Chapter 1- Sentence Review Before beginning the task of writing paragraphs and essays this chapter will review some basic concepts of the writing task. The activity of writing begins with words and these words are built upon to form larger and larger units or groupings of words. From words, the activity progresses to phrases and clauses to sentences, to paragraphs, to essays, to units or chapters to books. The first chapter of this book will begin with a review of phrases and clauses followed by common problems that beginning writers have with clauses and sentences. Next the chapter will cover the different kinds of sentences that can be used when writing. Phrases and clauses ‘A phrase is a group of two or more words that has no subject or verb. Look at these examples: Abig, blue tambourine ‘An amazingly fast animal 4 AAA alkaline batteries ‘A clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb. There are two kinds of clauses: independent clauses (also called main clauses) and dependent clauses (also called subordinate clauses). An independent clause is a complete sentence and can stand-alone. A dependent clause is not a complete sentence and cannot stand alone. It must be connected to an independent clause in some way. There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adverb clauses, adjective clauses, and noun clauses. ‘An adverb clause is a dependent clause that starts with a subordinating conjunction. (see below for a list of subordinating conjunctions). Adverb clauses function as adverbs and modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs in an independent clause. It tells when (time), where (place), why (reason), how, how long, or how far. An adverb clause can be placed before or after the independent clause. Ifitis placed before the independent clause, a comma must be used to separate the two clauses. No comma is needed if the adverb clause is placed after the independent clause. Whenever I take the bus to class, | always arrive late. | always arrive to class late whenever I take the bus. An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) is a dependent clause that begins with a relative pronoun (who, whom, which, whose, or that). An adjective clause functions as an adjective and follows the noun or pronoun it modifies. It tells more about a person or thing. Maria, who is in my class, drinks coffee everyday. Three professional athletes, who are members of the Olympic swim team, were arrested last night for disturbing the peace. Please note the use of the following relative pronouns: ‘The word who (and whom) is used when referring to people ‘The word which is used when referring to things. ‘The word that can be used to refer to people or things. 3‘A noun clause is a dependent clause that begins with a WH-question word (what, when, where, why, who, how), that, whether, and if. A noun clause can function as a subject, object, or complement. | know that people have different opinions about capital punishment. | could be completely happy if I had a lot of money. Clauses, whether independent or dependent, need to be joined together in some way to make the writing smooth and to make the relationship between the clauses clear. Clauses are joined together with the use of clause connectors. There are four kinds of clause connectors: subordinating conjunctions, coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and conjunctive adverbs. ‘Subordinating conjunctions (also called subordinators) are words at the beginning of a dependent Clause and are used to connect an independent clause and a dependent clause. The subordinating conjunction may appear at the beginning of the sentence or between the dependent and independent clause. Note the punctuation with the use of subordinating conjunctions. If the subordinating conjunction and the dependent clause are at the beginning of the sentence, a comma follows the dependent clause. No comma is used if the subordinating conjunction and the dependent clause are at the end of the sentence Look at these examples. After | ate lunch, | went to the movies | went to the movie after I ate lunch. If Lwalk more than six miles at one time, my feet are always sore. My feet are always sore if I walk more than six miles at one time. Look at the partial list of subordinating conjunctions below. Note that each subordinating conjunction can introduce specific functions or situations. Subordinating conjunctions Tre es while as soon as after as before until once by the time that Place where anywhere wherever everywhere Manner as asif as though Reason because as since in.as much as Purpose _so that inorder that maylmight canicould —willlwould have to Concession although though even though Contrast while whereas Distance as + adverb + as Result 80 + adjective + that Coordinating conjunctions (also called coordinators) are used to connect two independent clauses, both with equal importance in the sentence. A comma separates the two independent clauses, with the coordinator immediately following the comma. Look at these examples. Mr. Lee was already extremely tired, but he continued working until well after midnight. ‘Sam had not finished cooking dinner, nor had he completed