FEDERAL UNIVERSITY LAFIA

P.M.B 146, LAFIA

DEPARTMENT OF THEATRE AND MEDIA ARTS
1st Semester 2013/2014 Session

Course: TMA 112: BEGINNING THEATRE/MEDIA DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY

Load: 2 CREDITS

Lecturer: PROFESSOR D.M ENNA

COURSE OUTLINE

This course will introduce students to the basic elements and principles of stages/screen design
and lighting, it shall provide the students working definitions and scope of the various arms of
theatre design like costume, make-up, lighting, sound, and scenery. Students shall understand
the difference between stage properties and scenery as well as the role of the designer in
facilitating a good theatre/screen production.

Students will visit various types of theatre types and studios to have a practical knowledge of
stages, stage areas, and studios and their relationship and demands to performances and
production.

The course will be taught in the following modules

1. Introduction.
 The Concept of Theatre
 The nature of theatre
 Design; brief History
 Theatre and Media
 Design and technology in theatre and Media
 Function of Design in Theatre and Media Production
2. Areas of Design and Technology
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 Scene design
 Costumes
 Lighting
 Sound
 Stage Management
 Scenery
 Properties
3. Element and Principles of Design
Elements

 Tine
 Dimension
 Movement
 Light
 Colour
 Texture
Principles

 Unity
 Balance
 Movement
 Harmony
 Control
Types of stages/Performance Space

 Arena/Theatre in the round

 Open Air
 Proscenium
 Thrust Stage
 Rehearsal Studio
 TV Recording Studio
4. Major Design Personnel and Their Functions

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 Scenic Design
 Technical Director
 Costumer
 Property Crew Head
 Light Designer
 Maker-up Designer
 Sound Designer
(b) The Stage Manager

(c) Stage/Media Effects

5. The Design Process

 The Production Concept
 The Directorial Style/Approach
 Script Interpretation
 Design Research
 Harmony of set, costumes, lighting, scenery
6. Theatre Registers and Stage Geography
7. Technology and Design: Emerging Issues
8. Practical Session:
Floor Plan
Model
Costume
Lighting
Sound
Course Format

Each lecture session is expected to be interactive. Students are expected to seek clarifications
and contribute in class discussions. Continuous assessment will be given in the form of tests

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 and assignments. Students will also be required to design a floor plan and model for a play as
part of practicum.

Assessment
Test 15 Marks
Practicum 15 Marks
Examination 70 Marks
Total 100 Marks

Recommended Reading

1. W. Oren Parker and H.K. Smith, Scene Design and Stage Lighting. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1979
2. A.M. Nagler. A Source Book in Theatrical History. New York: Dover Publication Inc. 1959.
3. Campell, Drew. Technical Theatre for Nontechnical People. New York: Allworth Press, 2007.
4. Gillette, J. Micheal. Theatrical Design and Production. califonia, Calif.: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
5. Parker, W. Oren, and R. Craig Wolf. Scene Design and Stage Lighting. New York: Harcourt Brace,
1996.
6. Gillette, J. Micheal. Designing with Light. Califonia, Calif .: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
7. Walne, Graham. Projection for the Performing Arts. Oxford: Focal Press, !995.
8. Kaye, Deena, and James Lebrecht. Sound and Music for Theatre. New York: Backstage Books,
1992.
9. James, Thurston. The Theatre Props Handbook. Cincinnati: Betterway Books, 1990.
10. Ionazzi, Daniel. The Stage Management Handbook. Cincinnati: Betterway Books, 1992.
11. Ingham, Rosemary, and Liz Covey. The Costume Designer’s Handbook (2nd ed.). Portsmouth,
N.H.: Heinemann, 1992.
12. Ionazzi, Daniel. The Stagecraft Handbook. Cincinnati: Betterway Books, 1996.
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13. Rossol, Monona. Stage Fright: Heath and Safety in the Theatre. New York: Allworth Press, 1991.
14. Ingham, Rosemary. From Page to Stage. Wordsmith, N.H.: Heinemann, 1998.

INTRODUCTION

One of the factors that distinguish the theatre from other art forms is its synthetic
nature. Its forms are a manifestation of the creativity of the playwright,
actor/actress, musician, designer and so on. This “collaborative” art form can
however be compartmentalized into two distinct areas of input: technical and
artistic.

The artistic area specifically refers to the “animate” contribution in the areas of
acting and directing. On the other hand, the technical area refers to the
“inanimate” embellishments given to a theatrical production. The production
staffs of this area are not usually a part of the final representation to the
audience, though the same can be said of the director. The case of the director is
however different because he unifies both the artistic and technical elements of
the production.

Staff in the technical area of a production are usually referred to as the backstage
staff, and they are not usually on stage to receive the ‘cheers’ and “boos” of a
production as the actors. The backstage department therefore forms the subject
of our discussion.

While the term technical theatre can be used to describe this important division
of a theatrical production, “design” gives us a truncative but clearer vision of the
professional nature of the field.

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Design in the theatre exists to give visual interpretation and substance to the
performed story and action by creating the appropriate atmosphere and space for
the action.

It is the visual interpretation of the script and playwrights ideas in terms of space,
atmosphere and visual symbols. It therefore serves the theatre as an
interpretative medium.

The theatre designer is not necessarily a fine artist, though being talented in that
area is of added advantage. His creativity and talent are used in the
conceptualization of a form that is necessarily determined and impelled by a
given idea. In other words, though the designer needs to be imaginative, the
design is not supposed to be the contraption of his romantic and abstract
inspiration. The design is compelled by the form, content, style of the play, and
the directorial principle, concept and approach.

As part of the theatrical complex, design is collaborative. The designer therefore

works with other artistes to achieve a unified theatrical effect. A theatrical
production is guided by the desire to produce meaning and communicate with
the audience. There is therefore the need to carefully arrange the motley
ingredients that go into the production of this meaning. The designer, thought
part of the production executives that decide the central idea of the production,
must yet work as a subordinate of the director. The designer, though responsible
for the visual images, must for example, recognize the financial constraints of the
production.

Furthermore, the designer must realize that excesses in terms of bogus

elaboration of painting, scenery, and lighting, might distract the form and the

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meaning of the production. The watchword in the design is to “complement that
performance and not replace it.”

Technical theatre is further sub-divided into three areas of design:

a) Scene design: This comprises the set (including drapes), pieces of Scenery, and
props (both trim and hand)
b) Costume Design and make-up
c) Lighting design

As practiced in Nigerian theatre today, it is difficult to find situations where

experts are employed to function in these different areas. In the university
theatre, we may have just one designer combining the roles of the other two,
while in the commercial theatre, the director may simply function as a designer.

The area of Design is compelling study if the student of the Nigerian stage and
media practice will continue to remain professional and economy -driven.
Students need to be equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills, and practice
in Design for theatre and media.

Historical Background

Considering the histrionics of the theatre, design is a relatively new area. Though
one can say that the costume factor has always been there, professional theatre
design is a 17th century antecedent. This period witnessed the conscious use of
professional scenic design in the theatre.

One cannot write a cursory historical account without the mention of the
pioneering efforts of the Bibiena family, who developed the perspective scene.
Before this time, Serlio Sebastiano (1475 – 1554), architect, painter, and ardent
student of Perruzzi, who was also very familiar with the works of Vitruvius,
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developed the theory of the vanishing point. This story was heavily informed by
the principle of symmetry. He particularly developed three basic permanent set
for three types of plays (a) the tragic (b) the comic (c) the satiric. He also stated in
his treatise published in 1611, that the illumination in the theatre should conform
to natural phenomenon of moonlight or sunshine.

Inigo Jones (1573 – 1652), English artist and architect contributed to the
development of the revolving stage which focuses on the use of the picture
frame. This emphasized the elaborateness of the scenic background of the
production.

After the above pioneers, mention must be made of Adophe Appia (lighting
Designer), John Melzicer, and contemporaries like Richard Pilbrow, (Lighting
Designer), Bob Mekke and Irene Shaf (Costume Designer).

