Course code: GST 111

1. Sound Patterns in English Language (Vowels and Consonants, Phonetics and Phonology)

● Vowels and Consonants:

○ Vowels: These are speech sounds produced without blocking the airflow in the vocal tract. In English, vowels
include sounds like /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/.
○ Consonants: These are speech sounds made by blocking or restricting airflow in some way. Examples
include /b/, /k/, /t/, /d/.
● Phonetics: The study of the physical production and perception of speech sounds. Phonetics looks at how sounds are
made (articulation), how they travel (acoustics), and how they are heard (auditory).

● Phonology: The study of how sounds function within a particular language. Phonology involves the patterns and systems
of sounds, including how they combine and change in speech.

2. English Word Classes (Lexical and Grammatical Words, Definitions, Forms, Usages, Collocation)

● Lexical Words: These carry the main meaning in a sentence and include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. For
example:

○ Nouns: cat, book, idea

○ Verbs: run, think, exist
○ Adjectives: tall, happy, quick
○ Adverbs: quickly, gently, often
● Grammatical Words: These words serve to express grammatical relationships and include articles, prepositions,
conjunctions, and auxiliary verbs. For example:

○ Articles: the, a
○ Prepositions: in, on, under
○ Conjunctions: and, but, because
○ Auxiliary verbs: is, have, can
● Forms: Words can have different forms based on tense, number, case, and other grammatical features.

● Usages: Words are used in different contexts based on their meaning and grammatical function.

● Collocation: Refers to the habitual combination of certain words. For example, "strong coffee" (not "powerful coffee").

3. Sentences in English (Types: Structural and Functional, Simple and Complex)

● Structural Types:
○ Simple Sentence: Contains one independent clause (e.g., "She sings.").
○ Compound Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses joined by conjunctions (e.g., "She sings and
he dances.").
○ Complex Sentence: Contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause (e.g., "She sings
because she loves music.").
● Functional Types:
○ Declarative: A statement (e.g., "It is raining.").
○ Interrogative: A question (e.g., "Is it raining?").
○ Imperative: A command (e.g., "Close the door.").
○ Exclamatory: Expresses strong emotion (e.g., "What a beautiful day!").

4. Grammar and Usage (Tense, Modality, and Concord, Aspect of Language Usage in Everyday Life)

● Tense: Refers to the time of action or state described by the verb. Examples include:
○ Present: I eat.
○ Past: I ate.
○ Future: I will eat.
 ● Modality: Refers to the speaker's attitude toward the action (whether it's a possibility, necessity, or permission). Modal
verbs include:
○ Can: ability/permission
○ Must: necessity/obligation
○ May: permission/possibility
● Concord: Refers to the agreement between parts of a sentence, typically between subject and verb (subject-verb
agreement) and noun and adjective (number and gender agreement). For example:
○ Subject-Verb Agreement: "She runs" (not "She run").
○ Number Agreement: "The dogs are barking" (not "The dogs is barking").
● Aspect of Language Usage in Everyday Life: How grammar, tense, and modality are used in daily communication to
convey meaning, ask for things, make requests, or describe events.

5. Logical and Critical Thinking and Reasoning Methods (Logic and Syllogism, Inductive and Deductive Argument and
Reasoning Methods, Analogy, Generalization and Explanations)

● Logic and Syllogism:

○ Logic: The systematic study of valid reasoning. It focuses on the structure of arguments and the relationships
between statements.
○ Syllogism: A form of reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions
(premises). For example:
■ Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
■ Premise 2: Socrates is human.
■ Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
● Inductive and Deductive Argument and Reasoning Methods:

○ Inductive Reasoning: Drawing general conclusions from specific observations or cases. For example: "All the
swans I've seen are white, so all swans must be white."
○ Deductive Reasoning: Starting from a general premise and drawing a specific conclusion. For example: "All
swans are white (general premise), this bird is a swan (specific case), so this bird is white."
● Analogy: Comparing two things that are alike in some way to draw a conclusion. Example: "Just as a car needs fuel to
run, a human needs food for energy."

