The Art of Theatrical Design

The Art of Theatrical Design: Elements of Visual Composition, Methods, and Practice, Second Edition, contains an in-depth discussion
of design elements and principles for costume, set, lighting, sound, projection, properties, and makeup designs.
This textbook details the skills necessary to create effective, evocative, and engaging theatrical designs that support a play
contextually, thematically, and visually. It covers key concepts such as content, context, genre, style, play structure, and format
and the demands and limitations of various theatrical spaces.The book also discusses essential principles, including collaboration,
inspiration, conceptualization, script analysis, conducting effective research, building a visual library, developing an individual design
process, and the role of critique in collaboration.This second edition includes

• A new chapter on properties management and design.

• A new chapter on makeup design.
• A new chapter on digital rendering, with evaluations of multiple programs, overviews of file types and uses, and basic tutorials
in Adobe® Photoshop® and Procreate.
• An expanded and revised chapter on traditional rendering, with the inclusion of new media, including watercolor, gouache, and
mixed media, and updated exercises and tutorials.
• Revised and expanded chapters on individual design areas, including additional practices for conceptualization and collaboration,
with new exercises for skill development.
• Additional exercises in all elements and principles of design chapters for investigation of each design principle and skill
development.
• Revised and updated content throughout the text, reflecting current pedagogy and practices.

This book gives students in theatrical design, introduction to design, and stagecraft courses the grounding in core design
principles they need to approach design challenges and make design decisions in both assigned class projects and realized
productions.
The Art of Theatrical Design provides access to additional online resources, including step-by-step video tutorials of the
exercises featured in the book.
.
Kaoime E. Malloy is Professor of Costume Design for the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay Department of Theatre and
Dance, where she teaches Costume Design, Stage Makeup, Costume Technology, Introduction to Theatre Design, Understanding
the Arts, Fashion History, Costume Crafts, and special topics in design and technology. A member of United Scenic Artists Local
829 and IATSE, she freelances as a theatre designer, makeup artist, and technician throughout the United States.
The Art of Theatrical Design
Elements of Visual Composition, Methods,
and Practice

SECOND EDITION

.
Kaoime E. Malloy
Cover image: Kaoiṁe E. Malloy

Second edition published 2022

by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158

and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2022 Taylor & Francis

The right of Kaoiṁe E. Malloy to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Focal Press 2014

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

.
Names: Malloy, Kaoime E., author.
Title:The art of theatrical design : elements of visual composition,
.
methods, and practice / Kaoime E. Malloy.
Description: Second edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021050381 (print) | LCCN 2021050382 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367902100 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367902117 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003023142 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH:Theaters—Stage-setting and scenery.
Classification: LCC PN2091.S8 M263 2022 (print) | LCC PN2091.S8 (ebook) |
DDC 792.02/5—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021050381
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021050382

ISBN: 978-0-367-90210-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-90211-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-02314-2 (ebk)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003023142

Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9780367902117

To my husband Patrick, who has always believed I could do anything, no
matter what.

v
C O N T E N T S

Preface to the New Edition ix

Acknowledgments xi

Part One Beginnings

CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS THEATRICAL DESIGN? 1

CHAPTER 2 FORM, CONTENT, AND CONTEXT 12

CHAPTER 3 GENRE 15

CHAPTER 4 STYLE 23

CHAPTER 5 DRAMATIC STRUCTURE 33

Part Two Elements of Design

CHAPTER 6 LINE 41

CHAPTER 7 SHAPE, FORM, MASS, VOLUME, AND SPACE 51

CHAPTER 8 VALUE 60

CHAPTER 9 COLOR 67

CHAPTER 10 TEXTURE 81

CHAPTER 11 CREATING THE ILLUSION OF DEPTH ON A FLAT SURFACE 88

Part Three Principles of Design

CHAPTER 12 UNITY AND VARIETY 97

CHAPTER 13 BALANCE 108

CHAPTER 14 REPETITION, RHYTHM, AND PATTERN 116

CHAPTER 15 SCALE AND PROPORTION 129

CHAPTER 16 EMPHASIS AND SUBORDINATION 136

vii
viii Contents

Part Four Core Principles for the Theatrical Designer

CHAPTER 17 COLLABORATION 143

CHAPTER 18 ANALYSIS 147

CHAPTER 19 CONCEPTUALIZATION 151

CHAPTER 20 THE DESIGN PROCESS 159

CHAPTER 21 THE ROLE OF CRITIQUE 172

CHAPTER 22 DRAWING AS OUR COMMON LANGUAGE 176

CHAPTER 23 RENDERING 195

CHAPTER 24 DIGITAL RENDERING 242

Part Five Individual Design Areas

CHAPTER 25 COSTUME DESIGN 263

CHAPTER 26 MAKEUP DESIGN 281

CHAPTER 27 SCENE DESIGN 306

CHAPTER 28 PROPERTIES DIRECTION AND DESIGN 327

CHAPTER 29 LIGHTING DESIGN 354

CHAPTER 30 SOUND DESIGN 379

CHAPTER 31 DIGITAL MEDIA AND PROJECTION DESIGN 395

Glossary 420
Bibliography 439
Index 442
P R E F A C E T O T H E N E W E D I T I O N

When I first wrote The Art of Theatrical Design, it was largely concepts of design and the visual arts. Budding painters,
out of my desire for an introductory design textbook that sculptors, and theatrical designers work together, learning
would meet the needs of my own Intro to Design class. to draw, master perspective, and render three-dimensional
I never expected that the book would do well enough to form in two-dimensional space, and they learn to work in
warrant a second edition. I was thrilled when Stacey Walker different media for the first two years of their education. It is
contacted me to ask if I was interested in writing one. The only after this fundamental instruction has taken place, when
new edition has given me the opportunity to expand on the the elements and principles of design are understood and
material in the first version of the book and to include new mastered and when basic drawing skills have been learned,
chapters on makeup design and properties that did not exist that young artists begin to study the particulars of their
before. It has allowed me to provide more information on intended fields and media. This had been the foundation of
conceptual development in each of the design areas, include his education growing up in Europe, and it showed in every
additional images to support key concepts, add additional aspect of his work. Dan is more than a designer; he is an
rendering media, and offer new exercises in each chapter. artist whose medium is theatre, a thing I think all of us who
I still believe strongly in what I wrote in the preface have been fortunate enough to study with him hope to be.
for the first edition. Foundational training in the elements of This method of training made perfect sense to me
visual composition is an essential component of a theatrical because the basic building blocks of art are the same,
designer’s education. Even now, as many of our colleagues regardless of the medium. Theatre designers use the
increasingly turn to digital programs and applications to elements and principles of design with every project, just as
sketch and render, and as projections are becoming a more other visual artists do. Even sound designers use them. So,
important part of stage design, the development of a strong I had to wonder why these concepts are so often pushed
understanding of the fundamental elements and principles of to the side in theatrical design education or relegated to a
design remains a crucial part of a designer’s training. Despite relatively low status in terms of importance. It underscored
the prevalence of Computer Generated Imaging or CGI and a fundamental difference in my mind with regard to how
computer rendering in animation, film, and visual effects, theatre designers can be perceived in the larger artistic
highly rated training programs in these disciplines require life community. In Europe, we are artists. In the United States, we
drawing, art fundamentals, figure drawing, perspective basics, are designers. And our training reflects this elementary, yet
and sketching from their students. No matter how engaged important difference.
we become in digital work, the need for these foundation Like most student designers of my educational
concepts will remain. Learning them builds confidence, which generation, my introduction to the elements and principles of
in turn provides the freedom to explore our own ideas and design took place in a kind of “catchall” class, one intended
do our own work in each of the design areas. Drawing is one to serve several purposes at once and to meet multiple
of the best methods of communicating our ideas, and digital educational goals. Though part of a conservatory program,
drawing is still drawing. No matter how it transforms, it is not my basic design course spent only a small portion of the
going anywhere. allotted class time in one semester exploring the elements
When I was in graduate school, one of my professors – and principles of design. The class included instruction in
Dan Nemteanu, a visiting scene and costume designer from several other topics, such as hand drafting. In this class, the
Sweden – told me something that made a big impression on elements and principles came fast and furious, with little time
me. In Europe, he said, all artists, regardless of the medium in to explore any of them in more than passing detail, and there
which they will eventually choose to work, receive the same was no time spent on teaching us how to draw. Looking
basic training. Potential theatre designers and visual artists back, this seems incredibly odd to me, given that drawing is
alike take the same classes, working side by side learning the main language of communication between a designer, the
the same fundamental building blocks and essential visual director, and the rest of the production team. Of course, this