all the homework before his wife returned home.ist of coordinating conjunctives, for and nor but or yet so ‘An easy way to remember the coordinators is with the mnemonic device FAN BOYS. Correlative conjunctions are pairs of coordinating conjunctions that work together to join two similar or contrasting thoughts together. The correlative conjunctions are: both... and notonly... butalso either... or neither... nor Look at these examples. ‘The Democratic Party in America is committed to higher taxes for both big business and the wealthy. Cheetahs are not only fast but also powerful Ifa person is attempting to lose weight they should neither eat excessively nor avoid exercise A popular axiom is ‘You are either with us, or against us’. Conjunctive adverbs (such as besides, however, indeed), like coordinating conjunctions, are used to connect two independent clauses together. Conjunctive adverbs, however, do not join two independent clauses into a single grammatical unit, as coordinating conjunctions do: they merely show the relationship between the two clauses. Look at this example. Economical vehicles are widely available in the United States; however, many Americans still prefer gas guzzling luxury cars. In the sentence above, however does not join the two clauses into a grammatical unit, it just shows how the two clauses are related. Because a conjunctive adverb does not bind clauses together, as coordinating conjunctions do, they can be moved around. Look at these examples. ‘The Smiths’ had planned on going on a picnic; however, a sudden thunderstorm forced them to cancel the outing ‘The Smiths’ had planned on going on a picnic; a sudden thunderstorm forced them to cancel the outing, however. Compare the use of coordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs and how the clauses are combined into grammatical units, Economical vehicles are widely available in the United States; but, many Americans still prefer gas guzzling luxury cars. Economical vehicles are widely available in the United States, many Americans still prefer gas guzzling luxury cars but. ‘The sentences above demonstrate that but binds the two clauses into a grammatical unit, which does not allow the movement of the coordinating conjunction to other places in the sentence. Conjunctive adverbs are always placed between two independent clauses. Note the punctuation used with conjunctive adverbs. A semi-colon separates the two independent clauses and a comma follows the conjunctive adverb if it is between the clauses, or a period if at the end of the sentence.List of Conjunctive Adverbs accordingly besides consequently for example furthermore hence however in addition in contrast indeed instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless nonetheless onthe otherhand otherwise therefore. thus ‘Types of sentences Four types of sentences can be used when writing. Writers should strive to use all four types of sentences because doing so provides greater interest and enjoyment for the reader. Imagine having to read along passage containing only simple sentences. Boredom and tedium would soon set in. Look carefully at the four types of sentences. 1. A simple sentence consists of one independent clause with one subject and verb. A tomado is a destructive force in nature. SUBJECT + VERB Bicycles are a great way to travel short distances, Exercise 1.1 ‘Write four simple sentences in the space below. 2. Acompound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. independent clauses can be joined together in one of three ways. ied together. The a) with a coordinating conjunction b) with a conjunctive adverb INDEPENDENT CLAUSE ) with a semicolon + INDEPENDENT CLAUSE a, With a coordinating conjunetion Independent clause, + coordinator + independent clause Phil thoroughly enjoys playing chess, but he detests checkers. Luxury cars are very expensive, yet they can be just as unreliable as cheaper cars,b. With a conjunctive adverb Independent clause; + conjunctive adverb, + independent clause Maureen can play the violin ike a virtuoso; however, she can't stand classical music. ‘A diet high in cholesterol can be dangerous to your health; indeed, it can lead to high blood pressure and arterial-sclerosis. c. With a semicolon Independent clause; independent clause My oldest sister is a teacher; my youngest is a lawyer. Russia was the first country to put a man into space; the United States was second. Exercise 1.2 ‘Write six compound sentences, two each with a coordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverb, and a semi-colon. Exercise 1.3 ‘Add another dependent clause to the dependent clause below using the seven coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, 50) to form a compound sentence. Be sure to include correct punctuation. 