● Generalization: Making broad statements based on a limited set of data. For example: "Most teenagers like music, so all
teenagers must like music."

● Explanations: Clarifying why something is the way it is. An explanation provides understanding, unlike an argument
which is intended to persuade.

6. Ethical Considerations, Copyright Rules, and Infringements

● Ethical Considerations: Refers to the principles of right and wrong that guide behavior, particularly in situations involving
research, writing, and sharing ideas. This includes respecting others' intellectual property, avoiding plagiarism, and
ensuring fairness and honesty.

● Copyright Rules: Copyright protects the original works of authorship, including literary, artistic, musical, and other
intellectual creations. It grants the creator exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, and display their work.

● Copyright Infringements: Occurs when someone uses a copyrighted work without permission, violating the copyright
holder's rights. This can involve unauthorized copying, sharing, or performing of a copyrighted work.

7. Writing Activities (Pre-Writing, Writing, Post-Writing, Editing and Proofreading, Brainstorming, Outlining, Paragraphing,
Types of Writing, Summary, Essays, Letters, Curriculum Vitae, Report Writing, Note Making, Mechanics of Writing)

● Pre-Writing: Activities that help organize ideas before writing, such as brainstorming, researching, and outlining.

● Writing: The actual process of composing sentences and paragraphs based on the pre-writing plan.

● Post-Writing: The steps taken after writing to refine the work. This includes revising, editing, and proofreading.
 ● Editing and Proofreading: Editing involves making structural and stylistic changes to improve clarity and coherence.
Proofreading focuses on correcting spelling, grammar, punctuation, and formatting errors.

● Brainstorming: A method for generating ideas and exploring different angles on a topic. It can involve listing, mind
mapping, or free writing.

● Outlining: Organizing main points and sub-points in a structured format before writing. It helps in planning the flow of the
writing.

● Paragraphing: Dividing writing into paragraphs for clarity and better structure. Each paragraph should focus on a single
idea.

● Types of Writing:

○ Summary: A brief restatement of the main ideas of a text.

○ Essays: Structured writing that develops an argument or explores a topic.
○ Letters: Written communication between individuals. Can be formal or informal.
○ Curriculum Vitae (CV): A detailed document that outlines an individual’s qualifications, work experience, and
skills.
○ Report Writing: A formal account of a subject, research, or findings presented in an organized manner.
○ Note Making: Condensing and organizing information in a concise and readable format.
● Mechanics of Writing: The technical aspects of writing, such as grammar, spelling, punctuation, and formatting.Uhh

8. Comprehension Strategies (Reading and Types of Reading, Comprehension Skills, 3RSQ)

● Reading and Types of Reading:

○ Reading: The process of decoding written text to extract meaning. It involves understanding words, sentences,
and ideas.
○ Types of Reading:
■ Skimming: Quickly reading to get the general idea.
■ Scanning: Looking for specific information.
■ Detailed Reading: Reading carefully to understand every detail.
● Comprehension Skills: These are the abilities needed to understand, interpret, and analyze a text. This includes
identifying main ideas, understanding vocabulary in context, making inferences, and summarizing information.

● 3RSQ: A strategy to improve comprehension:

○ R: Read – Carefully read the text.

○ R: Recall – Recall the main points.
○ S: Summarize – Summarize what was read in your own words.
○ Q: Question – Ask questions about the text to deepen understanding and ensure retention.

9. Information and Communication Technology in Modern Language Learning

● ICT in Language Learning: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has revolutionized language learning by
providing a range of digital tools and platforms that facilitate interactive and engaging learning experiences. This includes:
○ Online Courses: Platforms like Duolingo, Coursera, and Khan Academy offer structured lessons in language
learning.
○ Multimedia Tools: Use of videos, podcasts, and audio materials to enhance listening skills and expose learners
to different accents and contexts.
○ Language Learning Apps: Mobile applications help learners practice vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation
through interactive exercises.
○ Virtual Classrooms: Video conferencing tools like Zoom allow real-time language instruction with peers and
instructors worldwide.

