playwright’s intention.
These great theater traditions of the past-Greek,
Designers must understand what the play is all
Roman, Medieval and English Renaissance in the
about and its dramatic structure to be able to
Western world, and Sanskrit, Kutiyattam,
support both the director’s vision and the
Kathakali, Beijing Opera, Noh, and Kabuki in the
playwright’s intention.
East are all alive today, either through regular and
careful revivals or through a continuous tradition
of performance. All of these traditions have had
Qualities of a Designer
an impact on current theater practices in the
contemporary period. Wolf and Block (2014) identified the following
qualities of a designer:

A designer needs the vision and imagination of

Introduction
the creative artist and the ingenuity and skills of
The design of the set and the lighting of the stage the stage artisan.
are two essential components of any theatrical
A designer must display talent in their use of line,
play. The achievement of a well-made play that
color, and form.
has an impact on the audience is dependent on
these factors. When it comes to establishing the A designer must possess a visual vocabulary
world of the play on stage, stage design and stage developed through the study of art, history, and
lighting are both important components. literature.

Scenic design is the creation of set pieces and A designer must be keenly aware of the world
sceneries that aid in the overall visual appeal of around them.
production on stage. These designs should
A designer must be able to bring substance to
convey the mood and spirit of the play, which can
their ideas with skill and dispatch and within the
be achieved by conducting extensive research
structural limitations of their medium.
into the script. In a theatrical performance,
scenic design is focused on the overall visual look A designer must have at least a basic
and functionality of the many design components understanding and appreciation of the other
that are utilized. Stage lighting, on the other hand, areas of design.
illuminates the area where the performers and
A designer must study the dramatic structure and
sets are positioned. A theatrical production’s use
perception of the playwright’s intention to create
of stage lighting clearly indicates what the
appropriate visual interpretation on stage.
director and design team want the audience to
see during a live performance. A designer must understand all the physical and
textual elements, the actor’s needs, and a sense
Scenic design and Stage lighting, as mentioned
of space and movement.
previously, are two important aspects of a theater
production. These are necessary to enhance the Elements of Design
creative work. Both provide additional support to The elements of design are the essential units in
the performance of the actors on stage, for these
the visual composition of the play. According to
technical aspects allow them to give more Wolf and Block (2014) the following are the
breadth and depth to their characters.
elements of design: line, shape, scale, color,
texture, and light.

SCENIC DESIGN
Line. Line determines the shape. Its value in an overpowering mood, by making actors
composition is derived from its versatility. A line unimportant on stage due to their small
can indicate a three- dimensional form by appearance. On the other hand, shrinking the
enclosing space as an outline and creating shape scale of the object results in the surrounding area
(two-dimensional form). It can be seemed like a appearing bigger. For example, the designer
real line in a variety of modes (straight, curved, places a huge door at the center of the stage,
spiral, etc.), as linear forms with a linelike making the actors appear very small with it.
character or as suggested lines simulated by the
Color. Color elicits the strongest appeal of all the
eye as they follow a sequence of related patterns.
elements of design. As a powerful stimulus, it
Line has several characteristics, including
evokes feelings and emotions in the audience. For
direction, length, and thickness.
example, yellow, red, and orange (classified as
warm colors) create a feeling of happiness, joy,
and excitement. On the other hand, the use of
Stage design of Ang Tawo
green and blue (classified as cool colors) implies
A line suggests an action; hence, it assumes a more sad feelings or emotions. Thus, a designer
sense of direction and movement. In theater, a needs to fully understand color psychology to
line may suggest the following characteristics understand the impact and meaning of colors
according to Wolf and Block (2014): when used on stage in a theater production.