1. Camels can thrive in the desert for 2. Mr. Jackson can fly an airplane and 3. Ms. Kang cannot cook nor4. enjoy studying mathematics but 5, To lose weight people can eat properly or 6. Millions of people go to church regularly on Sundays yet 7. Mr. Wallace was starting to put on a few pounds so 3. A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. (See above for a INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. review of the three different kinds of dependent clauses) + The most important idea of the sentence is place in the DEPENDENT CLAUSE independent clause and the least important idea is placed 3 in the dependent clause DESERET TCURDSE adverb clause Complex sentence Although winters in Colorado can be extremely cold, if you lke to ski, itis the place to be. Hawaii is a great place to vacation, because ofits white sandy beaches and warm calm waters, unless of course, one doesn't like tropical environs. Complex sentence with adjective clause Ostriches are very large birds, which are found in Africa and Australia, and are known for sticking their heads in the sand. When Alice goes to the movies, she always has buttered popcom and ‘Gummy Bears, which makes the total experience more enjoyable. Complex sentence with noun clause It makes no difference, which every way you go, you will still get there. ‘When John won the lottery, although he could buy any thing his heart desired, he was not happy. Exercise 1.4 ‘Write six complex sentences in the space below. Write two sentences each using an adverb clause, an adjective clause, and a noun clause. 1Exercise 1.5 ‘Write the following sentences into one complex sentence, using the subordinating conjunction, coordinating conjunction, or conjunctive adverb in the parenthesis to join the clauses together. Remember to use correct punctuation. 1. The price of gasoline went up forty cents a gallon. The Elliot's decided to cancel their vacation plans of driving to Florida. (since) 2. Traveling to other countries can be fun and rewarding, Travelers should never carry too much money as a safety precaution They should use credit cards. (however, instead) 3, Smokers can no longer smoke in government buildings in the United States. They also cannot smoke in many restaurants and bars. (nor) 4. Doctors also inform us that drinking a small amount of wine is good for the heart Doctors tell people that drinking excessively could cause damage to the liver. (on the other and) 5. All religions preach that murder is a sin Throughout history there have been countless killings for the sake of religion. (but) 6. Americans believe in the right to bear arms. Many Americans have handguns and rifles in their homes. (because) 7. Many women continue to drink during pregnancy Research has shown that drinking alcohol during pregnancy could be detrimental to a baby's health. (although) 8. Souther California has wonderful beaches for surfing. Tom and his wife go to every chance they get. (which)4. Acompound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. It'is a combination of a compound sentence and INDEPENDENT CLAUSE ‘complex sentence, ie. a complex sentence joined to + another sentence with a coordinating conjunction or INDEPENDENT CLAUSE conjunctive adverb. Compound-complex sentences ra can be difficult and confusing to punctuate. The ‘compound part of the sentence is punctuated like a DEPENDENT CLAUSE ‘compound sentence; with a semi-colon and comma (sentence 1), or with a comma before a coordinator that connects two clauses (sentence 2). The complex part of the sentence is punctuated like a complex sentence; a comma follows a dependent adverb clause, but no commas are used with noun clauses 1. That computers are a wonderful invention is obvious; however, much of the software available for them is so complicated; they require an enormous amounts of time and energy to master. 2. Allen always wanted to pursue a career in medicine, but because he lacked the financial resources, he decided to become an engineer instead. Exercise 1.6 ‘Write six compound-complex sentences in the space below. Exercise 1.7 Rewrite the following sentences into one compound-complex sentence. Be sure to use correct, punctuation. 1. Driving a sports car can be fun. Itis very expensive There is the high cost of maintenance and the almost double premiums for insurance to contend with 102. Reading is a favorite pastime for thousands of people. Not only can an avid reader learn a lot, but also they can escape the realities of daily life. Reading a good novel can take you to far away places and introduce you to new experiences. 3. Television programs specifically made for children are good educational tools. Children can learn many things, not only the three R's, but the marvelous wonders of the world Social customs, habits, and beliefs are also easily conveyed to children through TV. 4. There are many benefits from having a pet. Responsibility is learned if the child has to feed, water, and watch out for illness or injury. Playing with a pet can provide children with many hours of companionship and fun 5. Leaming to write in English can be extremely dificult. ‘Additional rules have to be observed when writing that are not used in speaking, Some of these rules include punctuation, spelling, and use of complete sentences. 