From the Bibiena family to the crop of contemporary designers, a lot has
happened to the original concept of theatre design. From the singular act of the
performer being identified in a particular costume, it has grown into a complex of
its own, charged with the task of complementing a theatrical production in terms
of mood, and the creation of hitherto, unimaginable effects.

The antecedent of design and consequently, the designer as a major artist of the
theatre can be traced to four important historical developments: The industrial
revolution, the discovering of electric current, the emergence of the director in
theatre, and the evolution of the theatre into a profession and occupation.

The above factors atomized the society and yet made it sophisticated. This
sophistication also led to specialization. The theatre was not left out of this
syndrome. Each art and artist of the theatre became a factor. For quite some
time, scene designers competed for attention with the actors by making
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elaborate and some times, very bogus visual schemes that might have nothing to
do with the concept of the production.

It was this situation that groaned for a theatre artist that will unify the separate
elements of the production into an artistically and aesthetically meaningful
whole. Thus the emergence of the director.

George II, the Duke of Saxe Meineigen, is reputed to be the first professional
director that fought the star system and streamlined the artistic elements to
conform to a unified objective. This development also lifted theatre to a
professional status for his theatre required very long and strenuous rehearsals.
His performers therefore discovered a new field of sustenance.

Perhaps the greatest factor is the discovery of electrical energy by Alessandro

Volta (1745 – 1827). The 19th Century witnessed some breakthroughs in theatre
lighting. With the continuous improvement of this light medium it has emerged
as an outstanding area in design and technical theatre. In fact, for some
considerable time, lighting has been the major area of growth in the theatre.

The malleable potentials of light have introduced a new dimension to the theatre.
Today, theatre without lighting is inconceivable. However, the Nigerian
experience has been slightly different. From its first-ritualistic origins are
developed several traditions of theatre and drama.

The secularized Alarinjo travelling theatre and the elitist university art theatres
are the most vibrant today, though one has noticed the new tendency for
university theatre graduates to start theatre troupes that die off, soon as such
graduates gain employment. Along these, the indigenous performances are still
occasional crowd-pullers of the various communities.

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 The history of such performances shows little evidence of professionalism in the
area of design. For the travelling theatres, with very little exceptions, the owner
of the troupe, who is usually the director, playwright, is also the designer. The
indigenous theatrical forms still rely heavily on the natural phenomenon of
daylight and moonlight.

The university-based theatres and perhaps the National Theatre, as well as, some
of the States’ Art councils are the only institutions that have embraced technical
theatre as a professional field. We will now take a look at the contemporary
trend of design so as to be able to properly appraise the above institutions in their
practice of technical theatre.

FUNCTIONS OF DESIGN

Contemporary design in the theatre functions to increase the audience’s

understanding of both the emotional and intellectual contents of production. The
designer’s aim is to clarify, intensify the meaning and concept of the production.

The designer is therefore principally concerned with the manipulation of the

elements of design to achieve such desired effects in the production of symbolic
visual images. These functions are specifically.

a) to create a conducive physical background for the production (This implies

scenery, furniture, props, exits and entrances).
b) to establish the period, place and time of action
c) to establish the mood (dominant) in the production
d) to re-enforce the theme
e) to establish the style of the performance; and
f) to stage performance

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This means that the movement of the performance (scene changes transitions,
etc) must be taken into cognizance, when designing. It is usually referred to as
the production scheme. Important decisions concerning the use of simultaneous
or multiple staging devices, as well as who removes or places what piece of
scenery on stage (stage hands), are taken into account.

PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

A crucial factor is that the designer must decide the area of focus and emphasis at
each moment of the performance and direct the audience’s attention to such
areas by carefully assembling the elements of design.

The art of assembling the elements of design into a unified form that will attract
and sustain interest as well as create meaning is the art of composition.

It is important to note that theatre is bilateral in nature. Bilateral in the sense

that it is both spatial and temporal. While it resembles painting, sculpture and
architecture in its organization of visual images and appeals, it is not static. In
composition therefore, the elements of design-line, dimension, movement, light,
colour and texture, are subject to the same principles of design utilized in the
spatial arts: unity, balance, movement, harmony, and contrast.3

These elements and principles are the techniques and devices that are at the
disposal of the contemporary theatre designer which have made it possible for
the designer to fulfill complementary roles in a production. The elements and
principles are effectively utilized in all the three major areas: scenery, lighting,
costume and make-up.

Light and movement are very crucial elements in the theatre, while line and
colour posses a great theatrical force. These ever-expanding technical areas have

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 also developed an intricate division of labour for the back stage staff. To achieve
their set objectives, the technical staff needs to understand their interrelated
duties as well as a closer attention to the issue of timing. Special attention is paid
to minute details to avoid over reliance on technology. This is a brief summary of
the various duties of the back-stage staff, because it is important to note that the
duty of the theatre designer does not end with the technical drawings. The
execution of the design is his responsibility.

MAJOR DESIGN PERSONNEL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

(a) The Scene Designer

The scene designer is responsible for the visual interpretation of the script. It is
important that the director chooses a scene designer after selecting a script. This
is crucial because the technical department of a production gulps a sizable
amount of the production budget. His preliminary research into the period,
architecture, locale and style of the play will therefore inform budgeting and the
production style.
The scene designer is specifically responsible for (1) a scaled flood plan, (2)
perspective sketches (3) models (4) working drawings and painter’s elevation for
construction and painting crews (5) the colour scheme. He also determines the
appropriateness of the size of trim props and their weight.
Furthermore, the scene designer explains the designs to all the other heads, and
helps in supervising the execution of such designs. The scene designer, being the
back stage staff that attends the meeting where the production concept is
decided, is responsible for the visual images and appeal of the production. His
designs are therefore supposed to unify the other efforts of the technical staff.

(b) The Technical Director

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 If the scene designer is responsible for the conceptual framework for the design,
the technical director is responsible for its actualization. The technical director
takes over from the scene designer and now takes leadership of both the
personnel and materials needed for the execution of the designs.
The first assignment is to supervise the effective layout of the floor plan so as to
enable performers to be familiar with the space available for their movements.
The technical director’s next assignment is perhaps to carefully constitute crews
for the following technical areas:
a) Scene construction
b) Scene painting
c) Stage crew (stage hands)
d) Property crew
e) Lighting crew
f) Sound crew

The technical director also makes all supplies needed for the smooth operation of
the above crews. His job, after constituting the crews, is to ensure their
effectiveness. He therefore assumes the position of a foreman in the theatrical
production process. He organizes time-outs for the different crews, to ensure
precision and a hitch free operation of the equipment (especially lights).

The final duty of the technical director is to check wastefulness and fraud. He
strikes the set and its accessories as well as other equipment after the final
production.

(c) Costumer
This is the oldest area of technical theatre. The costumer studies the period and
style of each character’s costume. This is a very important aspect of design,
because the costume expresses at first appearance, a character’s status, situation
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 and relationship to others in the performance. Costume must also not hamper
stage movements. The costumer, in reality, should be able to cut sew costumes
after getting the approval of the director and designer based on sketches that
must have been presented. All the colors must agree to the color scheme of the
scene designer. The costume designer then makes a costume plot and arranges
with the director, for a costume parade where the appropriateness and fitness of
costumes are cross-checked.
It is also the duty of the costumer to operate within the provision of the budget.
Decisions as to whether to rent or make new costumes are taken. It is the duty of
the costumer to retrieve all costumes, return borrowed ones and after laundry,
store the costumes. The costumer can also hire hands to dress performance
when necessary.

(d) Property Crew Head

Because both trim and hand props must conform to the period, style, and
furniture of the particular area of the play, it is expected that the props crew head
must conduct some research into those areas. The location of all furniture and
draperies are important factors. The style, size, color and function of each prop
must be carefully considered. The head of the property crew must attend all
rehearsals so as to ensure the presence of all needed props. The head must also
note the uses of all props and their purposes. He is responsible for the purchase
or renting of all needed properties.
During the rehearsal and the performances, it is the duty of the property crew
head to set up a prop table backstage near the entrance, and to remind
actors/actresses to what props they need to carry on to stage. He also ensures
that all edible and therefore perishable props, are not contaminated. It is the

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 final responsibility of the property crew head to retrieve all props, return all
rented items, and store the rest in the props room.