Texture. Texture refers to the tactile quality of the

material. It adds more interesting features to the
Vertical lines imply strength and stability
finished form of the design. The texture in the
Horizontal and vertical lines follow the frame’s design catches and refleets light, thereby,
direction and therefore indicate no movement. creating more dimensions and enriching the
overall look of the materials in the space.
Consideration of how texture and light
Diagonal lines imply action. complement is necessary. For example,
projecting a light on a smooth surface door will
have a different feel from a rough surface door. In
Shape. Line defines the shape (or form). There this case, light is important to reveal the real
are geometrical shapes, like squares, circles, and texture of the design.
triangles. Shapes can be organic as well, which
are often curved and flowing which suggest Light. Light creates the mood of the scene in a
imperfection and irregularity. In theater, the use of theater production. When used in a play, it can
shape suggests metaphorical ideas derived from reveal form, whether two-dimensional or three-
the script. For example, the use of a square in dimensional representations of the form. A good
design may suggest a sense of a prison cell. Thus, knowledge on how to use light in design provides
shape defines the movement of the actors in the designers the great potential in maximizing its use
space. Manipulating shapes provides the scenic in the overall design. From the beginning,
designer to help put focus on the visual designers need to put into consideration how light
composition of the actors in relation to other will affect the vision of the design. Designers
elements in the space. must take note that light will create an effect on
design structures and on the materials used.
In theater, a vertical shape may give an illusion of
command or authority, and a horizontal shape
may suggest calmness. A diagonal shape, on the Lighting Design workshop for students
other hand, suggests action and movement.
Principles of Composition

If the elements of design are the raw materials

Scale. In theater, a scale refers to the relationship which designers use in the process of creation,
of the stage to the actor, as well as to the other the principles of composition refer to the different
elements in the space. The scale may be utilized ways in which the designer uses these materials
to add theatricality to a piece. During a theater in creating interesting designs which can have
performance, the audience anticipates that items meaning on stage. Brewster and Shafer (2011)
will be of a recognizable size. Increased sizes of a stated that a good composition requires the
familiar object can contribute to the creation of
following principles: balance, proportion, rhythm, result to modification of the original visual look.
variation, and unity. For example, designer places series of circles as
part of the design that hang above the main
Balance. Balance, in theatrical design, refers to
performance area, with one square design
the visual weight of the scenic design, in terms of
attached to one circle. This one square creates
number, mass or volume. To achieve balance,
the variation from the original visual feel of the
designers consider using the following three
design. Applying contrast to the design means
ways:
employing variation to its extreme, such as
• Symmetrical Balance. Symmetrical balance placing light next to dark, small next to large
means that all visual elements are repeated on visuals.
both sides, such as the same position and size of
Unity. Unity means that all design elements
set pieces, the same color on both sides. What
appear to be of the same look that tells the same
audience see on the right side of the stage also
story. It is a condition where elements are
appears on the left side.
unbroken, undivided, and complete to project a
Asymmetrical Balance. In this design manner, unified design. In this case, there is a sense of
all visual elements may be found on both sides of “oneness” where all parts are composed to
the stage, however, the elements cannot be the present an organized main theme. Some
same in size, shape, and color. For example, the designers consider harmony as an aspect of
designer places set pieces which are large on the unity. A harmonious design suggests satisfying
upstage right of the space, and smaller pieces are arrangements of the parts that produce a
placed on downstage left. This type of balance pleasing visual combination.
creates a more visually interesting approach.

• Radial Balance. Radial balance refers to

Ground Plan
elements that emanate from a central point. In
this type of balance, the elements are spread Reiching Goe
symmetrically but the details and shapes coming
In theater, a ground plan is the bird’s eye view of
out keep an interesting composition.
the set pieces in relation to the actual theater
Proportion. Proportion is the relationship space. It locates the set on stage, marking all the
between elements in the design and how these units that comprise the overall design, such as
appear in relation to each other. This is the walls, furniture, back drapes, doors etcetera. It
relationship with respect to the size of actors to helps the designer in creating the scenic design
set pieces on stage. For example, the designer and is utilized by the director for setting the flow
places a huge house on the upstage left of the of the action. For the lighting designer, it is a
stage, puts a sala set on the downstage right, and necessary instrument for designing the lights. For
places the actor in between these set pieces. the stage technician, it is helpful in establishing
Ultimately, the good proportion can add the placement of the scenery.
symmetry, balance, and harmony to the design.