ix
x Preface to the New Edition

was well before computers became part of our daily lives and theatrical context, where these core elements and principles
work practices as visual artists. But even though computers are continually related back to theatrical design. At worst, we
and drawing programs have changed the speed and level of are forced to cover these concepts within another design
sophistication at which ideas can be created and rendered class, losing precious time to basic principles when we want
visually, not to mention how quickly they can be shared over to give the students a deeper experience in a specific design
long distances, they have not changed one basic fact. Drawing area. The result is an unsatisfactory experience for both the
is a necessary skill, but one that often seems to be neglected student and the instructor.
in beginning theatre design training. As an additional challenge, we may also put our students
In many university theatre programs, certain assumptions into a collaborative working situation on our productions
are made about beginning design students: ones that might without ever teaching them how to participate fully in this
ultimately serve them well as they make their way through unique environment as an engaged and informed member of
our programs – doing their best to navigate through the the design team who brings their own ideas and responses
challenges and pitfalls – and ones that do not serve them as to the play to the discussion. Too often, beginning designers
well in terms of their education. In fact, these assumptions expect that the director will have all the answers and that
might do them a fair amount of disservice when it comes they will present a clear and firm idea of the direction the
to meeting educational goals. We often expect beginning production should take, when in fact they may want to
design students to be able to engage in a costume, scene, discover that path with the design team and the acting
makeup, or lighting design class (usually at an upper level) company. That is what collaboration is all about, and theatre
without ever having taken a substantive foundational course is a collaborative art form. How can you collaborate if you do
in design. We expect them to come to these classes ready not know how?
and, more importantly, able to get down to the business of This book grew out of necessity. When I began writing
learning design right away without previous experience. But the first edition, there were no introductory theatre design
frequently, beginning design students have no idea what that texts. Instead, I used foundational books written for art
means. And, to further complicate the issue, students often students rather than theatre students because only in art
immediately want “to do their own work” and start creating texts could I find the coverage and exploration of the design
realized designs rather than the task at hand, without knowing elements that mirrored the depth that I employed in my
what that really entails or having the tools to go about it. class. But I longed for a book that would include all of the
Or they expect that the director will “tell them what they information that I covered, one that bridged the gap between
want,” and then they will go off and somehow make that art and theatre and served the needs of theatre students
happen without truly engaging with the director to create a just as well as the art students were being served by their
collaborative design. Or worse, they look at the increasingly textbooks. And my preference was to create a book that,
sophisticated – and admittedly awesome – equipment in our with the rising cost of textbooks, would be useful throughout
various inventories and immediately want to play with all the their entire design education. Then, on a chance discussion
cool toys before they ever have any concept of how to use about my desire for this nonexistent book with a textbook
them to do what we as designers truly hope to do with our representative on my campus, the book now in your hands
work: create a visual interpretation of the play that makes began to take shape.
a connection with the audience and draws them into the In graduate school at the University of Iowa, my
experience of the performance. peers and I used to refer to the way we were taught to
Beginning designers need a firm understanding and approach plays, our art, our creative process, design, and the
control of the vocabulary of design to both design and performance itself as “The Iowa Way.” There, a unique group
communicate effectively. Often, we as educators are of exceptionally talented professors who were experts in
required by necessity to combine this material into an the various aspects of our art form instilled us with a unique
all-encompassing class that attempts to cover both design artistic aesthetic and method that we all carry with us to
vocabulary and basic technical practices into one. At best, we this day. This method still informs my creative process and
may elect to send our students over to the art department “if continues to evolve and change as I grow as an artist. I now
they are interested in the elements and principles of design,” share that method with my students, and in this book, I now
where they will indeed gain experience in these fundamental share it with you.
building blocks of all design disciplines – but it will not be in a Kaoiṁe E. Malloy, 2021
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

First and foremost, this new edition would not have been Pip Gordon, Matt Kizer, Frank Ludwig, Curtis Trout, Dinesh
possible without all the readers, students, and teachers who Yadav, Drew Atienza, and Tristan Dalley, thank you so much
adopted The Art of Theatrical Design for their courses. I cannot for allowing me to use your work in this book. I know that
thank all of you enough for your engagement with the book. readers will be inspired when they see your designs. A special
I hope that it has provided you with equal parts information thanks to Valerie not only for generously sharing one of
and inspiration, and I hope that the new edition will be of Martin Pakledinaz’s renderings in her private collection for the
even more use and take you further in your exploration of book but also for being a long-term advocate for The Art of
theatrical design. Theatrical Design at every turn. Your support has undoubtedly
My thanks go to Stacey Walker for reaching out to contributed to the book’s success. I am also grateful to the
me regarding a second edition and guiding me through the McNay Art Museum in San Antonio, Texas, who graciously
submission process. I appreciate your advocacy for the book contributed images from their Theatre Arts collection to
with Routledge/Focal Press and your belief in the project. this edition. If you have not seen the collection, I highly
To my editor Lucia Accorsi, who has been incredibly patient recommend it – and you can view it online. Many thanks to
through all of the setbacks that the pandemic brought to Dan Guerrero, the Associate Registrar at the McNay, for all
my writing of this edition, thank you for your support and his help acquiring the images.
guidance as I navigated this journey. My thanks to everyone To Alison Ford, the first person who hired me to teach
at Routledge/Taylor & Francis/Focal Press who has worked to Elements of Design – without your unwavering confidence
make this book a reality. and support, I would never have found my way to teaching
To my students – you are a continual source of or have written the book in the first place or this second
inspiration and frequently amaze me with your creativity, edition. Thank you for giving me a chance when I walked into
ability, and enthusiasm. Thank you for spending a little time in your office.
my classes. I hope you get as much from me as I get from all Without the professors that taught and mentored me
of you. through my development as designer, I would not be the
To my colleagues at the University of Wisconsin-Green theatre artist I am today. I am indebted to Linda Roethke,
Bay, thank you for your support and working around my Dan Nemteanu, and posthumously to David Thayer for
absence while I was on sabbatical to finish this new edition. It sharing their knowledge with me, shaping my design
is never easy to cover when one of us is gone, and it is even aesthetic, nurturing my creative process, teaching me the
more difficult now. I appreciate all of your efforts to sustain essential skills I needed to be an artist, and most of all, for
my creative and scholarly work. the knowledge that the perceived division between art and
To the colleagues who generously contributed their theatre is an illusion. Thank you for all you so generously
work for this edition, Alison Ford, Valerie Marcus Ramsur, gave me.

xi
PA RT I
B E G I N N I N G S
 CHAPTER 1
W H A T I S T H E A T R I C A L D E S I G N ?