(e) The Lighting Designer

The lighting designer plays a crucial role in the production. The final effect of a
design is determined by the lighting, because the primary function of light is to
reveal a form.
The lighting designer must therefore be very familiar with the mood, time of day,
principal acting areas, lighting effects required, motivated sources of light and
other special effects required for the production. He designs the lighting plot,
emphasizing action area and intensities as well as, colours required for each scene
and bit of the play. Furthermore, he rigs all the lights following the instrument
layout and specifies which numbers on the dimmer, control such lights. He makes
a lighting cue sheet for precision. He also conducts a lighting rehearsal to
synchronize the colour from the instruments and the colour from the costumes in
order to make sure that they correspond to the colour scheme of the production.
Though the lighting designer, after rigging and focusing of instruments, may hand
over the cue sheet to any technician to control the dimmer, it is important that he
remains during the production to make sure nothing disturbs the smooth
execution of the lighting plot. It is also necessary that the designer should have
some knowledge of electricity, electrical equipment and appliances. In a situation
of deficiency, it is necessary that there should be an electrician in the lighting
crew. After the production, it is important that all the lighting plots and designs
should be filed for future references.

(f) Make-up Crew Head

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 The make-up artists make comprehensive research into make-up and hairstyles
suggested in the play. Decisions as to wigs, beard and period of the play are
made after conferring with the director who decides on the desired shadows and
special effects in make-up for the production. The make-up artists also find out
the age of each character in the play. Haircuts and head measurement of all
performers that need caps and head gears must be taken. The head of the make-
up crew trains crew on how to apply make-up on whom and when. After
production, the actors must be cleaned-up by the crew.
(g) Sound Crew Head
He reads the script and notes all manual and recorded sounds. Effects are also
recorded and cued on precision. All music cues are noted and the volume of each
fixed. A master tape of all the sounds is also made for protection. Crew members
must learn all manual effects and reproduce them at rehearsals and ultimately,
during the production. Finally, the crew head ensures the storage of all
equipment and tapes used.

APPRAISAL OF THE NIGERIAN SITUATION

From our review of the functions of design in the theatre so far, it is even clearer
to us now the need for the proper harnessing of the technical factors of
production to ensure a successful theatrical piece. To further substantiate this
point; most architectural designs of our theatres are done without consultations
with directors and theatre designers.

Unfortunately, the situation in Nigeria is not too encouraging. Studies have

proved that the African theatre is still very much participatory and vibrant even
when the spectator is distanced from the performance. Instead of allowing the
emerging theatre designers to suggest, based on the forms of our theatre, the
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best architectural designs that will accommodate our production, policy makers
dump western prototypes that at best, restrict the potentials of African plays.

The implication of the above is that we seem to be transplanting a foreign theatre

concept. Even with that, we have failed to provide the requisite technological
infrastructures accompanying such costly edifices.

Lighting for example, is the greatest aesthetic factor in contemporary technical

theatre. Indeed the era of mere illumination of the stage is over, because of the
ever developing lighting technology which can create natural effects in the
theatre.

Stage lighting has come to be the most expressive, malleable and unobstructive
element in the theatre of today. Unfortunately, Nigerian theatre has so much
neglected this design area, with theatre groups using uncontrollable lighting bulbs
and fluorescents. The universities that were able to purchase some lighting
instruments, some fifteen years ago are incapable of replacing them with modern
ones. Thus, they are left with unserviced and outdated equipment.

Of further importance is the fact that the technology of lighting develops so fast
that these equipment are totally out of fashion. As a matter of fact, most of them
do not perform any function beyond illumination of the performance. The
production therefore suffers a lot of disadvantages in terms of what
contemporary lighting can offer.

This is quite disappointing because present technological development in the area

of lighting is supposed to be most useful to the aesthetics of African theatre. The
African concept of religion and philosophy of existence is closely tied to
supernatural phenomena. This is expressed through the use of charms, magic,
evil spirits, and so on. Individuals claim control of natural phenomena like rain,
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moon, sun, thunder and lighting. Even if it is for the purpose of debunking this
belief system and world view, it is necessary to recreate them in the theatre so as
to display their negative effects. The popular film medium has been able to
achieve this because of the versatility of the medium.

These effects are in most theatres outside the country. With them, it is possible
to stimulate most types of natural phenomena in the theatre. This will make the
live theatre a much more viable industry that will be able to compete with the
cinema and television, which tend to atomize the audience and reduce the
uniqueness of the African theatre experience.

Apart from the lack of lighting equipment, there is the dearth of trained
manpower in this area. The university departments of Theatre Arts might have
foreign trained personnel in this area (these are quite few), their skills are
knowledge and largely wasted. They have to concentrate on the theories because
the right facilities for training the students are not available. The few students
that might be masturbated by this theoretical knowledge find it difficult to go out
for further studies.

For the travelling theatre troupes, the idea of a specialist designer is a luxury.
Where there is one, the attitude to the job is purely anti-professionalism. Lighting
is simply translated as the ability to switch light on and off. Lighting design in
Nigerian theatre is therefore being seriously neglected. This is against the
background that light can change the diminishing face of Nigerian live theatre.

Indeed, as an expert noted, our dramatists are yet to discover the potentialities of
lighting in promoting theatre.

The areas of costume and make-up can be said to be doing fairly well, and
performances have always relied on their rich cultural backgrounds. In the
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university theatres where the theatre practice is mostly for academic purposes
and therefore experimental in nature, elaborate costuming is sometimes
hampered by the under-funding of productions. The professional travelling
troupes however, make use of elaborate costumes.

An emerging trend is the fact that most of the troupes and infact the university
theatres, do not keep wardrobes or costume rooms. Performers are asked in
most cases to provide personal clothing that fit the characterization.

The area that has been treated very unprofessionally is make-up. It has been
reduced to face-powdering and lip-painting without giving attention to the
features of the performers face. In most cases, it is an affair between the make-
up artist and the individual performer without any regard to the colour scheme or
even the costumes of the actor. The worst hit is television performances.

In the university theatres, some attention is usually paid to the area of scene
design. Most of the theatre units also have permanent construction workshops.
The University of Jos, since its inception has always employed two carpentry and
construction staff. Where funds are available, productions are given appropriate
physical environments.

Conscious attempts should be made to train designers to complement the roles of

actors, choreographers and directors.

An emerging argument that tends to support the shoddy practice of theatre in

terms of design is the “theatre of poverty” concept. This is largely influenced by
the experiments of Jerzy Grotowski, Peter Brooks, and others. The point of
emphasis is that the practitioners preach a functionalist ideology for the theatre.
This trend is very welcome, but the Nigerian or African theatre does not need to
strip itself of theatrical embellishments to be functional.
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THEATRE / STAGE REGISTERS AND GEOGRAPHY

Like every other profession Theatre and Stage Craft has unique language use or its
own registers. Thus in contextual sense, a word may have its ordinary meaning
and stage meaning and usage.
Theatre here refers to the building, or any place where performance takes place.
However most of the things we will be defining here are much more commonly
associated with a typical western-style theatre complete with building and a
stage.
Theatrical Configuration
Broadly classified into three:

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Proscenium Stage: This is typically referred to as a square box stage with the
fourth wall off for the audience to peep through. This is the stage that is found in
a typical western inspired theatre. Normally the stage is raised higher than the
audience area. There is also a gap between the stage and the audience. This is
the stage with the lowest rapport with the audience. Because the proscenium
stage does not require or demand any interaction or response from the audience,
it is considered as being alien to the African concept of theatre.
Thrust Stage: As the name implies, this is a kind of stage that extends in part to
the audience area. A portion of the stage thrusts into the audience sitting area.
What distinguishes it from the proscenium is just that portion that comes into the
audience. Level of intimacy is also higher here, since a performer can occasionally
come forward into the audience area and take some actions.
Arena or theatre in the Round: This is a typical African Stage where audience sits
on all sides and performers are in the middle. Highest level of rapport with the
audience is attained here. Here also, the western conventional acting rules like
not backing the audience are broken or ignored because the performer has to at
any given time, back a portion of the audience. Communication in the African
theatre setting is based on more than the physical acting enactments of the
performers. Aesthetic communication is registered at several levels of artistic
manifestation. It may be with the eyes or the modulation of the voice. It may be
symbolic in essence through the symbolic meaning of the costumes and props.
Sometimes music and songs in communication will demand response in chorus.
Studio theatre is built in the Arena form, although in most performances, the
stage is between proscenium and thrust. The arena appears germane to almost
all primordial theatre traditions such as the abuki and noh.
Auditorium: This is where the audience sits. Students should remember the
various sitting configurations ranging from the conventional, continental,