Fish Does
Rhythm. Rhythm is a principle of composition
In a professional theater set up, a ground plan is
that denotes potential movement or action.
drawn at the scale of ½” = 1’- 0” with appropriate
When used on stage, it creates a path for the
symbols and conventions in communicating the
audience’s eyes through the repetition of shapes,
set to the rest of the design team.
colors, lines, and other elements. For example, a
designer may use a set that has pieces of wood
placed repeatedly in diagonal lines to the actor’s
STAGE LIGHTING
position in the space. This repetition creates an
illusion of speed and movement as human eyes Stage lighting is essential in creating the style of
follow these rhythmic patterns. It likewise theater production. The aesthetic appearance of
suggests mood for the entire play. the lighting, along with the way it changes
appearance, establishes specific styles for
Variation. Variation refers to changing one or
production. Stage lighting may be realistic in
more elements such as position, form, and
appearance, and the transitions between light
condition of any of the design elements, which
cues can be delicate, with undetectable changes
that appear to occur organically with the play’s Establishing the Mood. Stage lighting creates
action. the mood of the play. The use of color in lighting
suggests the feeling of the scene. Using bright
The main purpose of stage lighting is to reveal
light on stage suggests comedy and a happy
what needs to be seen on stage. This means that
mood. Long shadows which are placed at high
actors and sets should be visible on the stage.
angles suggest tragedy. When lights move to
The intensity of the lights used on the stage
follow an actor this may suggest a pace of action.
determines how well the object or actor in the
scene should be seen. In the same manner, the Reinforcing the Theme. Lighting a scene means
direction and angle of lights suggest the way it is supporting the action of the
seen on stage. The color of lights creates the
Scene. Hence, the lighting designer needs to
object’s color as well. The lighting designer
establish thematic lighting to aid the visual
collaborates with the other design team
composition of the scene. This is done to get a
members to execute the director’s vision.
general feeling of the entire play based on its
overall theme. For example, if the play is about
war, the use of warm red lighting may be used to
The Function of Stage Lighting
reinforce the theme.
Stage lighting creates the environment of the
characters to give meaning to the surroundings,
for the scene to be logically interpreted. Lighting the Actor
Manipulation of the intensity, color, and
movement of the lights results in shaping the
world of the play. Hence, the lighting designer’s The fundamental role of the lighting designer is to
role is to assist in achieving the following light the actors. To light, the actors are to make
functions: them visible in relation to the background. Hence,
proper distribution and focus of lights are
Selective visibility
necessary as these create an Impact on the
Composition quality of light that reveals the natural forms of
the actors, especially their faces. It has been a
Revelation of form
universal practice to light actors at a 45-degree
Establishing the mood angle as this angle enhances the visibility of the
actors’ forms. Likewise, positioning lights at this
Reinforcing the theme
angle results to a more natural appearance, as
Selective visibility. In general, lighting allows the well as produces interesting highlights and
actor to be seen and be heard on stage. However, shadows on the faces of the actors.
the concept of selective visibility guides the
audience on what needs to be seen in the scene.
It can be revealing a silhouette or a full revelation Stage lighting reveals shapes of actors and
of textural details of set pieces on stage. design.