WHAT IS THEATRICAL DESIGN? possess a wide range of skills. They need to be able to read
and analyze a script effectively, not only to note the details
Theatrical design is the art of creating and composing the
that are relevant to their individual design area but also to
visual and aural elements that shape a performance space. It
understand the story, to identify key themes, plot details,
encompasses the development of scenery, costumes, lighting, and important actions, and to follow character development.
sound, and multimedia effects to create pictures onstage. They must be familiar with theatre history and literature and
These elements combine to create an environment in which understand how they inform both the performance and the
the action of the play can take place and where the audience visual style of a play. They must be familiar with the history of
can experience the performance. Design brings the world of dress, art, and décor and be able to do appropriate research
the play to life. to inform and inspire their work. They must be imaginative
Theatrical design is different from many other art and inventive, able to find inspiration and use it to develop
forms, in that it is a collaborative art. Design does not exist creative conceptual approaches to the visual interpretation of
in a vacuum. No one theatre artist works independently the playwright’s work. They must be resourceful, innovative,
to create a performance. Instead, a production is brought and good problem-solvers. Designers choose the visual
into existence through the combined efforts of many and audio elements that go into the stage picture carefully,
skilled and specialized artists working together, sharing a in order to shape, influence, and guide the audience’s
common conceptual approach. Unlike a novel, a play does impression of the world of the play.
not exist solely to be read; it is meant to be performed Because theatre is a collaborative endeavor, designers
and its greatness and wonder can only truly be accessed must be good communicators to express their ideas and
in this manner. A play requires actors to embody each of to work effectively with their colleagues. They must be
the characters, to take on their personalities and behaviors, organized and able to manage their time efficiently so that
and to make them real for the audience as the story is they can meet work deadlines. To communicate their design
told. Through the characters, the audience can make an ideas to the director, they must be able to draw and render
emotional connection with the events, ideas, and themes with sufficient skill, whether through traditional or digital
of the play. The design anchors them in the world of the methods. Increasingly, designers are being asked to have a
play, communicating information about that world to the working knowledge of various computer software programs
audience that supports the dramatic action and draws them that are applicable to their design specialty, as design and
in, engaging them with the performance on a sensory level. technology become more closely linked. They need to
understand the human form in three-dimensional space, as
well as the advantages and challenges inherent in different
WHAT DO DESIGNERS DO?
theatrical configurations. Drafting, painting, construction,
A theatrical designer is an artist who creates and sewing, pattern-making and draping, and mathematics are also
organizes one or more aspects of the aural and visual skills that are needed to varying degrees.
components of a theatrical production. Some designers Above all, designers need to be observers of the world.
specialize in one area of design – scenery, costumes, lighting, Like all artists, designers take in information from the world
sound, multimedia/projections, or hair and makeup – while around them and use it to inspire and inform their work.
others work in multiple areas. Regardless of their area of They respond to and take note of the way other artists have
specialization, each designer is working toward the same used the visual elements of composition in their practice.
goal: the successful realization of the playwright’s vision on Designers are avid visitors of museums and connoisseurs of
the stage. In order to do this work, a designer needs to the arts in all forms: fashion, painting, furniture, architecture,

DOI: 10.4324/9781003023142-2 1
2 Beginnings

textiles, photography, literature, music, dance, theatre, and

more. They are students of history and culture, curious about
the influences that have shaped us as people, as individuals,
and as communities the world over. Paying attention to both
function and aesthetics, designers look to the world around
them for the information and vision that inspire them to
reveal and understand the action of a play in visual form,
making it accessible to an audience.

THE DESIGN AREAS

FIGURE 1.1 Scenic design. Hedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen:
The scenic designer is responsible for the composition scenic design by Kristen Martino for Ruth N. Halls Theatre at
Indiana University, Bloomington. (This file is licensed under the
of the stage environment that the actors inhabit and for
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.)
selecting all of the elements that make up the set, including
platforms, levels, walls, and all structures whether they appear
organic or man-made. Furniture, light fixtures, curtains,
pillows, and interior décor are also part of their responsibility. the scenery, contribute to the mood and atmosphere of
Their work encompasses the design and selection of all of the performance. The color, pattern, texture, and weight of
the properties for the show, from items carried by the actors, fabrics can all contribute to the director’s approach.
such as letters, books, dishes, or luggage, to large articles Clothing reveals important information about each
like chests of gold, food, blackboards, or any other item character. Social status, occupation, location, and time of
required to facilitate the action. The set may be a simple bare year can easily be communicated through what an individual
stage or a complicated extravaganza with multiple locations, chooses to wear. Careful selection of fabrics, accessories,
automated scene changes, and spectacular special effects. color, level of wear, and cleanliness can give insight into
Both spaces require careful thought, design, planning, and mood, health, age, state of mind, and personality. How
creative choices. a garment is worn gives as much insight into a character
The space that is created by the scene designer is more as what is being worn. A well-fitted dress made of light,
than a representation of the playwright’s imagination. It is diaphanous fabrics might speak to the vibrancy and happiness
more than a house or a room, a palace, or a park; it is more of a young ingénue falling in love for the first time, while an
than the literal place it represents. It is a space that will shape, ill-fitting one made of dark, heavy fabrics might weave the tale
and is in turned shaped by, the actions of the actors who of a widow mourning her husband’s death and losing weight
will inhabit it. It is responsive to the needs of the action in a from the burden of her grief. A handsomely tailored suit can
way that an ordinary location is not. In short, it is designed to speak volumes about the man who wears it, but spill a few
serve the needs of the play. It will help to establish location, drops of blood on the lapels and his tie, or let a straight razor
time period, time of day, the tone and stylistic approach to peek out from his pocket, and the outfit takes on an entirely
the production, and information about the characters who different meaning. Costumes can also be used to show the
live in the space. It will present an overall design concept, relationships between characters, subtly underscoring the
image, or metaphor that supports the content of the play. connection between families, lovers, co-workers, classmates,
The set must also be unified with the other design elements or members of the same community. The choice of similar
and address all the practical considerations involved with how colors, textures, or silhouettes can create a sense of
the space will be used by the actors. group identity, unifying a chorus of dancers or a crowd of
The costume designer is responsible for the visual bystanders, ensuring they are a part of the world of the play
realization of the characters. They interpret the playwright’s and that the audience can understand who they are.
words, using them to analyze each character and transpose The lighting designer is responsible for illuminating
that understanding into clothing that reveals their identity to the stage space so that the actors and the environment may
the audience. A costume is an important tool that enriches be seen. They oversee all forms of light on the stage. They
and supports the actor’s performance. Using the language select the number of instruments and their types. They set
of clothing to create a visual narrative, the costume designer their intensity, location, and angle, determining how the light
seeks to produce evocative costumes that evolve over the that is being cast will strike the stage. They choose how to
course of the play to mirror the progression of the character. alter the appearance of the light cast on the stage, changing
The choices made by the costume designer also reflect the the color, the texture, and the pattern. They ensure that
overall conceptual approach to the production and, like practical light fixtures that are part of the set will turn on and
 What Is Theatrical Design? 3

FIGURE 1.3 Lighting design. The Balkan Women by Jules

Tasca: lighting design by April Smet, ACTF Region III Finalist;
costume design by Kaoiṁe E. Malloy; set design by Jeffrey Entwistle.
University of Wisconsin Green Bay Theatres.