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orchestra, balcony (balcons), lounge to the boxes. The development of the
configurations can be identified at various stages of the history of western
theatre.
Box Office: This is where tickets are obtained. As the name suggests, it is
normally a small cubicle in most theatres where the ticket seller collects money
and passes tickets across to people through a small hole (box). This is done
mainly to shield him from pressure and undesirable elements who may want to
cause confusion. Some theatres have rest rooms for audience, public telephone
and water fountains, as well as refreshment vendors for audience convenience.
Proscenium Arch: This divides the audience from the stage and it is the arch
across which the audience views the play. It is often called a picture stage. This is
also a “lost wall” which enables the audience to see what is on stage.
Apron: This is part of the stage in front of the curtain. In other word the
extension of acting floor beyond the proscenium frames.
The main curtain: Also called house tabs, front tabs or act drops, is made of heavy
velvet material and is positioned behind the iron curtains.
Safety or Iron Curtain: This comes down from the flies in front of the curtain and
is usually made of asbestos or iron to cut off fire from the audience. During an
intermission, the curtain comes down and right there, there will be words of
assurance to the audience that they are safe.
Tormentors and Teaser: As the proscenium opening is part of the architecture of
the theatre, it is of fixed proportion. The need to have fittings which are
adjustable, to fit the scale of productions is solved by the tormentors and the
teaser. For this reason the teaser and tormentors framing members are located
immediately upstage of the proscenium opening. The tormentors are on the right
and left vertically while the teaser is on top masking or horizontal shape.

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Prompt Side: An actor is helped to recall his lost line(s) from his side. It is
normally left of the players’ side of the theatre. Prompting should however not
become permanent substitutes for badly learnt lines.
Bastard Prompt: This is when the prompt side is on the right in a case where a
heavy equipment that can’t be moved is on the left side.
Orchestral Pit: It may be 10 – 12 feet in width and may extend the full length of
the proscenium. If the pit is permanent, the depth is usually determined by the
height of the stage floor above the auditorium floor and above the eye level of
the front row of the audience. It is desirable that the pit be deep so that the
musicians and their instruments do not obstruct the view of the stage.
Cyclorama: The white or sky coloured backdrop on which light rays for effects, or
rays from film projectors fall. It is often made of baft materials.
Wings: Parts of the stage the right and left of the audience view. This can also be
achieved with one or more flats hinged at angles used as entrances and exits.
Sometimes, actors appear and disappear into and from here for short scenes
during a performance. They also conceal backstage areas and machinery.
Strike a Set: Order normally by the stage manager for stage hands to remove an
object or objects from the stage. Some stage hands make a beautiful work of this
while others make a sluggish work of this and mess up a good show.
Back Stage: The part of the stage – left, right and rear which is not seen by the
audience. The dressing, props, and waiting rooms and also included in this
definition. A place of absolute discipline.
Offstage: Sounds or words uttered out of the audience view but are part of the
performance. This could be simulated sound to help an actor on stage or sound
effects to aid action on stage.
Green Room: Normally situated in most theaters directly behind the stage. This is
the last place the actor stays before the performance once he is in costume to

23
 rest and concentrate and keep out of audience view. It is not theatre discipline to
parade the costume you are going to wear before your audience hours before the
curtain rolls for the production to start.
Cue: This is the last word or action on stage or off it to propel action or terminate
it. Thus a cry could come from offstage or a gunshot to enable an actor in or out
of the stage. When cues come properly and at the right moment, it could make a
production harmonious, poor ones could make actors look stupid on stage. Cues
prompt the next line of speech or action.
Blocking: This has two (2) meanings
a. Planning movements and actions in the play. Thus you could have blocking
rehearsals where the director gives specific movements and actions to actors, as
opposed to reading rehearsals where actors just read through, searching for
meanings through words and lines.
b. Blocking is also the determination of locations of exits, entrances, pieces of
scenery and their usage on stage.

Masking: This is one of the biggest problems of the beginning actor. Often clumsy
movements take them behind or in front of another actor thereby preventing
themselves or the obstructed players’ action from being seen.

Stealing: The remedy for masking or blocking is stealing. Here the actor takes a
step or two away from his masked or masking position to free himself or the
other actor. Care must be taken that you don’t stall and mask another actor or
yourself all over. Also the direction you steal must be in harmony with your next
action. You don’t steal to the left when you are supposed to relate with the actor
to your right in your speech.

Stage Geography: Normally, the director gives instructions as to the directions of

movements to the actor by referring to the different stage areas. The performer
24
is supposed to be conversant with this stage geography if the director is not going
to go into the trouble of jumping on stage each time to show the actor the
direction and exact position he wants him to move to.

This is represented diagrammatically here:

USR USC USL

CSR CS CSL
DSR DSC DSL

KEY
USR Up Stage Right
USC Up Stage Centre
USL Up Stage Left
CSR Centre Stage Right
CS Centre Stage
CSL Centre Stage Left
DSR Down Stage Right
DSC Down Stage Centre
DSL Down Stage Left

This diagram shows the division of the stage into nine acting areas from the
actors’ perspective. The strongest areas of the stage will naturally be the centre,
preferably towards the audience where all people sitting in the audience have the
advantage of seeing every bit of the action. The sides to the left and right
constitute the wings, and the space in front before the audience is our apron,
mentioned earlier.

25
1. Scenic/lighting Vocabularies
The visual representation of the settings, the costumes, makeup and the
placement of lighting instruments constitute a vital aspect of the production.
Students may know the following about the two important aspect of the theatre
in addition to ones discussed earlier.
Boat Trunk: A low wheeled platform on which a piece of scenery is built so that it
can be moved into position. It is used in scene changes.
Floor Plan: Drawing showing how exactly the scene will look. The measurement
used is usually indicated such that a designer can take it anywhere and construct
the same set.
Masking: Not to be confused with masking in acting/action of the actor. This is
any piece of scenery used to conceal backstage from the audience.
Set Piece: Sceneries which stand by themselves. This could be a tree, rocks, walls
etc., very common in naturalistic settings.
Places: Ordering of cast and crew to get to their positions. Most directors due the
influence of media talk of standby.
Flat: Wooden frame usually covered with canvass used as the basic unit of
structure of a box set.
Cable: Heavily insulated wire for joining instrument to electrical outlets or a
switchboard.
Colour Frame: Metal holders which fit into a lighting instrument to keep a colour
filter in place.
Dimmer: Electrical device which controls the amount of current flowing into a
lighting instrument. This can be used to increase or decrease the intensity of
light.
Flood Lights: Strip lights along the front of the apron to throw light up, toward the
acting area. They provide general illumination.

26
Follow Spot: A long range high voltage (1,000 – 2,600 watts) lighting instruments
capable of picking up or following an actor moving on the stage with a beam
enough to stand out against normal stage lighting.
Fresnel Spot: A lightly efficient spotlight featuring a fresnel or stepped lens
designed in a series of concentric circles which projects a clear, strong light with
soft edge.
Gelatin and Glass Roundels: Transparent colour media placed on light
instruments to produce different colours.
Kill: The command to turn a light off.
Light Cue Sheet: The lighting technician’s guide for all dimmer readings and
settings at act or scene openings and all the lighting changes.
Light Plot: Diagram showing the placing of the instrument and pluggings system,
and where the beams from all the instruments fall.

27
Scenic Design: Space,
Texture, and the
"Big Statement

Culled and edited from ;TECHNICAL THEATRE –for nontechnical people

By DREW CAMPBELL.