Composition. The role of stage lighting is to show Front-lighting the actor is essential so that actors’
actors and other stage forms in relation with other faces can be seen by the audience. However,
elements in the space. Compositional lighting direct front-lighting may result in flattened facial
means controlling shadows to achieve a good features and lacking details on the face. Moving
visual appeal. In this way, lighting the scene the position of the light to one side creates
reinforces the overall look of the scenic design in interesting dimensions in the actors’ faces. But
relation to the actors in the space. this needs to be balanced by placing the second
light opposite it to create a desirable effect for
The Revelation of Form. Scenic forms can be
visibility.
revealed using lights that are controlled by light
dimmers to achieve the desired look and feel. Back-lighting the actor creates interesting three-
Stage lighting reveals the shapes of the scenic dimensionality, producing contrast to the scene.
design. Primarily, lights reveal actors’ forms by Moreover, it gives the impression of separating
projecting lights to the sides and backs of the actors from the background, as well as color-
actors to create a look of dimensionality. toning the stage floor with the projected lights.
Like front-lighting, the lights should not be
positioned directly behind the actors. Placing two
back lights, one from each side, provides more
Evaluate the part
visibility and forms to the actors and the scenic
design. As an actor, we always depend on what the
script’s is calling for our character. One should
Side-lighting the actor provides greater revelation
use the script to dissect the sub-text of the text
of the three-dimensionality of forms. It gives
given in the script. When we say text, it is the line
lighting designer more flexibility in highlighting the
found on the script and sub-text is your
form. Using side lights produces highly dramatic
interpretation of the text. In a way we can
appeal for the audience. Visibility of the actors’
determine the character’s general description,
forms is better than back-lighting.
nuances, movement, etc. and with this you will
have the time to create the character that is
presented on the script.
Introduction
Subtext is also known as quotation analysis, and
According to Angela Lansbury, “Actors are not
it is critical for an actor to understand what the
made, they are born.” Even with this quote, one’s
character says or does, as well as how the other
ability to act is to be cultivated so to reach to its
characters react to the characters and this is also
potential. Perhaps we have an intrinsic capacity
how the characters behave toward each other.
to act since others do not, but without adequate
training in professional acting, you will not be able
to realize your dream of becoming an actor.
Determine the objective of the character.
Proper training and coaching in acting are a must
Objectives of the character make the actor be at
if you are aspiring to become a Thespian because
home with the character he/ Determining the
stage acting consists of a lot of technicalities and
might be also be the might be what the character
guidelines. You will not just memorize the lines
likes to achieve ater bey ne. It can also be the
and start throwing them on stage. One should
intentions or purposes of the characterschieve In
know the proper ways of doing it properly on
every as the character's entire justification for
stage. One must understand that even the most
performing on charact
professional actor, still needs to be trained and be
refreshed with every production he or she will be
staging.
There are 3 kinds of objectives. These are
This lesson helps the students to strengthen their objectives, super objectives and sub-objectives,
acting skills. This will also give the students a
An objective is defined as the character’s wants
guide on what kind of stage technique to use in a
in every scene. The actor should be able to know
situation an actor is in.
this so that actor can calculate the movements
and actuations to deliver for every scene.

THE ACTING PROCESS

As mentioned, acting is an innate ability of a A super objective is also called “spine”. This is
person but it does not mean that we can really act what the character desires achieve at the end of
on the professional level. That natural ability the play. Either the character will overcome the
needs to be harnessed and be trained in order for obstacles and turn the play into a comedy or not
that talent to evolve. There are ways on how to do which is a tragedy. This is also called the through-
it and it is called the Acting Process. line. This will help the actor on what do in general,
the acting that he/she will do entirely in the play.

As it is a process, it is not automatic that we can

achieve the things that we want to achieve. You The last is the sub-objectives. This is also known
need to go through series of realizations and self- as “beats” or “units” This refers to the changes in
actualizations to be able to perfect the craft. mood, intentions, subjects, and so on that occur
in a scene that helps the actor act quickly since
the change of a scene is quick and abrupt.
These are the different processes one should go
through.
Interconnectivity of the characters. lines. So, the subtext is the underlying emotional
motivation for the acting to be done, may it be an
The writer of Acting Power, Robert Cohen coined
emotional recall or a psychological motivation.
this term “relcom”. This is the combination of
relationship and communication. Thus the
“relationship communication” was born. This is
Production role
the relation of the actors on stage using
communication. As an actor, you need to realize that the
production of a play is not that simple. There are
We are all aware that in all communication there
a lot of people involved even for a two-character
are at least two parts of the message the content
play Each of these people has a part in this
dimension and the relationship dimension. There
production and without these roles, the
are always particular ways of expressing things
production will never be complete.
orally. The way we utter things most of the time
will progress, explain and redefine a relationship. As a part of the production, you have to know your
On stage, this very important because the exact role as an actor. You should know how you
exchange of dialogues is the main element of can contribute to the success of the production.
theater. Hence, it is very important that actors will It is very important also that you should know how
have to understand the subtext of the lines to be others function with you and that without them
able to deliver lines and act perfectly. you will not be as effective.

Your role In the production does not put you on a

pedestal. You are just part of the production. The
Purpose that the role satisfies in the play.
only thing is, you are the one who can be seen and
As stage performers, you must realize that your recognized because you are on stage. This should
character must be connected to both the play’s not make out heads expand because the people
subject and the acts you will do throughout the behind the scene are no less important than you.
performance. You need to understand also on
The theater Is not pure art therefore you need to
how big or small your character is; whether you
understand your role in the production to be able
are the protagonist of the play, an antagonist, or if
to achieve a very successful show.
you are part of the major or minor character.