performance. It may also include any incidental music or

underscoring to support the dramatic action. Sometimes a
sound designer might even compose all of the music for a
production, tailoring it specifically for that play.
FIGURE 1.2 Costume design. Flyer by Kaye Aspengren: costume
A sound designer is responsible for all of the sound
design by Kaoiṁe E. Malloy, lighting design by R. Michael Ingraham. effects the script requires, whether they occur offstage,
onstage, or from motivated sources. Ringing telephones,
doorbells, lightning, breaking glass, or elaborate sound
compositions containing multiple effects may be used
off as needed. The lighting designer composes the cues and to create the desired result. Ambient sound may be
determines how long each will last, setting the duration of incorporated as part of the design to help establish the
light on the stage picture. location, time of day, and the season and to support the style
Part of this task is choosing what to reveal with light and conceptual approach of the production. Though the
and what to conceal. Light focuses the audience’s attention, sound designer is a relatively recent addition to the design
drawing it to the important parts of the action and upping team, more and more directors are realizing the potential of
their emotional investment. Light has an incredible potential sound design and what it can contribute to a production in
to create a sense of mood and atmosphere using color, value, the hands of a creative designer.
and selective lighting. By using all of the tools at their disposal, The projection or multimedia designer is an even
a lighting designer can paint the stage with light, modeling the more recent position in theatrical design. The projection
scenery and the actors to enhance their three-dimensional designer is responsible for the design and creation of all
form for greater visibility and to create compelling pictures images, moving and still, that will be projected onto the
that pull all of the visual design elements together into a stage or into the theatrical space. There are multiple uses
unified picture. for projections in a production. They can be used for
The sound designer is responsible for the design simple purposes, such as to add narrative announcements
of all of the audio components for a production. Their at the beginning of scenes to act as title cards or to add
work is varied, ranging from the simple reinforcement of uncomplicated images to various scenes, complementing
sound, allowing the actors and any musicians to be heard the action and illustrating it in a lively and engaging way.
more clearly and succinctly with a balanced composition Or projections can be used to enhance the stage picture,
of sound, to the creation of a complete sound design that providing high-resolution digital images that can be projected
complements and enhances the production. Sound design onto the surface of the scenery to alter its shape, change
can include the careful selection of pre-show, intermission, locations quickly, or even to take the place of scenery
and post-show music to help set the mood and atmosphere, entirely. They can be projected throughout the auditorium
introducing the audience to the world of the play and to immerse the audience in the production environment
maintaining continuity throughout their experience of the or focused onto small surfaces carried by an actor as
4 Beginnings

they move across the stage. Cameras placed strategically support the overall design concept of the production. It is a
throughout the playing space can present multiple views of new and exciting area of design.
the action, projecting them onto the set to become part of The makeup designer is responsible for designing
the performance, with which actors can interact. Projections and coordinating all makeup looks and applications for each
have the potential to establish location and style, enhance the actor in a production, including any special makeup effects
mood and atmosphere, reveal important story elements, aid that are required. Depending on their skills, they may sculpt,
the dramatic action, add in a new performance element, and mold, cast, and apply prosthetic pieces as needed or source
them from a specialty supplier. They are required to work
closely with the costume designer to coordinate their designs
with the costumes, to ensure that the work of both designers
is unified. Their work may also extend to the creation and
styling of wigs and hairpieces for individual actors, including
facial hair such as beards, moustaches, and sideburns. The
work of a skilled makeup designer can transform an actor,
helping them to become an entirely different person onstage
and embody the character.
The properties manager is responsible for sourcing,
finding, gathering, or making all of the properties that are
needed for a production. Properties include all items on the
set that are not architectural elements, including furniture,
FIGURE 1.4 Projection design. Estonian violinist and singer set dressing, and items carried by the actors. Their job
Maarja Nuut at Viljandi Folk Music Festival (2016). (This file is requires them to be both a talented craftsperson and a skilled
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 manager, as they simultaneously work to realize the property
International license by Vaido Otsar.)
designs of the scenic designer and manage the props artisans
that work in the shop alongside them. Often, they are
called upon to make design decisions in the build process,
so they must be knowledgeable about the history of décor
and properties as well as their construction. Occasionally,
there may be a properties designer or an assistant scenic
designer who oversees properties, working directly with both

FIGURE 1.6 Properties. Dead Man’s Cell Phone by Sara Ruhl:

prop and set design by Jeff Entwistle, lighting design by R. Michael
FIGURE 1.5 Makeup design. (evgeny freeone/Shutterstock.com.) Ingraham, costume design by Kaoiṁe E. Malloy.
 What Is Theatrical Design? 5

the scene designer and the properties manager to facilitate through the twentieth centuries in the Western world. In this
the realization of props for a production. configuration, the stage is situated at one end of the building
separated from the audience by the proscenium wall, a large
rectangular opening that frames the stage. This type of theatre
THEATRICAL SPACES AND
was developed to focus the attention of the audience through
THEIR IMPACT ON DESIGN the opening of the proscenium, accentuating the perspective
One of the most important factors designers need to effects created by the painted scenery of the period. The
keep in mind when doing their work is the type of theatre playing space behind the proscenium may be deep or
being used for the production. The configuration of the relatively shallow and is framed on either side by a set of
theatrical space has a significant impact on all aspects of the wings that provide offstage space. Some of these theatres
production, shaping the performance. Costume details that also have an apron or forestage situated in front of the arch,
can easily be seen in an intimate arena theatre will be lost offering another playing area, and scenery may extend into this
in a large proscenium space. Light instrument positions that space from the main part of the stage. In modern proscenium
serve a proscenium theatre well may shine the light directly theatres, the apron may also be capable of lowering to the
in the audience’s eyes in a thrust space. Scenery designed auditorium floor or beyond, doubling as an orchestra pit
for a proscenium theatre will block the sightlines of the for musicals and concerts. This type of theatre usually has a
audience in an arena theatre. A found space requires careful fly loft above the stage, which allows scenic elements to be
consideration regarding the placement of the audience and flown in and out of the stage space. The seating area may
the acting space, whereas the audience location in most other be set up in any one of several configurations, often with
theatre spaces is usually preset. orchestra seating on the auditorium floor, seating galleries
The type of space is important because a theatre is on both sides, and one or more floors of audience seating.
not just a place to view a performance. It is a place that The combination of the fly space and wings allows for a wide
supports the exchange of emotion between the actor and variety of scenic and lighting effects in a proscenium theatre,
the audience and facilitates the communal experience of and the stage itself might also offer additional options such
the performance between the audience members. There is as trap doors and hydraulic systems that can be used to raise
no ideal shape or size for a performance space, and no one and lower the stage floor to add special dramatic effects
configuration is better than another. Each type of theatre has and facilitate elaborate scene changes. Proscenium theatres
advantages that can be used to the designers’ benefit and often seat large numbers of people, putting a fair amount of
limitations that might require that adjustments be made as distance between the actors and the audience. Costumes,
part of the production process. scenery, and makeup need to be bolder and broader to carry
Proscenium Theatre – A proscenium theatre is over the extended distance to communicate effectively to the
the type of theatre with which we are most familiar, because audience. However, there is an obvious advantage created
it was the most common type of stage space in the eighteenth by the proscenium arch, which serves to focus the audience’s
attention on the action it frames.