People come to the theater to see actors perform! So why do we persist in

thinking that we have to have a truckload of scenery onstage? Just because a play
takes place in Versailles does not mean we have to have the Hall of Mirrors,
complete with cascading cherubim, just to get the idea across.
Somebody once told me that a set designer has five seconds to get his point
across, "because that's how long the audience will look at the scenery." Granted, I
have heard some gasps come out of the audience when the curtain went up, but
if the performances did not carry the show, the audience was just as bored as if
the scenery were made of cardboard. We all love to watch the chandelier crash
down on the stage in Phantom of the Opera, but we don't walk home humming
the scenery-we remember the actors and their performances. We must have a
gene kicking around in our collective pool that keeps telling us, "You're doing a
28
show. You must build scenery." That has been the normal thought pattern for
most of this century, after all, and even with the development of other design
areas, we all have a tendency to fall back on scenery.
When modern theatrical design really began around the turn of the twentieth
century, the entire playing field belonged to the scenic designers. Lighting was in
its infancy, costumes were still being handled by the actors themselves, and
sound had not been invented yet. This situation persisted until after World War II,
when the costume designers began to gain prominence, showing their talents in
the immense musicals of the period, such as Camelot and My Fair Lady. Later, in
the sixties, lighting began to come into its own when the position of lighting
designer was created as a separate entity from the stage electrician. In fact, with
the advent of the rock-and-roll musicals (Hair, Jesus Christ Superstar), much of the
design emphasis moved to lighting. In the eighties, with an audience that had
become accustomed to movies, the sound designer became increasingly
important. Audiences demanded a more complete sound environment and actors
had to be clearly audible, even when speaking naturally. These days, actors use
microphones more than ever before, and more shows make use of "ambient"
sound-a constant stream of background sounds. Some people say that the growth
of amplification has gone hand in hand with the decrease in good vocal training,
but in my view, the growth of sound design-an abstract, emotionally evocative

29
medium-is a positive trend, bringing us back to what is truly important in the
theater: the imagination and the performer.
When dealing with scenery, the first and most important question you should
ask yourself is this: What is the show about? Then, ask yourself: What do we
need, what do we really need to get that point across to the audience? Often, the
answer might not even be scenic. A voice announcing departures can suggest
"airport," the shadows from sunlight through a window can say "drawing room,"
a uniform can indicate "police station." Even if the answer is scenic, constant
attention to that question-What is the show about?-can help you approach
scenery in an intelligent way that won't end up stressing your technicians, your
budget, or, most important, your show. After all, this is not Field or Dreams. Even
if you build it, they may not come.
. Rather, the purpose of this chapter is to help you see a script in a new, more
visual way, as well as to help you understand why stage designers make the
choices that they do. Scenic design can be thought of as the art of addressing
three issues: space, texture, and the "statement." Space and texture are the
practical, real-world ways that we create an environment onstage. However,
without grounding these practical pieces in a solid artistic concept, you may be
stuck with a grandiose pile of junk, totally inappropriate for your play. Let's start,
therefore, with the Big Picture and afterwards we'll talk about how to create it.

30
Along the way, I will also help you understand the most fundamental theatrical
drawings-floorplans, elevations, and renderings.

The Big Picture: The Statement

A designer I worked with in college always began a new production by finding one
defining object for that show in the real world. A few days after he started work
on A Streetcar Named Desire, we were walking down a street in Providence,
Rhode Island. It was winter, and the red brick colonials around us were frosted
with snow. Most of the houses had little neoclassical facades over their front
entrances and severe-looking paned windows with storm shutters. In short, it was
about as far as you could get from the steamy New Orleans inner city of Stanley
Kowalski and Blanche DuBois. Suddenly, he grabbed my arm and pointed. "Oh my
god, Streetcar!" he gasped. Following his arm, I looked for what had gotten him so
worked up, and sure enough, there was Streetcar. It was a tall, wrought-iron gate
that closed in front of a set of brick stairs. The iron was ornately, even
grotesquely, wound around the gate, giving a sense of great wealth, with a hint of
new money gone bad. Each vertical bar was capped with a little brass ball, and
the handles were two languid curlicues. Best of all, the whole thing was
completely rusted.
The next day we came back with the Polaroid and, for the entire design period,
we covered the walls of the studio with photos of that gate. Time and time again,

31
it pulled us back to what we really wanted to say about the play: the faded glory,
the grotesque sensuality, the decay. We did not always use these "inspiration
pieces" on the sets that they inspired, but this time, it was too good to pass up.
We built a perfect replica of that gate.
The Statement is the ultimate answer to the "What is the play about?"
question. It is the rallying point for all the designers. The Statement may be
visual (like the Streetcar gate), audible (like a piece of music, or Chekhov's
"plucked bow string" at the end of The Cherry Orchard), written (a word, a
speech), abstract or concrete, simple or complex, in the show or out of it.
The Statement may be a painting, a piece of junk, a pop reference, or a
newspaper article. Whatever it is, it gives the designers a place to start, and a
place to return to when they need inspiration.
This is not to say that any production can be boiled down in its entirety to
one sentence or object or thought.
The Statement is the talisman that the director gives to his flock. Discovering
it, expressing it, and sharing it are all things that the director must do to get
the ball rolling and keep it on the move.

How to Read a Script like a Set Designer

The first time you read a script, forget about designers. Just read it! Enjoy.
Visualize only if you want to. Follow the story and savor the characters. Read
32
the script like an audience member.
Once you have finished being an audience member, however, take that hat
off and put it away for a while. Now put on your designer hat and read the
script again.
The most important thing that the set designer is looking for in the scrip is
the number and kind of spaces that the show requires. The purpose of the
scenic design is to service the actors and the script. Don't start out trying to
make something that is visually impressive. Start by answering the question
"What kind of space do I need?"
As you read through the script with your set designer hat on, start making
lists. Make lists of locations. Is there more than one? Where are they? Are
they interior spaces or exteriors? Do they require doors or windows? What
kinds of specific physical objects do they require? Does the action require
more than one of them to be visible at once? What is mentioned specifically?
What is only suggested?
Sets break down into three rough groups and by the time you finish you:
read-through, you should have a pretty good idea which one fits your show
best. It is worth noting that each of these groups has its own set of difficulties
and none of them should be seen as "easier" to design or build than any
other.

33
The One-Set Show

This is a show that takes place in one location, like a bedroom, an office, or a
backyard. The set does not change, although furniture and props may be moved
around within it. These shows are generally more realistic, and have a fair amount
of detail on the set. One-set interiors-particularly those where the walls are built
to surround all three sides of the set-are often referred to as box sets.

The Multi-Set Show

Shows that move from location to location sometimes require fully realized sets
for each location. Large musicals such as Guys and Dolls are multi-set shows.
Often, the designer creates a surrounding "frame" of scenery, while inserting
different sets within the frame. For example, since Anything Goes taking place on
a ship, a designer might create a shiplike atmosphere with decks, railings, and
portholes, while changing walls around to create different rooms.
Multi-set shows aren't restricted to musicals, however. The nonmusical play
The Crucible takes place in four different locations. Again, these locations have a
common element: They are all rooms in wood-frame building: in Salem,
Massachusetts. The successful designer will tie them all together with common
elements, reducing the number of pieces that have to be
changed for each scene. The amount of detail on each set is usually less than for a
one-set show.

34
Multi-set shows also require time during the play to change scenery. Hence, they
are often written with the scene changes happening during intermissions. In the
case of musicals, there are often short scenes between the long ones. These
scenes, called in-ones, are made to be played in front a downstage curtain in
order to allow time for the scenery to be changed upstage. The name comes from
the term used to describe the scenic drop that flies in behind them. This is called
an "in-one drop" because it falls just behind the first set of drapery legs, the "in-
one" legs. (The second set of legs is called "in-two," the third set is called "in-
three," and so on.) Multi set shows are often the most expensive way to do
scenery.
Sometimes, multi-set shows will have more than one of the locations onstage
and visible to the audience throughout the show. This is necessary the play
changes quickly from location to location, as is sometimes the case when the
playwright actually wrote a movie script but is trying to make it work on stage.