This way you will have an idea of how everything

is done. With this knowledge, you can have THE ACTING TECHNIQUES
research on how the character talks, how the
The theater is a very technical world that even the
character moves how the character cries, ete.
slightest thing you do on stage is very calculated
Remember that in achieving the purpose
and anticipated. There are a lot of things you need
to remember once you start stepping into the
stage. We see actors that look so natural on stage
Of the character, everything should be done by
but they are subconsciously remembering the
the actor. The more you give attention to the
dos and don'ts of the theater.
character, the more successful you become as an
actor portraying that role. These certain ways that actors do on stage are
being inspired by the different schools of acting
techniques. This part of the Unit will help you
Understanding subtext explore the eight (8) most used acting techniques
in the world of theater.
Subtext, as we know, is the hidden meaning that
a sentence conveys. The playwright created the These are the Stanislavski Method, Classical
lines but it is the actor’s job to dig deep into the Acting Technique, Method Acting Technique,
lines. Playwright created the lines but you utter Meisner Technique, Chekhov Technique,
when you say your lines on stage but how it is Practical Aesthetics Acting Technique, Uta Hagen
being delivered to your audience. Technique, and Viola Spolin Technique.

The actions that you do as an actor and the

unobvious things that charathe action that about
STANISLAVSKI METHOD
are very important in the delivery of lines in a play.
In layman’s terms, we call it reading between the
Konstantin Stanislavski had a lifespan from 1863- As an actor it is very important that you should
1938. He was a Russian actor and director who teach yourself on “The Method” because almost
created a certain way of training other actors in a all the acting techniques were created from this.
theater where his theater life flourished well, the
Moscow Art Theater. His very purpose was to
reject the overly-acted use of gestures to convey CLASSICAL ACTING TECHNIQUE
a message which sometimes created an
This technique springs from the acting method of
unnatural way of acting. He likes his actors to
Konstantin Stanislavski who became very
learn and to bring out the “inner truth” of the
popular during the late 1800s and the early
character they are portraying so that when the
1900s. His acting technique was both on the
play is performed in from of the
scrutinizing of the script and the self-discovery of
Audience, the audience will experience the reality the “truth” of a character compared to the reality
of the performance, leaving them speechless as of the actor. This method is being mixed with the
they exit the theater. This is popularly known as teaching of Michel Saint-Denis. He was a French
“The Method.” influential theorist of classical acting during the
1900s (early to mid). Saint-Denis established the
Before “The Method” was introduced, acting was
London Theatre Studio and his career was mostly
really extremely unrealistic This is mostly done by
devoted to experimental theater. He later created
the use of certain gestures to mean something.
a training prototype that was used by a number of
Gestures are overly done. Gesture is only one. The
universities in their drama programs.
line delivery is also done in extreme using
intonations and pitch to convey emotions that are Classical acting is a word that includes a variety
not natural anymore. Everything was superficially of acting systems being combined as one. This
done. system includes body expression, proper use of
the voice, ample use of imagination,
Stanislavski presented the knowledge of putting a
personalizing the character.
sense of reality on the stage and audience started
to connect with the actors as they are doing Doing improvisation, memory recall and
things that are done naturally by people like them. analyzing scripts for better performance. In all
With the introduction of “The Method”, the senses, this technique is a balance between
theater industry was changed forever. external and internal motivations.

In Stanislavski method, a certain role is divided

into different actions and tasks. The actors must
METHOD ACTING TECHNIQUE
reflect into the character’s given situations. “The
Method” uses questions to help the actor develop Method acting is a popular technique, if not the
the character in a natural way. These are the usual most popular technique, in the industry of acting.
questions to be used: Who Am I? Where Am I? The technique was created by Lee Strasberg who
When Is It? What Do I Want? Why Do I Want It?
was an American teacher and actor. Lee was an
How Will I Get It? and What Do I Need To
avid fan of the Stanislavski’s “The Method” and
Overcome?
became his disciple. As Strasberg progressed in
With the circumstances revealed by the his profession, he developed a fascination with
character’s tasks and problems, the actor may some of the vital key essentials of Stanislavsky’s
ask, “What do I want?” or “How am I going, to system. These are the use of the magic “IF”, the
motivate the other character?” use of senses to recall a memory, the emotional
memory recall, and the animal work.