6. The legal drinking age in some states was reduced to nineteen years ago. This created many problems. ‘There was a dramatic increase in incidences of drunk driving and drinking related accidents Car accident fatalities among this age group soared. The law was repealed several years later. Common problems This section will review some of the more common problems that beginning writers encounter. These problems include sentence fragments, choppy sentences, stringy sentences, run-on sentences, and comma splices. Sentence fragments Many beginning writers make the mistake of writing sentence fragments, groups of words that are not complete sentences. There are three reasons for sentence fragments: there is either no subject in the sentence or no verb in the sentence or there is no independent clause‘An independent clause is a sentence that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete and logical thought. It can stand by itself. Look at these examples: John works on Tuesday. The sun shines. Mary and Tony are engaged and will be married in March. All three of the above sentences contain a subject, a verb, and a complete thought. Nothing has to be added to the sentence for it to make sense. The reader can determine the meaning of the sentence, ‘A dependent clause may have a subject and/or verb, but itis not a complete thought and it can not stand by itself. Dependent clauses are sometimes thought of as a sentence because they may contain a subject andior a verb, but because they do not express a complete thought, they are not complete sentences. Look at these examples’ Rained everyday last week. Sally and Min Ju everyday. For example cakes and cookies. By the time I get to Phoenix. ‘The four examples above are dependent clauses, not complete sentences. ‘The first example has no subject. For this clause to make sense a subject must be added. Adding it (it being the weather) as the subject turns this dependent clause into an independent clause (or sentence) that the reader can easily make sense of. Itrained everyday last week ‘The second example has no verb. The reader does not know what Sally and Min Ju did everyday. Did they play? Sing? Cry? Swim? Sally and Min Ju played on the beach everyday on their vacation. With the addition of a verb the reader knows exactly what action Sally and Min Ju performed and the sentence makes sense. The third example contains no subject or verb and it is impossible for the reader to understand its meaning. Once a subject and verb are added the meaning of the sentence becomes clear. Luke s anything sweet for dessert, for example cakes and cookies. ‘The forth example contains both a subject and a verb, but it does not express a complete thought. The reader cannot determine the meaning of the clause because something is missing. What is missing is the thought about what action or event will happen when the person arrives in Phoenix. Will the sun be shining by the time he gets to Phoenix or will his friend be in Amsterdam by the time he gets to Phoenix or will he have slept for 36 hours by the time he gets to Phoenix? By the time I get to Phoenix she will be returning home from work. ‘Adding the independent clause she will be retuming home from work makes this into a complete sentence. Now the reader fully understands the intended meaning of the sentence. Correcting a sentence fragment involves either adding a subject or adding a verb or changing the dependent clause into an independent one, as the examples above have shown. 2Words that are commonly used to start dependent clauses are listed below. When editing and revising written work, be sure to examine any sentence that begins with these words to ensure that itis indeed a complete sentence and expresses a complete thought. after although as, because before despite even if even though if inspite of since so so that though unless until whatever when whenever where whereas wherever which while who whom whose Exercise 1.8 Edit the following dependent clause to make them into complete sentences. 1. After I get home 2. On Mondays Lance and Gertrude like 3. Until it started to rain 4. While | was there 5. Is the greatest sport ever invented 6. Especially math and history 7. Such as milk and cookies 8. Because of the weather Choppy sentences Another common problem which beginning writers have are writing choppy sentences. ~~ Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. They should be combined to make longer sentences. Look at the examples below. a dogs. Dogs make good pets. Dogs are friendly and loyal. Reading short sentences like this would be very boring and frustrating to read for long periods of time. It makes for more interesting reading if the sentences are combined into one or two sentences, as shown below. ce dogs because they are friendly and loyal. These two traits make dogs good pets. BExercise 1.9 Edit the choppy sentences below into one or two sentences so they are more interesting to read. 1. Vegetables are good for you. Vegetables taste good. Vegetables are easy to prepare. 