The Unit Set

Another solution to scripts with multiple locations-the unit set-does not require
full-blown sets for each scene. Rather, the designer creates a space that will
accommodate lots of different scenes. Then, smaller pieces are added and
subtracted to communicate specific locations. Major scenic elements, like the
walls, do not change, while smaller elements-furniture, banners, window frames,
coffins, ship's wheels, and so forth-are added and subtracted. The plays of
35
Shakespeare are often done this way, particularly since Shakespearean stage
directions are rarely specific about locations: "A ship." "A grove." "Rome."
Unit sets have different areas on them that are used for different scenes. If
there are small, intimate scenes, then the designer must create some small,
intimate places, and the lighting designer must turn off the lights on all the other
areas. If there are crowd scenes, then there must be large, open spaces. The
space should be designed to be subdivided in as many ways as necessary. Unit
sets may tax the creativity of the design team, but they are often the most
rewarding solution, offering simplicity and low cost while maintaining the
atmosphere of the show.
Whether a show really needs full sets, as in the true multi-set approach, or
would be better served by a "unit" approach, is a stylistic decision as well as a
budgetary one. The flow of the show is critical: If you cannot create a multi-set
show without getting bogged down in lengthy scene changes, try a unit approach
instead.

The Backstage Survival Guide to Reading a Floorplan

I would not even do Thanksgiving dinner for my family without a floorplan. It is

the single most important drawing in the theater, and every single person on a
theatrical team should know and understand the floorplan. A floor-plan is how
people talk to each other about space.

36
Find the Theater

No, don't get up. I don't mean find the actual space. Locate it on the drawing. Find
the permanent part of the theater-the part that is always there, even when the
set is gone. Look for thick, dark shapes, possibly with cross- hatching inside them.
In a proscenium theater, find the proscenium. In a thrust or arena space, find the
audience or another landmark.
A floorplan can be understood as a bird's eye view of the stage after someone
came along with a gigantic chainsaw and sliced the roof off the theater. Actually,
the slice is usually taken about head high, that is, about five to six feet off the
stage floor. Any object that falls underneath the slice is shown as

Fig. 2. Sample floorplan.

a solid line. Anything above it is shown as a dashed line. Anything that the
37
chainsaw would actually cut through, like a wall, is shown as a heavier line
with the interior of any shape filled in with crosshatching. (This is why the
proscenium arch is drawn this way-the chainsaw would cut through it.)

Find the Centre Line

The center line is the beginning of all measurements in a theater space. Look
for a line that alternates between short and long dashes and ends at the
bottom of the drawing with a symbol that looks like this: C/L. The center line,
not surprisingly, runs down the center of the set, from upstage to
downstage. The plaster line runs across the set, connecting the two
proscenium arches. Technicians installing a set in a theater use the plaster
line and the center line to get the set in the right place, and you should
always find these first on any floorplan. Of course, there is no law that says
these two lines have to be on a drawing, but they should be there if you are
in a "real" theater and if the designer is theatrically trained. If these lines are
not present, you will have to move on to the next step to get your bearings.

Find the Major Scenic Elements

Locate the principal walls and platforms. Remember, if they are "above the
slice," that is, above the actor's head, they will be drawn as dashed lines.
Anything "below the slice" is drawn as a solid object.
38
Find the Heights

Heights on a set are usually measured from the "real" stage floor, that is, the
permanent floor, not whatever platforming is in the set itself. Heights are
usually shown in circles, with a "+" or a "-" to show how much that plat-
form is above or below the stage floor. A platform marked "+8" is eight
inches higher than the real stage floor, or one step up. A surface marked "-1'6" is
actually below the stage floor, so there must be an opening in the
floor. Pay close attention to heights, since they will radically affect the
performers' ability to move around the stage.

Look for Traffic Patterns

How will performers move around the stage? What alleyways exist for the
performers to move through? Are there places for long crosses? Are there
reasons to go to different parts of the stage? Is there a crossover?

Look for Doors and Windows

The floorplan should indicate which way they open, or if they open at all.

Pay Attention to Masking

Has the designer created enough walls or drapes so the audience won't be
able to see backstage? A good floorplan will have a little "+" sign in each
bottom corner showing the extreme sightline. This is the "worst" seat, the

39
seat that, through the combination of being way out to the side and close
to the stage, has the best view of the backstage area. There will be one on
either side of the auditorium. If you design the masking so these two people
cannot see backstage, then you probably have prevented everybody else
from seeing backstage as well.

Look for Moving Scenery

Any piece of rolling scenery should have more than one position marked,
usually an onstage position and an offstage one. Flying scenery will only
have one location marked (the onstage one), but it should be marked as a
flying piece.

Note! Even with a good floorplan, it may be necessary to ask the designer
to make a three-dimensional model. It is very difficult to imagine how a floor-
plan will translate into real objects. A model is the only way to really see how
things will play together onstage. Even if you have a model, however, you
must know and understand the floorplan. For one thing, in some situations,
you may never get the model, no matter how much you want it. In addition,
a floorplan is far more precise than a model, it contains real measurements,
and it can be folded up and put in your pocket.

40
Texture and Color: Giving the Show a "Look"

As you are reading the script, it is useful to try to imagine what kinds of
materials would be appropriate. It is this choice of materials that gives the
show its "look." Will you rely on painted muslin, or will you utilize three-
dimensional sculptures carved out of foam? What about scaffolding and
chain-link fencing? How about neon, vinyl, brick, or bales of hay? The list is
endless. It helps to come up with a list of adjectives that describe the feeling
you would like the set to convey to the audience. Make the adjectives as
colorful and descriptive as you can. "Comfortable" might describe a room,
but it may not tell the designer much. How about "academic," or "lived-in,"
or "like a rabbit burrow"?
The texture of the set is derived from the mood and atmosphere of the
script and characters. One thing to keep in mind about texture is how much
it disappears over distance. Most of the audience will be a long way away
from the scenery. If you put something textural on the stage and then step
back ten feet to admire it, you are not seeing what the audience sees. Step
back into the middle of the house and see how much of the texture actually
shows.
Color is another way of expressing texture, and all the same thoughts
apply. Color brings out emotional responses and, as such, can be discussed

41
with emotional adjectives. Again, stay away from "bright" and "dark." Try
"belching" or "pasty" or "aggressive."
Coordinating Texture in Scenery and Lighting

Different textures call for different lighting treatments, so be sure to keep the
lighting designer informed about how the scenery is going to look.
The direction of the lighting can reveal or destroy texture. Light coming
from straight ahead will wipe it out. Light coming from the sides, above, or
below will emphasize it.
Shiny textures and light colors may create problems for lighting, namely,
glare and bounce. A textured surface will tend to "eat" light and not allow it
to go anywhere else. Slick, smooth surfaces, especially floors, send the light
on its way toward surfaces that should not be lit. Glare is produced when a
light shining from upstage toward downstage-known as a back light-is
reflected into the audience's eyes by a shiny floor. It can be extremely distracting
to the audience. Bounce is the opposite: Light coming from down-
stage bounces off the floor and splashes onto the walls upstage.
To control bounce, you must tone down the color of the floor. To control
glare, you must tone down its shine.
The point is, shiny, light-colored sets make it difficult to isolate lighting. You may
not think that isolating lighting is an issue for your show, but it
almost certainly is. Isolation is how you steer the audience's eyes around the
42
stage. With a bright, shiny set, you will constantly end up with light where
you don't want it. Also, a shiny white stage will not go to blackout as easily
as a dark-colored one. You would be amazed at how much light a set can
pick up from an EXIT sign.
Be aware of the color wheel. Poor color combinations can be disastrous. As
you will read later on, color filters change light in lighting instruments by
subtracting colors, not by adding them. A light that has been colored red has
had all the other colors removed. If that red light hits a green surface, that
surface will turn black. There is no green in the light to reveal the green on
the surface.
Particularly offensive color combinations include red and green, blue and
amber, and yellow and lavender. In these mismatched situations, it is usually the
lighting that has to change-it is easier to change a color filter than to dye a
costume. Remember, though, that the colors have to be strong and pure to be a
problem. I solved the punk hair situation by just mixing in a little green light
around the edges.