10. Language Skills for Effective Communication

Effective communication relies on four main language skills:

● Listening: Understanding spoken language by focusing on the speaker's words, tone, and context.
● Speaking: Expressing thoughts, ideas, and emotions through speech in an articulate and clear manner.
● Reading: Interpreting written text accurately and comprehending its meaning.
 ● Writing: Organizing and expressing ideas clearly and effectively in written form.

To communicate effectively, it's essential to develop all these skills alongside non-verbal elements such as body language and tone
of voice.

11. Major Word Formation Processes

Word formation refers to how new words are created in a language. Some major processes include:

● Affixation: Adding prefixes, suffixes, or infixes to a root word (e.g., unhappy, quickness).
● Compounding: Combining two or more words to form a new word (e.g., toothbrush, bookshelf).
● Conversion: Changing the grammatical category of a word without changing its form (e.g., run as a verb to run as a
noun).
● Blending: Combining parts of two words to form a new one (e.g., brunch from breakfast + lunch).
● Acronyms and Abbreviations: Using the initial letters of words to form a new word (e.g., NASA for National Aeronautics
and Space Administration).
● Borrowing: Taking words from other languages (e.g., sushi from Japanese).

12. Writing and Reading (Comprehension Strategies)

● Writing Strategies:
○ Planning: Outlining and organizing ideas before writing.
○ Drafting: Writing the first version of a text without worrying too much about perfection.
○ Revising: Making changes to improve clarity, structure, and coherence.
● Reading Strategies:
○ Skimming: Reading quickly for the main idea.
○ Scanning: Searching for specific details.
○ Detailed Reading: Reading carefully to understand every aspect.
● Comprehension Strategies:
○ SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review): A method for improving reading comprehension by engaging
with the text actively.
○ Predicting: Making guesses about the content based on headings or prior knowledge.
○ Annotating: Highlighting or making notes on the text to aid understanding and memory.

13. Logical and Critical Reasoning for Meaningful Presentations

● Logical Reasoning: The ability to structure thoughts logically, ensuring that arguments and information are presented in
a clear and consistent manner. This includes:
○ Identifying premises and conclusions.
○ Avoiding logical fallacies (e.g., circular reasoning, false cause).
● Critical Reasoning: Evaluating arguments by examining evidence, assessing assumptions, and drawing conclusions
based on facts.

For meaningful presentations, it's essential to:

● Organize content clearly.

● Support arguments with evidence and examples.
● Address counterarguments or potential weaknesses.

14. Art of Public Speaking and Listening

● Public Speaking: The art of delivering a speech or presentation to an audience. Key elements include:
○ Preparation: Knowing your material and organizing your thoughts.
○ Confidence: Using body language, tone, and eye contact to engage the audience.
○ Clarity: Speaking clearly and at an appropriate pace.
○ Audience Engagement: Asking questions, using visuals, and encouraging interaction.
● Listening: Effective listening during a public speech is just as important as speaking. Active listening involves:
○ Focusing on the speaker without distractions.
○ Understanding the message.
○ Responding appropriately (e.g., nodding, asking relevant questions).

Good listeners help to create a positive communication environment and improve the effectiveness of the speaker’s message.

15. Report Writing

● Report Writing: A formal way of presenting information or findings. A report generally follows a clear structure:
○ Title: Clearly stating the subject of the report.
○ Abstract/Executive Summary: A brief overview of the key findings and recommendations.
○ Introduction: Introducing the purpose, scope, and methodology of the report.
○ Body: Presenting the main findings, analysis, and discussion, often divided into sections with headings and
subheadings.
○ Conclusion: Summarizing key points and providing recommendations based on the findings.
○ References: Listing all sources used in the report.