In “The Method”, the actors are always reminded

to use the magical word “IF.” The actor should put These essentials are created to allow actors to
himself herself into a situation that a character perform realistically. They are stimulated to
will be in. With the use of “IF”, the actor will practice involving their personal experiences
develop a make-believe trigger that will put them when they perform. The emotional memory recall
into the world of the character’s given technique includes remembering a certain robust
circumstances feeling from your past that would result in a very
realistic and unpretentious emotion.
There is a prevalent misunderstanding that and other complications when doing this
method acting includes submerging the self in the exercise.
character by staying in the role even if he/she is
not performing. It should not be the case. This
method is used by actors when they are The emotional life of the character must be
performing and will have to go back to reality understood by the actor and he or she should
when they are off stage. Most actors use this perfect this technique. This includes the
technique nowadays. deepened connection of the actor to the
character. This technique trains the actors to
move away from acting as a character but instead
MEISNER TECHNIQUE to becoming the character.

Another by-product of Stanislavski’s “The This acting method enables actors to focus on
Method” is the Meisner Technique. This their character’s emotional life, thus
technique was created by a contemporary and strengthening their connection to the character’s
associate of Lee Strasberg. Sanford Meisner. He personal experiences. The preparation prevents
established this method after collaborating with performers from attempting to portray a
Lee Strasberg and Stella Adler around the 1930s character and instead motivates them to react
at the Group Theater in New York City. During the convincingly and authentically. This means that
collaboration they used the Stanislavski instead of being angry or happy, the actor should
techniques but after some time they separated really be angry or happy at that moment in
developing their own techniques. Meisner technique.