Coordinating Texture in Scenery and Costumes

Scenery and costumes are also closely related. It is even more important to
coordinate them, since it is more difficult and time-consuming to make changes.
Some things to think about;

43
 It is important that the set and the costumes have similar palettes. This means
that the set and costumes are using related sets of colors and textures. Notice
that I did not say the same colors, just related ones. It can lead to
visual confusion if the set designer uses neon colors while the costume
designer is exploring earth tones. Of course, visual confusion may be just
what your show is about, but at least make the choice consciously. It often
helps if the set and costume designers can agree on a painting or two from
which they can extract a palette.
It is equally important that the set and costumes do not use the same
colors. While the designers should agree on a palette, they should use
different parts of it so the actors will not appear to fade away into the set.
Most at the time, this means the set should be darker than the costumes. The set
is not moving, the actor is. Therefore, the actors should get the brighter
colors to allow the audience to track them more easily. Above all, avoid
putting the exact same color on a wall and on a costume that stands in
front of it.

44
Below is an abridged and edited version of an original article by
Prof. S. E. Ododo, entitled; DESIGN PRACTICE IN THE NIGERIAN THEATRE.
Please read through for class discussion.

The evolving patterns of design practice in the Nigerian theatre can better be
appreciated when contextualized within the phases of their evolution. Besides,
every design practice, vis-a-vis approach and style, is a product of a theatre
tradition and performance style. This is so because design gives appropriate
character to a performance style before it can assume a distinct image. This
distinct image only emerges after a consistent use of a particular design pattern
and concept over a good period of time and for similar performance ideas.

The indigenous theatre tradition was very extant before the introduction of Euro
American theatre concept into African entertainment heritage. This theatre
tradition thrived on Ritual, Festival, Storytelling, Masquerade and Puppetry
theatre forms. The technical and design resources of these theatre forms were
largely derived from local handcrafts. These include carving, weaving, tattooing,
painting, knitting, fabric designing, etc. They are authentic reflection of African
artistic and tactile ingenuity. They have also somewhat inspired the design
practice in other theatre traditions in Nigeria.

The early efforts of scene design in the Yoruba popular travelling theatre were
not essentially aimed at expressing the play but to have a background in front of
which performances were held. Whatever ambitious design could have emanated
45
from this theatre tradition was further restricted by the itinerant make-up of the
theatre. Therefore, backdrops were used to depict scenes and create moods for
productions.

Scenic design in his theatre is therefore substantially achieved through stylised

design approach and some amount of realism, especially when a production is
not on tour. Unlike before, detailed attention is now being paid to scenographic
issues in the productions of this theatre, except that these productions are
extremely few now. This is because the practitioners of this theatre genre now
concentrate more attention on home video film productions than the stage.
Props

Since the dramaturgies of this theatre tradition are often sustained by the
sociocultural milieu of the Yoruba, props are often realistic and sourced from
among the Yoruba. If props must be built, they are built with acceptable sense of
realism. Over the years, wi th the help of technological advancement and the
need to be more profound in their stage performances, props design in the
Yoruba popular theatre has assumed a more sophisticated dimension. For
example, full upholstery are sometimes brought on stage; some stage props that
were hitherto painted on backdrops are now being physicalized on stage through
the use of set pieces e.g. trees, anthills, boulders, etc. Ogunde's production of
"Destiny" (Ayanmo) in 1987 concretizes the Yoruba's concept of destiny, which he
46
locates in the head, by bringing on stage a simulated human head. This was
electronically powered to ensure the movements of its eyes and mouth to further
enhance the realistic design approach.
Costume and Make-up

Design approach to costume and make-up is clearly realistic. This explains why
the practitioners of the theatre "endure great expenses and effort in costuming
and make-up" (Jeyifo, 1984: 18). There is little or no room for costume simulation
as the correct and appropriate fabrics are chosen for costume design. Costume
designs are conceived with functional values, almost like what exists in the
literary theatre. Perhaps it is in costume that the artistic heritage of any troupe of
the Yoruba travelling theatre can be measured. Its sustaining sense of reality via
historical and contemporary costumes and accessories is astonishing:

Costumes are outstanding. Some research and production work is seen

to have been put into their costume design. This is especially manifest in
their treatment of historical dramas and in the scenes where "spirits" are
involved (ani, 1985: 199).

For example, Ogunde's costumes were historically accurate and consistent. Even
though some of the other practitioners may not be accurate but their concerns
indicated the awakening interests in history and the desire to reflect it in
costuming. Also, comic consciousness influenced the nature of some of the

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costumes used. Baba Sala for instance, often wear baggy trousers and tuck in a
babariga on top with a long veil tied round his neck as necktie. He completes this
with funny accessories - oversized spectacle, table clock tied
to the wrist as wristwatch, etc. The principal sources of costumes are the troupe's
wardrobe and the actor's own garments. Each troupe maintains a "common
stock" of costumes, which are preserved and added to regularly. Above all,
costume becomes the epicentre of the entire stage iconography through its
domineering and magnetizing aesthetic presence.
Make-up design in the theatre is mainly limited to character and fantastic variety.
Character make-up is often utilized for aging an actor from young to old, while
fantastic make-up is deployed on weird characters - fairies, animals, ghommids,
witches, etc. These are common characters in most of the plays of this theatre
tradition. As such, fantastic make-up is often used thereby attaining some level of
perfection in usage. Duro Ladipo's Oba Koso (1972) and Kola Ogunmola's The
Palm-Wine Drinkard (1972) are good reference points. Little or no attention is
paid to straight or even corrective make-up. It is note-worthy
too that most of the make-up materials are sourced locally - white and red
powdered chalk, camwood (asu), body dye for tattooing the body, powdered
black stones (tiro) for eyelashes, etc.
Stage Lighting

Like an unfolding flower, lighting design in this theatre developed gradually,

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through layers of painful but gainful parturition, into sophisticated artistic
patterns. Starting with natural daylight, lighting design began to incorporate
locally assembled and fabricated lighting equipment. These were mobile lighting
set-ups that were grossly inadequate for any serious and imaginative lighting
design concepts:

Usually this setup consists of a switch panel with sockets for up to ten
instruments, two or three flood lights, a couple of spot lights and ready-
made green gelatines for forest scenes, red for fire and war, and blue for
romantic scenes. Also included in the set-up, usually, is a couple of ultra
violet tubes or blacklites (sic) for use in "spirit" scenes when ghosts appear
in the form of walking skeletons! (Oni,1985:199-200).

We have elsewhere given a description of the lighting equipment, which we wish

to also offer here to give a comprehensive outlook of the lighting set up of the
Yoruba popular theatre practices:

The lighting equipment this theatre tradition could boast of were

domestic bulbs. Six to ten of these, of about 80 to 120 watts, were
arranged in a single file inside a wooden encasement to serve as
footlights; galvanized iron pipes as stands/rigs for lanterns made of paint
tins and grain measures of about 10-20 inches diameter which served as
bulbs encasement and reflectors because of its ellipsoidal nature; a

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 wooden board with an array of electrical sockets and switches, which
served as dimmer board and rack (Ododo, 1996:114).

Within the last twenty years or so this theatre has consistently improved its
lighting design approaches by laking advantage of modern lighting technology.
Many of its practitioners have found a lot of artistic sense in investing in modern
lighting equipment. Hubert Ogunde, for instance, imaginatively used fire and
cloud projectors in his production of "Destiny" (Ayanmo) in 1987. The effects of a
moving cloud and burning fire to respectively contextualize celestial realm and
hell fire were major leaps in the lighting aesthetics of this theatre tradition. Some
other performing troupes in this theatre bracket also went into all sorts of
experiments with lighting effects.
Sound Effects

These were often normally produced on drums. The desired effect determined
how the drums were tapped. It was easy for instance to create effect of
thunderstorm, flowing river, gunshots and so on, on drums. Forest noise can
verbally be produced. In some instances actual sounds were produced on the
stage e.g. the hooting of horn from a car parked closely to the performance area,
doorbell, live gunshots on stage, etc. Just like other design areas, modern
electronic sound effects equipment now exist in the inventory of theatre
equipment of the practitioners of this theatre. This has also greatly enhanced the
values of their stage performances.
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Generally the staging conditions of this theatre have consistently improved on all
fronts. The late Oyin Adejobi, who was one of the leading practitioners of this
theatre tradition, strongly affirmed as much in an interview:

There have been improvement in production, presentation and so on.