FIGURE 1.8 Proscenium stage, Hawaii Theatre, Honolulu,

Hawaii, on the National Register of Historic Places. (Photo by Joel
FIGURE 1.7 Proscenium theatre. Bradshaw. This file is in the public domain.)
6 Beginnings

Arena Theatre – An arena theatre, also referred

to as theatre in the round, is a theatre where the audience
completely surrounds the performance space or acting area.
Like a thrust space, actors enter and exit through a series of
aisles or vomitories that are situated off the playing space.
An arena theatre offers several advantages, including increased
intimacy between the actors and the audience and a wide
range of entrances and exits. But it also offers challenges
related to blocking, lighting, scenery, and sightlines. Because
the audience is seated around the entire playing space,
scenery cannot substantially block their view of the action,
and lights must be carefully focused so that they do not shine
in their eyes or light the seating area, inadvertently drawing
focus away. Scenic elements hanging above the stage may be
important to establish the environment, but they might also

FIGURE 1.11 Thrust theatre.

add additional challenges for the lighting designer. Blocking

must consider the fact that the audience becomes part of
the composition. Costumes in intimate theatres can require
more detail and realism, especially with historical garments,
because the audience is very close to the actors. Makeup can
be especially challenging, as any aging or special effects require
film-level quality to be believable. As with a thrust space, the
sound designer has multiple locations for sound sources and
can create an entire environment with their design, but they
must carefully balance the sound output to ensure quality.
Thrust Theatre – In a thrust theatre, or three-
quarter round, the stage extends out into the audience
and the seating surrounds the playing area on three sides.
Sometimes the thrust may be enclosed by a proscenium
FIGURE 1.9 Arena theatre. arch at the back of the stage, but this space is often shallow
and the audience’s view into the space is limited. Actors can
enter and exit from behind the proscenium or through aisles
or vomitories that are situated off the playing space and that
extend out through the audience.
A thrust theatre essentially offers a combination of a
proscenium stage and an arena stage. This configuration
allows for increased intimacy with the audience, giving them
the opportunity to focus on greater details in the costumes
and set. However, the playing space only provides one wall
for vertical scenic elements along with the stage floor. All
scenery in the stage space itself needs to maintain clear
sightlines for the audience and must be designed carefully.
Blocking is more difficult than on a proscenium stage, as the
playing space offers multiple views that the director must take
FIGURE 1.10 Arena theatre, Minnesota Fringe Festival. (Photo into consideration and the spectators can be seen as well as
by Tony Webster. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons the actors. Consequently, focus can become an issue. Lighting
Attribution 2.0 Generic license.)
designers face the challenge of maintaining focus on the acting
 What Is Theatrical Design? 7

area without spilling light onto the audience, drawing attention configurations. Theatres in this format are usually small,
away from the action or inadvertently shining light into their allowing for a close connection between the actors and the
eyes. Sound designers have the potential to surround the audience, but they may prove challenging for lighting positions
audience with sound from multiple directions, but careful and actors’ entrances and exits.
balance is required to ensure that everyone can hear equally. Black Box Theatre – A black box theatre
End Stage – An end stage theatre is a theatre in is a flexible space made to provide for multiple stage
which the audience and the acting area occupy the same configurations. The space may not always be black, but it is
architectural space. At least one row of seating is usually shaped like a large, unembellished cube, hence the name.
placed on the same level as the stage floor, bringing the Seating in a black box theatre is by necessity moveable
audience and actors into close proximity with each other. and unfixed, allowing the director and designers to set up
Generally, the audience is seated in front of the playing any stage arrangement they desire, adjusting the seating
space, but it is also possible to arrange the seating in other as required. The possibilities are almost limitless. Technical
configurations to allow for a different stage space, such galleries may also be provided in the stage architecture,
as thrust. The back wall of the stage may be framed with offering additional lighting positions. The main advantage of a
a proscenium arch, allowing for a curtain and access to a black box space is its flexibility, and it offers few limitations.
small backstage area. This type of theatre allows for flexible
scenic elements that can take advantage of flexible stage

FIGURE 1.14 End stage theatre. The Divaldo Arena, Bratislava,

FIGURE 1.12 Thrust stage. The Pasant Stage at the Wharton Slovakia. (This file is licensed under the Creative Commons
Center for the Performing Arts, East Lansing, Michigan. (This file is Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.)
licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unported license.)

FIGURE 1.13 End stage theatre. FIGURE 1.15 Black box theatre.
8 Beginnings

FIGURE 1.16 Black box theatre. Gateway Theatre’s Black

Box Theatre, Bukit Merah, Singapore. (This file is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.)

Courtyard Theatre – A courtyard theatre

combines the qualities of several different theatre types and FIGURE 1.17 Courtyard theatre.
is modeled after a traditional Elizabethan stage. Seating is
provided in elevated galleries that surround a central area,
which may or may not have fixed seating.The entire audience
area faces a proscenium stage.The central space is often
flexible, allowing it to be used in a variety of configurations,
including thrust, flat floor, and end stage. Courtyard theatres
are not always rectangular.The Hall Two stage at the
Gateshead is a ten-sided courtyard theatre.The flexibility of
this type of theatre provides designers and directors with
multiple options when it comes to the layout of the space,
and the elevated seating ensures that sightlines in the central
playing area are less problematic. Entrances and exits can
be made through the proscenium arch or vomitories in the
audience space. Lighting positions are varied and malleable,
and the level of intimacy can be adjusted by reconfiguring the FIGURE 1.18 Courtyard theatre. (Momente/shutterstock.com.)
space. Use of the proscenium as the main acting area creates
more distance between the audience and the actors, and
sightlines on the extreme side seating on the galleries may features, lighting around structural elements, and impaired
be challenging for the scenic designer. All in all, a courtyard sightlines created by unusual spaces. But a found space may
theatre is an interesting theatrical space that offers lots of offer unique advantages not available in a traditional theatre,
possibilities. such as unusual backgrounds and textures, an interesting
Found Space – A found space is a nontheatrical atmosphere, environmental sounds, and other elements that
building or location that is adapted and used for a are complementary to the production.
performance. A found space can literally be anywhere, Environmental Theatre – An environmental
indoors or out. Some possibilities for found spaces include theatre is a theatrical space that has been completely
the foyer of an office building, an old grocery store, a park, transformed to create a unique environment for the
a church, a warehouse, a street corner, or the steps outside performance. Often, the architecture of the space is a key
a museum. Found spaces may sometimes be altered to suit element in the production. In an environmental theatre, the
the needs of a particular production, with the addition of acting and audience spaces may be intermixed, sometimes
specific architectural elements to facilitate the performance. with no provided seating. Performances are immersive,
Designers working in these types of theatrical spaces can with shifting or multiple focuses, and the physical space is
face all of the challenges of traditional theatres as well as an important production element, blurring the line between
others, including creating scenery around static building audience, performer, and performance space. Many
 What Is Theatrical Design? 9