Meisner’s style is about obliging the actor to

forget himself in a while (at least during
Here are some steps to achieve the Meisner
performance and rehearsals). This means that
Technique:
the actor must refrain from thinking too much and
begin to reply to an untainted instinct. Meisner Defining a character’s background and this
technique aims to purge the actor from any background affects the character’s choices,
inhibitions and pretentions. Tentions. The very emotions, responses and views.
reason for this is to make the actor open and
Talking and observing people who have the same
responsive to any situation given to him or her.
experiences that your character has.
Meisner actors
Creating one feeling of a character and allowing
those emotions to change into connected or
The Meisner Technique comprises of three diverse feelings, certainly moving to the
distinctive exercises and these are the Emotional character’s emotional experiences.
Preparation, Repetition, and improvisation. These
These steps enable the actor to develop a unique,
three mechanisms the perform. If an actor
holistic understanding on the character’s
focuses the help actors to observe their partenery
emotions and the circumstances around them.
recall or practice. If an actor focuses on moment
instead of depending on on and repetition, they
can hailding off to creative emotional
Repetition Exercise
preparation, improvisaependable to organic
acting building off from other actors The Repetition Exercise helps the actor in
responding appropriately. Aside from doing
dialogue rehearsals, a pair of actors practices the
Emotional Preparation repetition of Meisner Technique facing each
other. They will repeat a phrase over and over
This is basic in Meisner technique because
again while making on what the other actor say on
Meisner thought that actors are obliged to
each repetition. Though the utterance remains
develop in the character’s life the so called
the same, the actors differ in their force, tone, and
“imaginary circumstances An actor must
feelings while doing the exercise. The very reason
illustrate a vast emotional experience of the
for the repetition exercise is to guide the actors far
character to make it more interesting. You should
from their well-being so that it will promote
know what makes the character happy, what
realness and impulsiveness in the process.
conflicts cause the movement of the character
Using this exercise, the actor emphasizes the
fundamental emotions of the real utterance of
PRACTICAL AESTHETICS ACTING TECHNIQUE
the script. Instead of working on pretense acting,
the actor should focus on that somebody which is The practical aesthetics method was a derivative
your character and the realness and feelings as of the methods and techniques of Stanislavski,
you do the utterance, Meisner, änd Epictetus. This technique was
created by David Mamet and William H. Macy.
This exercise can move to advance stages. The
Mamet was an American playwright and Macy
actors can add actions to the dialogue. This
was an American director. They both created the
allows a more composite connection with the
technique based on their observations of the
actor to develop. Meisner’s technique teaches
three inspirations.
actors to respond appropriately to a variety of
circumstances occurring at various points in time
in complete reality.
In this method the actor chunks a scene into four
steps called the Four Elements of Practical
Aesthetics which are 1) The “Literal”, 2) The
Improvisation
“Want”, 3) The “Essential Action”, and 4) The “As
Improvisation, which lets a person act before the If.”
can think, has an important part in Meisner
The “Literal”: The vital and basic portrayal of what
Technique. Meisner’s improvisation technique
is going on. It asked the question, “What
involves actors performing the actions of the
“Literally” is happening with your character within
characters developed via instinct and expressive
the scene?”. For example, “My character is
construction. Improvisation enables you to enter
literally dying with cancer and is 5 months
a situation spontaneously and react in the
pregnant’
character’s manner without relying on a set of
lines. Actors who excel at the Repetition Exercise
can provide excellent spontaneous responses
The “Want”: This is when one character
even without words and in between lines,
eventually needs the other actor to utter or act. It
whenever an improvisation scenario is
asked, “What does my character want from the
presented.
other person within the scene?”. For example: ‘I
want the other character to feel pity for me for my
situation.”
CHEKHOV TECHNIQUE
The "Essential Action": This Is the ultimate longing
The nephew of Anton Chekov, Michael
that tells the exact and important characteristic
Chekhov, developed his own technique in acting.
of what your character needs within the part. The
He was a Stanislavski trained actor and learned a
actor in this step must refine the presented
lot from the master. With the training, he felt that
situations and movements of the character to a
his acting was too naturalistic. His technique is to
universally accepted human longing that the
touch the subconscious mind and the wisdom of
script is telling him. For example; if your ‘Want’ is
the acceptability of people
‘I want the other character to feel pity for me for
The technique commands bodily exercises to get my situation.” The universally accepted human
into these ideas. The psychological gesture longing is “I want my other character to be
exercises personalize the actor in an inner longing strong.”
into the action. When an actor uses this exercise
The "As If": This step has connection with the
repeatedly, he/she can use it to re-internalize the
actor’s own experiences in his/her life. Among the
feelings created from the physical gestures and
four steps, this is the most difficult because what
the actor can apply S them to his/her acting. S
if the character is totally opposite the actor's. The
Even if this technique is based on Stanislavski’s actor has to go deeper on the “AS If of the
method, this is unique in the sense that it exercise. For example, “It’s as if God takes away
emphasizes the physical aspect and less the two very important people in the husband’s
realness in the acting. But the portrayal of reality life.”
is leveled up. As Michael Chekov puts it, a real
artist holds in them a deep- rooted and
sometimes an insensible longing for change.
These four elements are mostly refurbished from doing so, you will discover more of your acting
Stanislavski’s methods and his magic “IF.” When prowess.
an actor uses this technique, he must engross
himself/herself into the character’s environment
and world.

UTA HAGEN TECHNIQUE

Another Stanislavski’s disciple created a

technique based on his method and she was Uta
Hagen. She was a professional film and theater
actress and became a well- known mentor in
acting. Uta Hagen wrote and published a lot of
books on acting in which her most popular book
was Respect for Acting. She was working at the
Herbert

Berghorf Studio in New York City. Her technique is

all about inspiring the actors to se substitution
which is the same as emotional memory recall.
The actors use real experiencees instead of the
make-believe happenings in the script. Hagen
thought that in doing this the actors can make a
really accurate expressive response.

VIOLA SPOLIN TECHNIQUE

Calling her exercises as the Theater Games, Viola

Spolin based her technique improvisation.
Spolin’s technique revolves around different
created games inspire actors to use. These
games were created to motivate perfende
attentive onstage, making choices much like they
would in real life.

Viola Spolin became a great influencer of the

improvisational theater revolution America even
if her technique is being inspired by a lot of actors.
Until now Viola Spolin’s technique is still used by
the Second City actors in Chicago, Illinois in the
United States of America.

Many actors today use a lot of methods and

techniques to produce feelings and make
substantial and realistic characters. Even if the
methods discussed in this lesson have their own
unique structures only a handful of actors use a
single kind of technique. Acting is an ever-flowing
training, you can mix other techniques to be able
to achieve a certain goal. If an actor uses an
exclusive acting technique his creativity will not
flourish. Test the waters with other techniques
and always challenge yourself in putting yourself
on new trends of methods and techniques. In