2. Ilike movies. | go to movies every weekend. | like action movies best 3. Elephants are big. They live in Africa and Asia. They eat a lot of food. 4. Phil is a thrill seeker. He enjoys skydiving and bungee jumping. He goes every chance he gets. 5. [hate housework. Housework is very boring. It takes too much time. | especially dislike mopping the floor and ironing Stringy sentences ‘Some beginning writers have a tendency to write and write, producing very long sentences which Consist of too many independent clauses which are connected with and, but, or because. These sentences are many times the result of writing the same way as we speak. These types of sentences can also be difficult to comprehend and are tiresome to read. There is no hard and fast rule for the number of independent clauses in a sentence, but a good of thumb is two. Stringy sentences can be corrected by making separate sentences of some of the independent clauses and re-writing others to make them compound or complex sentences. Look at this example. Stringy Taking a bath everyday is very important for personal sentence hygiene because if a person doesn't bathe everyday they could become sick and they would start to smell really bad and people would give them very funny looks and not want to be around them. Corrected Taking a bath every day is important for personal hygiene. If a person doesn't bath everyday they could become sick. In additional, they would begin to smell; people would give them funny looks and avoid them. Exercise 1.10 Rewrite the following stringy sentences into more appropriate ones. 1. [have made it a point throughout my life to try to save at least a part of my monthly income and put it into a savings account because | want to have a large nest egg to retire on, and I try never to give into the impulse of dipping into it because | would regret it in the future. “42. Halloween was always a very special holiday for me when | was a child because I got to dress up in a costume and went all over the neighborhood and got candy from all my neighbors, but | never got sick eating all that candy at one time because my mother made me put most of it away and | was only able to eat a little bit of it everyday, but it lasted a lot longer that way. 3. When I was in high school | was in the marching band and it was great because we got to get into all the football and basketball games free, but most of the other students had to pay to get in, but we also had to march in all the parades that the city held during the year, which was okay during the winter months but during the summer it was very hot so it was hard. Run-on sentences Run-on sentences consist of two or more independent clauses with no punctuation. Run-on sentences can be just as frustrating as choppy sentences to read and can be more difficult for the reader to understand. My mother likes to cook and she cooks delicious cakes and cookies and | love the smell of the house whenever she is baking something because it makes my mouth water. Run-on sentences can be corrected in one of three ways: by using a period to make separate independent clauses, by using a subordinating conjunction to connect the clauses, or by adding extra words. Note how much easier itis to read the above passage with correct punctuation and the use of conjunctions. My mother likes to cook. Her cakes and cookies are especially delicious. | love the smell of the house whenever she is baking because it makes my mouth water. Exercise 1.11 Edit the following run-on sentence by using punctuation to make two or more independent clauses or by adding a subordinating conjunction to connect the clauses, or by adding more words 1. The first dog | had after graduating from college was named Fred and he was a great dog and he loved to play ball and get a bath but he also had a tendency to chew my shoes and plants when he was a puppy that made me very angry.2. The other day John got a speeding ticket when he was driving through a school zone at forty- five kilometers per hour and the speed limit was only fifteen kilometers per hour but he didn't realize it was the first day of school so he wasn't paying too much attention to the traffic sign in the middle of the road and he was very angry at the policeman because he was rude and would not give him a break. 3. Telephones are probably one of the best and most convenient devices produced in the twentieth century because you can call anyone, anytime from just about anywhere especially now that there are so many cell phones available and telephones don't really cost that much to buy or to use. Comma splice ‘Acomma splice error occurs when a comma is used by itseff to separate two independent clauses. If a comma is used to separate two independent clauses, a coordinating conjunction must also be included. Commas splice: My family went to Australia, then they immigrated to Canada Corrected: My family went to Australia, and then they immigrated to Canada. There are four methods to use to correct a comma splice. ‘The first method uses a period to separate the independent clauses. My family went to Australia. Then they immigrated to Canada ‘The second method uses a semicolon to separate the two independent clauses. My family went to Australia; then they immigrated to Canada. ‘The third method uses a coordinating conjunction to separate the two independent clauses. My family went to Australia, and then they immigrated to Canada ‘The forth method changes one of the independent clauses to a dependent clause and starts it with a subordinating conjunction’ My family went to Australia, before they immigrated to Canada. After my family went to Australia, they immigrated to Canada 16Exercise 1.12 Edit the following sentences, correcting the comma splice. Use the four different methods describe above to correct the error. 