was then applied to productions set in both unconventional

locations and ones chosen for how they relate to the content
of a specific play. As the range of work becomes more varied
and diverse, it also becomes harder to define site-specific
theatre precisely. Taking cues from immersive and installation
art as well as from environmental theatre, site-specific
productions capitalize on the potential of the audience’s
relationship to place to enhance the stories that are told.
Productions may be performed in renovated spaces that
were never intended to house theatrical performances, such
FIGURE 1.19 Found space. The Magic Flute by Mozart at the as warehouses, cafes, markets, restaurants, or buildings that
Bregenz Opera Festival on the lake: set design by Johan Engels. have been converted for other purposes, or they might be
(MaxPixel.net. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons set in outdoor locations, such as public squares, city streets,
Zero – CC0.)
parks, or backyards. Sites may also be chosen because of their
relevance to the specific action of the play to create a synergy
of place and action in which the audience is influenced by
the atmosphere, mood, and feeling of the place as much
as it is by the story being told through the performance.
Productions have been set in such diverse locations as
hospital cancer wards, abandoned railroad yards, airports,
and vacant hydraulics plants, all with the goal of providing a
more authentic production space to create a powerful piece
of theatre.
By virtue of setting the production in an alternative
space, site-specific performances are often more
immersive and have the potential to be more interactive.
Unconventional spaces are often more fluid, allowing the
audience to occupy the same area as the performers.
Frequently, there is no fourth wall, allowing the actors to
FIGURE 1.20 Environmental theatre. Dreaming of Forests: set
make direct connections with audience members as they
design by Jeffrey Entwistle, costume design by Kaoiṁe E. Malloy,
lighting design by R. Michael Ingraham. University of Wisconsin- move around and through them. There is the potential for
Green Bay Theatres. the performance to occupy multiple locations within one
performance space, allowing the audience to move from
one place to another as they experience the production in
productions are site-specific. A good example of this is unique, sometimes self-guided ways.
Punchdrunk’s Sleep No More, a film noir, interactive retelling In one example of a site-specific performance, the
of Macbeth performed in three abandoned New York City companies Punchdrunk and Emursive brought Sleep No More
warehouses, in which the audience is asked to don Venetian to the Chelsea Gallery District of New York City in 2011,
carnival masks and move from room to room, following the following an initial production of the show in London 2003.
characters they choose and exploring the environment as Housed inside an empty 100,000-square-foot warehouse,
the play progresses. Environmental theatres serve up the Sleep No More is an immersive restaging of Shakespeare’s
opportunity to create complete, lush environments that Macbeth, presented on five floors of a fictitious hotel filled
completely immerse the audience in the world of the play, with dozens of highly detailed settings. Numerous hidden
challenging the boundaries of theatre and redefining them rooms and passages were added to intricately create
within the context of the performance. individual locations, including an entire city street lined
with shops, a cemetery, the hotel lobby, an asylum, a grand
ballroom, an apothecary shop, and even a forest. When the
SITE-SPECIFIC THEATRE
audience members arrived, they were given white, neutral-
Initially, the term site-specific theatre was a loose featured masks to wear and were asked to remain silent
description applied to any theatre performance that took during the performance. No map was provided to assist them
place outside of a traditional theatrical space. The definition in navigating the mazelike environment, and groups were
10 Beginnings

encouraged to split up as they traveled through the hotel.

The actions of the play occurred simultaneously in multiple
locations, and actors would appear and begin their scenes
at will. Audience members could choose to engage with an
individual actor or group and follow them from one room to
the next, or they could travel in a more linear fashion through
the space. There was no right or wrong way to experience
the performance, allowing for each person to experience it in
a unique, individual way.
Another concern affecting the choice of a site is the
actual location and what surrounds it. Because every space,
even an abandoned one, has its own unique character,
history, and agency, the possible effect on a performance
by the location must be considered, along with whatever FIGURE 1.21 Site-specific theatre. Performance of Belonging
benefit might be gained by staging it in that space. The setting Part One by Blue Lapis Light in Austin, Texas. Aerial dance
of a performance in a location challenges our relationship performance at the former Seaholm Power Plant, which had been
converted into office space. (This file is licensed under the Creative
with that place and forces us to examine its history, how we Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.)
relate to it, and how we think about it, either fundamentally
or aesthetically. There can be an expectation that simply
removing a production from a traditional theatre space and
setting it in an alternative site are enough to create a more challenges are keenly felt in the entertainment and live
engaging piece of theatre, one that will elicit more audience performance industries, where the close, vibrant proximity
interaction and participation simply by default. However, of performers, technicians, and audiences made it impossible
site-specific theatre is not a panacea for all of the perceived to continue with business as usual. Broadway and regional
limitations of a conventional theatre space. The effectiveness theatres closed, universities canceled performances of all
of site-specific theatre largely depends on the consideration kinds, and film and television productions were canceled.
given to the type of space, its location, and ease of access Directors, dancers, musicians, designers, technicians, artists,
to the performance, in addition to its relationship to the and performers of all kinds were called upon to discover and
play. If, for instance, the site is located near a residential area, invent new ways of performance, ones that allowed for the
then it is possible that the performance staged there would creativity and inventive storytelling for which theatre is known
be available to a group of people that may not usually have but which maintained the safety of required social distancing.
access to such performances. The resulting audience will likely What were the alternatives to traditional performances, and
be quite different than the one that attends a performance how could they capture the same immersive, participatory
set at the top of an office building or corporate tower. The experience that is live, in-person theatre and performance?
values, perspectives, and diversity of an audience can be While digital storytelling and the use of social media as
greatly affected by the selection of location. Some site- a platform for theatrical content are not new, the accessibility
specific theatre companies tour their productions, setting of the individual to digital platforms as both user and
up performances in the living space of communities – parks, maker-producer has made social media and its usefulness
squares, streets, and other open areas – and allowing their as a theatrical venue openly democratic. The hardware
productions to engage deeply with communities. When place and software required to create online content are readily
is coupled with theatre, it can create a sensory, experiential available, cheap, and easy to use, and this makes it possible
form of storytelling that immerses the audience in the world for anyone, artists and public alike, to create content and
and action of the play and the experiences of the characters host it in cyberspace. Theatres and artists have used social
in a visceral way that goes beyond sitting in a red velvet media to engage with their audiences in a variety of ways,
chair in a conventional theatrical space, engaging with the including audience enrichment and development, criticism
performers at a distance. In these performances, the audience and commentary, season development, and education. Now
is a recognized, and vital, aspect of the production. digital technology and social media allow theatre to step
beyond the current status quo, providing a way for content
to be reexamined, developed, viewed, and appreciated,
ONLINE THEATRE, DIGITAL MEDIA,
especially in a time when face-to-face performances are
AND DIGITAL STORYTELLING
limited.
As this new edition comes into being, the world is facing the Online media is a broad term that can refer to several
challenges presented by the COVID-19 pandemic. These different types of digital content. Games, blog posts, videos,
 What Is Theatrical Design? 11

tutorials, animation, virtual reality, artificial intelligence (AI), between the audience and the performer is changed or
live readings, and recordings of live performances can all fall enhanced through the digital platform and how the platform
under the umbrella of online media. Conventional theatrical affects the selection of content, criticism, performance, and
performances can be enhanced with digital media and aesthetics of the production.
content. Others take place in digital spaces using traditional Like all art forms, theatre contains content. In the case
scripts and technical elements. The pandemic has forced
of theatre, content takes the form of a dramatic script.
theatres to push the boundaries of digital content, a process
Dramatic literature contains structure and format and can be
that began in the last ten years or so as social media have
divided into different genres and styles. Our understanding
asked us as theatre artists to look beyond our current
definition of theatre. This examination goes beyond simply of plays, as with all art forms, is based on the content of
presenting the same theatrical material in a different type of the work and the context, both of the play itself and of the
venue, to instead consider how best to create immersive, personal context we bring to it. The following chapters will
interactive content that is suited to the online environment. examine these important concepts and their importance for
This exploration must certainly consider how the relationship design.