These days, you have equipment which were not available in those days,
to present plays on the stage and to make video films (cf. Bello, 1999:13).

Estimatedly, the concern for greater realism and appropriateness began in the
late sixties and early seventies. This concern motivated artistes like the late Duro
Ladipo to perfect his fire-spitting act as Sango in Oba Koso (1972); Jimoh Aliyu's
magical feats on the stage, etc. By and large, the troupes in this theatre are very
inconsistent in their design practices. They vary them in accordance with
available means rather than consistent theory.

Television, Film and Home Video Production Design

In Nigeria every television house has different scenic backgrounds for different
programmes. This design practice is aimed essentially at giving visual identity to
each of these programmes while engendering congenial aesthetic atmosphere
that can arrest and sustain viewers' attention. Lighting is added to basically
illuminate the studio and the performer. It is also designed "to provide an at
tractive, atmospheric, persuasive picture, with an appropriate ambience from all

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camera viewpoints" (Millerson, 1989:219). Most times too, lighting effects are
introduced to further enhance the visual appeal of the programme being
presented. Some of these effects are not something very elaborate. For instance,
through the adjustment of the intensities oflamps (soft light or hard light) the
visual impact of a television programme can transform gradually and
imperceptibly to suggest mood, tone, form and texture for the presentation.
Lighting effects could also be elaborate if the aim of the producer is to create an
impressive spectacular effect. The African Independent Television (AlT) Lagos, for
example has a Virtual Reality (VR) scenographic conception comprising of a grid
background of blue materials where images are superimposed from the VR
computers in the control room. Only the presenter's chair(s) are placed in front of
the set...

The lighting on the VR set is only a soft touch as the VR technology itself
is light based, creating subtle images that look solid where no images
exist (Oni, 1999:47).
The use of impressive scenic background and environment in television
programmes is now further reinforced by the emergence of private television
stations. These new private stations now seriously threaten the viewing
monopoly the nation's Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) usually enjoys with
competing top class programmes. Following this trend, television programming
has become so competitive that only innovativeness in programming sees each
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television outfit through. And one potent means of registering this
innovativeness is through scenography.
The film industry in Nigeria is still a growing one. Design efforts in packaging films
are always evident. Bur more striking is the modification of natural environment
to suit the scenic requirement of these films. Sango (1997) produced by Obafemi
Lasode paid remarkable attention to design issues. Every costume used in the film
was specifically designed and built; Oba's palace and the Nupe scene were
designed to reflect the architectural design of the ancient Oyo and Nupe towns
that form significant locales in the film. Many home video films are now being
produced with conscious scenographic design concepts. It should be added at this
juncture that designing for the film or home video medium requires a lot of skill
and efforts as these designs must look very real especially under very sensitive
cameras.

Major Technical Innovations

What could be regarded as major technical innovations in the Nigerian Theatre

are to a large extent adoption of innovations that already exist in Europe. For
instance, the Revolving Stage, which was first installed at the Resident Theatre in
Munich in 1896 by Karl Lautenschlager, only found expression on the Nigerian
stage in 1976 when it was installed in the Main Auditorium of the University of
Lagos. Functionally, the Revolving Stage has the ability to accommodate several
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settings and can be changed merely by revolving a turntable. Bisi Aborishade
however made an ingenious use or the turntable staging mechanism for the
production of Exit the King in 1978 and his own "Naira Republic" in 1984 both at
the Arts Theatre, University of Ibadan. However, the Rolling Platform Stage of
Fritz Brandt invented in 1986 is yet to have very visible presence in the Nigerian
theatre. On the Rolling Platform Stage, sets could be mounted on a large platform
offstage and then moved on stage by means of rollers set in tracks (Brockett,
1991: 512).

In theatre architecture (theatre design), some unique results can be recounted."

The ABU Studio Theatre for instance has aroused international attention because
of the infusion of Hausa architectural motifs in its design and the unique staging
possibilities it can offer. Basically a theatre-in-the-round with four adjoining
drama workshops and a changing room, the studio theatre provides creative
avenue for experimentation both in scenic design and performance style. The
strength of this theatre design is its communal essence, which encourages
remarkable degree of performer-audience relationship. This is "one small
example of how Nigerian theatre could be freed from the particular actor-
audience relations of Western European Theatre" (Etherton, 1990:20).
The UniJos Open Air Theatre is another innovation in theatre architecture. The
natural atmosphere it evokes - trees and rocks in a natural arrangement that
presents an amphitheater that is reminiscent of the Greek Theatre, concretizes its
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innovativeness. The forte of this theatre lies in the technical challenges it poses
for directors, actors and stage designers. A designer has to be imaginatively alert
to succeed here. Infusing the natural environment into design concepts of plays to
be staged here will certainly elevate the
aesthetic and functional ambience of such designs. ala Rotimi's Grip Am for
instance will thrive well on this stage. A stage tree is needless here; integrating
one of the surrounding natural trees around the stage area would do the magic.
Exterior scenes involving forests and hills can easily be manipulated here with less
financial constraints. Plays like Langbodo (1979) and Ijaye (1997) both by Wale
Ogunyemi will certainly offer pleasant challenges to any serious thinking scenic
designer.
The Open Air Theatre could stimulate vibrant performer-audience relationship if
the whole theatre facilities are harnessed. In full and effective use, the effect of
this theatre on a performance could be filmic. In January 1982 when the theatre
was launched with "a space-oriented" play by Sonny Oti titled "Return Home and
Roost Awhile" (later changed to The Frog and the Fantasies for the published version)
(Oti, 1990:32), the Nigerian audience was once again introduced to another
theatre possibility.
Ife Pit Theatre is yet another unique theatre experiment that provides wide
avenues for multi-purpose staging of plays. It is an arena theatre with a
rectangular pit of about two and a half feet deep. It can double as a playing area
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and as an auditorium. The northern end of the top of the pit serves as a
proscenium staging area while the other three sides are for sitting purposes.
When the pit is in use for an entire performance, the proscenium end of the pit's
top is converted to a sitting area too. This is one of the few experiments that
most appropriately captures African performance reality but unfortunately the
least utilized in performance and scenic experimentation.

It is pertinent to note that since the establishment of some of these theatres no

significant step has been taken to correct some of the inadequacies associated
with them. For instance, the UniJos Open Air Theatre has sightline problem
because the auditorium is raked along the natural gradient of the rocks, which are
not exactly systematic. To be more effective, swivel-seats could be introduced in
the auditorium. These will enable the audience to turn easily to view any action
situated on the sides of the auditorium. It is also true that the expansive stage of
this theatre favours space-staging, but the back-stage support and work areas
need to be more enhanced for free-flowing theatre performances.
There is no significant innovative breakthrough in terms of stage lighting in the
Nigerian theatre. What is apparent however is the ability of some lighting
designers to utilize limited lighting facilities to achieve great artistic results. In
order to complement these few lighting equipment, some lighting experts have at
one time or the other experimented building some lighting equipment like

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dimmer control board, colour wheel, lantern, etc.

The designer in the Nigerian theatre operates in an environment that is not too
conducive for design practice. Militating against design practice in Nigeria are
largely inadequate training, insufficient modern design tools and instruments and
the unprofessional attitude of some theatre producers toward stage design.
The training of designers in the Nigerian theatre faces a lot of bottlenecks
because of unavailability of requisite training facilities. For example, it is
extremely difficult to point out where a standard make-up studio exists in
Nigerian. Many of the few designers in Nigeria are yet to utilize the fascinating
world of the computer to enhance their designs simply because they are not
computer literate. This limited computer knowledge definitely has a telling effect
on the growth of design practice in the country.

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