THE LANGUAGE OF DESIGN Projection Designer – The artist who is responsible

for the design and creation of all images, moving and
AND THEATRICAL SPACE
still, that will be projected onto the stage or into the
Arena Theatre – A theatre in which the audience theatrical space.
surrounds the performance space on all sides. Properties Designer – The individual responsible for
Black Box Theatre – A flexible theatre space made to the design of all the properties in a production.
provide multiple stage configurations. Properties Manager – The individual responsible for
Costume Designer – The artist who is responsible for sourcing, finding, gathering, or making all the properties
the visual realization of the characters through clothing. that are needed for a production.
Courtyard Theatre – A theatre space that combines Proscenium Theatre – A theatre space whose
the qualities of several different theatre types, modeled main feature is an arch that frames the stage near
after a traditional Elizabethan stage. the front.
Digital Storytelling – Telling stories with the use of Scenic Designer – The artist who is responsible for
computer-based tools; the art of combining storytelling the design of the stage environment that the actors
with multimedia. inhabit.
End Stage Theatre – A theatre in which the audience Site-Specific Theatre – Theatrical productions
and the acting area occupy the same architectural space. designed to be performed in nontheatrical spaces.
Environmental Theatre – A theatrical space that Sound Designer – The artist who is responsible
has been completely transformed to create a unique for the design of all of the audio components for a
environment for the performance. production.
Found Space – A nontheatrical building or location Theatrical Design – The art of creating and composing
that is adapted and used for a performance. the visual and aural elements that shape a performance
Lighting Designer – The artist who is responsible for space.
illuminating the stage space so that the actors and the Theatrical Designer – An artist who creates and
environment may be seen. organizes one or more aspects of the aural and visual
Makeup Designer – The individual responsible components of a theatrical production.
for designing and coordinating all makeup looks and Thrust Theatre – A theatre space in which the stage
applications for each actor in a production, including any extends out into the audience and the seating surrounds
special makeup effects that are required. the playing area on three sides.
Online Theatre – Theatre productions presented in Vomitories – Aisles that extend from the stage through
an online format, whether through a web conferencing the seating area of a theatre that can be used as entrances
platform or other media capturing method. and exits.
References
“Theatre Essay: Site Specific Performance.” ukessays.com. 2018. UKEssays. 06 2021 <www.ukessays.com/essays/theatre/site-
specific-performance.php?vref=1>.
“17th And 18th Century Stage Makeup.” La Commedia Dell’Arte, sites.google.com/site/italiancommedia/costumes-masks-and-
makeup/makeup/17th-and-18th-century-stage-makeup.
“Family History.” Westmore Effects, www.westmorefx.com/history.
“From Cave Paintings to Modernists: A History of Watercolor Painting.” Original Contemporary Fine Art for Sale by Agora Gallery,
www.art-mine.com/for-sale/paintings-submedium-watercolor/history-of-watercolor-painting.
“Making Props.” Royal Shakespeare Company, www.rsc.org.uk/about-us/how-we-make-theatre/props.
“Tracing.” Strathmore Artist Papers, 17 17 2016, www.strathmoreartist.com/blog-reader/intro-to-gouache-new-video-series.html.
“Trinity College Dublin.” Preservation & Conservation: What’s That? www.tcd.ie/library/exhibitions/preservation-
conservation/whatcolouristhat.php.
“V&A · the Story of Theatre.” Victoria and Albert Museum, www.vam.ac.uk/articles/the-story-of-theatre.
“Watercolour Painting.” Watercolour Painting: Techniques, Origins, History, www.visual-arts-cork.com/watercolour-painting.htm.
“Westmore.” Westmore, www.westmoresofhollywood.com/.
Abling, Bina . Marker Rendering for Fashion, Accessories, and Home Fashions. New York: Fairchild Publications, 2006. Print.
Adams, Laurie . The Making and Meaning of Art. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2006. Print.
American Artist Magazine . Drawing, The Complete Course. Loveland, CO: Interweave Press, 2011.
Anderson, Barbara , and Cletus Anderson . Costume Design. 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1998. Print.
Art Departmental, artdepartmental.com/video/.
Auckland, George , and Mervyn Heard . “A History Of The Magic Lantern.” A History of The Magic Lantern: The Magic Lantern
Society. Exeter: Magic Lantern Society, 2007. Web. Feb. 2014.
Baird, Cecile . Painting Light with Colored Pencil. Cincinnati, OH: North Light, 2005. Print.
Ball, David . Backwards and Forwards: A Technical Manual for Reading Plays. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1983.
Print.
Barbour, David . “The Prevalence of Projections.” American Theatre – December 2011. New York, NY: Theatre Communications
Group, Dec. 2011. Web. Feb. 2014.
Bareiss, Seth , and David Annal . “Tessellations – M. C. Escher and How to Make Your Own Tessellation Art.” Tessellations – M. C.
Escher and How to Make Your Own Tessellation Art. Seth Bareiss, 30 Oct. 2003. Web. Oct. 2013, www.tesselations.org.
Benedetto, Stephen Di . An Introduction to Theatre Design. London: Routledge, 2012. Print.
Bishop, Philip E. Adventures in the Human Spirit. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. Print.
Box, Richard . Drawing for the Terrified! A Complete Course for Beginners. Newton Abbot, Devon: David & Charles, 1997. Print.
Boyle, Katherine . “Creating a Virtual World Onstage.” The Washington Post, 13 Jan. 2013. Web. Feb. 2014.
Brady, Patti . Rethinking Acrylic: Radical Solutions for Exploiting the World’s Most Versatile Medium. Cincinnati, OH: North Light, 2008.
Print.
Brewster, Karen , and Melissa Shafer . Fundamentals of Theatrical Design. New York: Allworth, 2011. Print.
Bruck, Victoria . Exploring the Basics of Drawing. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Cengage, 2014. Print.
Cohen, Selma Jeanne , and Katy Matheson . Dance as a Theatre Art: Source Readings in Dance History from 1581 to the Present.
Trenton, NJ: Princeton Book Company, 1992.
Corson, Richard . Stage Makeup. 10th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990. Print.
Cosmeticsandskin . “Panchromatic Make-Up.” Cosmetics and Skin: Panchromatic Make-Up,
www.cosmeticsandskin.com/cdc/panchromatic.php.
Cosmeticsandskin . “Recent Stories.” Cosmetics and Skin: Home, www.cosmeticsandskin.com/.
Cunningham, Rebecca . The Magic Garment: Principles of Costume Design. 2nd ed. Long Grove: Waveland, 2009. Print.
Curry, J.K. “The Prop’s the Thing.” Theatre Symposium, vol. 18, no. 1, 2010, doi:10.1353/tsy.2010.0010.
Danilova, Asya . “Review: ‘Sleep No More’ after You Experience an Immersive ‘Macbeth’.” Onstageblog.com ,
www.onstageblog.com/reviews/2016/12/26/review-sleep-no-more-after-you-experience-an-immersive-macbeth-set-in-a-30s-hotel.
Debreceni, Todd . Special Makeup Effects for Stage and Screen: Making and Applying Prosthetics. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Routledge,
2019.
Delahunt, Michael . “ArtLex Art Dictionary.” ArtLex Art Dictionary. Michael Delahunt , Aug. 1996. Web. June-July 2013,
https://www.artlex.com/.
Donnelly, Cormac , Doron Reizes , and Erika Basnicki . “Designing Sound.” Designing Sound. Miguel Isaza, 2009. Web. Dec. 2013,
https://designingsound.org.
Dunham, Richard . Stage Lighting: Fundamentals and Applications. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2011. Print.
Ebrahimian, Babak A. Sculpting Space in the Theater: Conversations with the Top Set, Light and Costume Designers. Burlington, MA:
Focal, 2006. Print.
Eddy, Michael S. “Lucky Guy Projection, Part 1, 2 and 3.” Live Design Magazine. Live Design Online, 18 Apr. 2013. Web. Feb. 2014.
Edwards, Betty . The New Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain. 4th ed. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 2010. Print.
Evans, Poppy , and Mark Thomas . Exploring the Elements of Design. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson/Delmar Learning, 2008. Print.
Ferdman, Bertie . Off Sites: Contemporary Performance beyond Site-Specific (Theater in the Americas). Carbondale, IL: Southern
Illinois University Press, 2018.
Fleishman, Michael . Exploring Illustration. Boston, MA: Cengage, 2004. Print.
Ford, Jeremy . The Art of Gouache: an Inspiring and Practical Guide to Painting with This Exciting Medium. Tunbridge Wells: Search
Press Ltd, 2019.
Frank, Patrick , and Duane Preble . Prebles’ Artforms: An Introduction to the Visual Arts. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2010. Print.
Gillette, J. Michael . Theatrical Design and Production: An Introduction to Scene Design and Construction, Lighting, Sound, Costume,
and Makeup. 7th ed. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2012. Print.
Goodwin, John . British Theatre Design: The Modern Age. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000. Print.
Hart, Eric . Prop Agenda, 9 Apr. 2021, www.props.eric-hart.com/.
Hartt, Frederick . History of Italian Renaissance Art. 3rd ed. London: Thames and Hudson, 1988. Print.
Hogarth, Burne . Dynamic Figure Drawing. New York: Watson-Guptill, 1996. Print.
Homan, Sidney (ed.). Playing Offstage: The Theater as a Presence or Factor in the Real World. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2018.
Hopgood, Jeromy . Dance Production: Design and Technology. New York, NY: Focal Press, 2016.
Ingham, Rosemary . From Page to Stage: How Theatre Designers Make Connections between Scripts and Images. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann, 1998. Print.
Ingham, Rosemary , and Liz Covey . The Costume Designer’s Handbook: A Complete Guide for Amateur and Professional Costume
Designers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1992. Print.
Jaen, Rafael . Digital Costume Design and Collaboration: Applications in Academia, Theatre, and Film. New York, NY: Routledge,
2018.
Johnson, Cathy . Creating Textures in Watercolor: Paints & Textures from Glass to Fur. Cincinnati, OH: North Light, 2003. Print.
Kaye, Deena , and James LeBrecht . Sound and Music for the Theatre: The Art and Technique of Design. 3rd ed. Amsterdam:
Elsevier, 2009. Print.
Kaye, Deena ., et al. Sound and Music for the Theatre: The Art and Technique of Design. New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis
Group, 2016.
Lagacé, Rose , et al. “Why Props Matter in Film and Television.” Art Departmental, 12 Oct. 2017, artdepartmental.com/blog/props-
matter/.
Lihs, Harriet R. Appreciating Dance: a Guide to the Worlds Liveliest Art. Trenton, NJ: Princeton Book Company/Publishers, 2018.
Livedesignonline . “Julie Taymor’s a Midsummer Night’s Dream With Projection Support from WorldStage.” Live Design Magazine.
Live Design Online, 31 Jan. 2014. Web. Feb. 2014.
McDaniel, Richard . The Drawing Book: Materials and Techniques for Today’s Artist. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1995.
Print.
Metmuseum.org , www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kano/hd_kano.htm.
Metzger, Philip W. Perspective without Pain. Cincinnati, OH: North Light, 1992. Print.
Middleton, Katie . Color Theory for the Makeup Artist: Understanding Color and Light for Beauty and Special Effects. New York, NY:
Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2018.
Monahan, Patricia , Patricia Seligman , and Wendy Clouse . Art School: A Complete Painters Course. London: Hamlyn, 2000. Print.
Morgan, Harry . Perspective Drawing for the Theatre. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1979. Print.
Oddey, Alison . Devising Theatre: A Practical and Theoretical Handbook. New York, NY: Routledge, 2015.
Pecktal, Lynn . Costume Design: Techniques of Modern Masters. New York: Back Stage, 1993. Print.
Pecktal, Lynn . Designing and Painting for the Theatre. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975. Print.
Pentak, Stephen , Richard Roth , and David A. Lauer . Design Basics. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning, 2013. Print.
Powell, Brittany . “Non-Rectilinear Projection Design for Live.” Thesis. University of Florida, 2011. Web. Feb. 2014,
http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/00/95/18/00001/Powell.pdf.
Prophandbook.com , prophandbook.com/HOME.html.
Quiller, Stephen . Color Choices. New York: Watson-Guptill, 2002. Print.
Reyner, Nancy . Acrylic Revolution: New Tricks & Techniques for Working with the World’s Most Versatile Medium. Cincinnati, OH:
North Light, 2007. Print.
Road, The Artists . Why Watercolor? We Ask Ten Top Painters – The Artists Road, 30 Mar. 2014,
www.theartistsroad.net/articles/whywatercolor.
Robinson, Davis . Practical Guide to Ensemble Devising. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
Rowe, Clare P. Drawing & Rendering for Theatre: A Practical Course for Scenic, Costume, and Lighting Designers. Amsterdam:
Focal, 2007. Print.
Saw, James T. “Design Notes.” Design Notes. San Marcos, CA: Palomar Community College, 2003. Web. Feb. 2013.
Sayre, Henry M. A World of Art. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000. Print.
Sciortino, Christine , and Tony Santiago . Makeup Artistry for Film and Television: Your Tools for Success on-Set and behind-the-
Scenes. New York, NY: Routledge, 2021.
Sheaks, Barclay . The Acrylics Book: Materials and Techniques for Today’s Artist. New York: Watson-Guptill, 1996. Print.
Shelley, Steven . A Practical Guide to Stage Lighting. 3rd ed. New York: Focal, 2013. Print.
Smith, Jessica . Get up & Gouache: Unleash Your Creativity with 20 Painting Projects. New York, NY: Hachette, 2020.
Smith, Phil . Making Site-Specific Theatre and Performance: A Handbook. New York, NY: Macmillan International, 2019.
Smith, Ray , and Elizabeth Jane Lloyd . The Complete Guide to Watercolor. New York, NY: Dorling Kindersley, 2002.
Smithsonian Institution . “Cosmetics and Personal Care Products in the Medicine and Science Collections.” National Museum of
American History. Smithsonian Institution, americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object-groups/health-hygiene-and-beauty.
Strawn, Sandra J , and Lisa Schlenker . The Property Director’s Toolkit. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group,
2018.
Sugg, Jeff . “American Theatre Wing – in the Wings – Projection Designer – October, 2009.” In The Wings Video. New York, NY:
American Theatre Wing, Oct. 2009. Web. Feb. 2014.
Tan, Huaixiang . Character Costume Figure Drawing: Step-by-step Drawing Methods for Theatre Costume Designers. 2nd ed.
Amsterdam: Elsevier/Focal, 2010. Print.
Thomas, James . Script Analysis for Actors, Directors, and Designers. 5th ed. Boston: Focal, 2013. Print.
Wiehe, Jarred ., “Play Your Fan”: Exploring Hand Props and Gender on the Restoration Stage Through the Country Wife, the Man of
Mode, the Rover, and the Way of the World.” Theses and Dissertations, 2011, p. 148,
https://csuepress.columbusstate.edu/theses_dissertations/148.
Williams, Bill . “PART 1 – An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Bill Williams.” Stage Lighting Design. Bill Williams, 1997. Web. Dec. 2013.
Wilson, Edwin , and Alvin Goldfarb . Theatre: The Lively Art. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2010. Print.
Wolf, R. Craig , and Dick Block . Scene Design and Stage Lighting. 10th ed. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2014. Print.
Wolf, Rachel Rubin . The Acrylic Painter’s Book of Styles & Techniques. Cincinnati, OH: North Light, 1997. Print.
Woodbridge, Patricia , and Hal Tiné . Designer Drafting and Visualizing for the Entertainment World. 2nd ed. Burlington, MA: Focal,
2013. Print.
Woods, Michael . Drawing Basics: An Artist’s Guide to Mastering the Medium. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 2000. Print.