1. Roger gets up in the moming, then he brushes his teeth 2. Leopards hunt by night, they sleep during the day. 3. Coffee is a good beverage in the morning, caffeine helps people get going. 4, One should never drink and drive, it could be very dangerous. Writing Tips Selecting words in sentences ‘When writing, itis important to find the right words that best communicate your meaning. When speaking, the listener has the opportunity to ask questions and get clarification of the things you say. ‘The speaker gets immediate feedback as to whether his intended message is clearly understood. This is not the case when writing. The reader has no opportunity to ask for clarification, so the writer must ensure that the words used are just the right ones to express his message. The best way to guarantee this is to have a well developed and continually expanding vocabulary. Here are points to keep in mind when searching for the right word that will give your writing style clarity. Avoid clichés such as snug as a bug in a rug, can't tell a book by its cover, good as gold, coo! as a cucumber, or happy as a lark. Clichés are overused by some writers and merely demonstrate their inabilty to write creatively and originally. Using too many words can be as frustrating and difficult to read as using too little, so avoid wordiness. Wordiness is using too many words, usually adverbs and adjectives, to describe something. For example "The eminent, renowned professor, although a shining paragon within his field of study, was frustratingly incapable of sustaining the interest of his students during the mono-tonal presentation of his lectures” could be written more simply as: “The famous professor's lectures were boring’ ‘Try to use words that have force and exactness. For example “The streets are hot on a summer's day” is a fairly non-descriptive statement. The statement "The sizzling sidewalks emitted sufficient heat to fry eggs” is much more descriptive and forceful Eliminate repetitious, redundant, or unnecessary words. For example “Although it is only my opinion, I believe that the movie ‘Gone with the Wind’ was the best movie ever produced’. The expressions ‘my opinion’ and ‘I believe’ are repetitious and express the same meaning Keep in mind that some words have more than one meaning and care should be taken when selecting the right word. For example, the word bare can mean without clothes, empty, just enough, to remove the covering from, to show (something), and to reveal deep secrets or feelings. ‘Also some things can be called by many different names such as sofa, couch, davenport, or chesterfield Many words also express different connotations: neutral, positive, and negative. Look at these examples: ”Neutral Positive Negative police officer officer of the law cop thin slimislender skinny i fi: & ‘A useful tool that all writers should possess is a thesaurus. It can be invaluable in helping find just the right word to express your meaning, Vary word order and sentence structure To reduce boredom for the reader and make the composition much more enjoyable to read, vary the word order of the sentences. If sentences start with The residents boarded up their the same words the reader is likely to stop reading windows in preparation for the and go watch TV. Paragraphs can be made more upcoming hurricane. interesting and varied by not always beginning with the subject of the sentence. You could start with a Because a hurricane was coming, the dependent clause (with words beginning with because, residents boarded up their windows. since, or when). Prepositional phrases (beginning with words like at, in, on, from, and with) can also be used at the beginning of sentences to make them more interesting to read One technique that can be used to help writers revise sentence structure is sentence modification. Sentence modification can be accomplished in three ways: adding details, substituting precise details, and deleting unnecessary details. Adding details involves including descriptive words, such as adjectives and adverbs for greater detail The dog slept under the tree. ‘The short-haired mangy dog slept contentedly under the enormous tree. ‘The second sentence is much more descriptive and provides greater detail ‘Substituting precise details involves replacing vague and abstract words with more concrete and sensory ones. Instead of using general or abstract words or ordinary, vague verbs, replace them with exact names of things and vivid descriptive verbs that provide concrete sensory details that can be perceived through the senses (seen, heard, tasted, smelled, touched) Instead of writing Maria's ring is shiny write Maria's engagement ring glimmers in the sunlight. Deleting unnecessary details involves eliminating unnecessary words. A long sentence does not necessary make a good sentence. Words that repeat the essential meaning of other words should be deleted to improve sentence economy (the degree that a word contributes to the overall meaning of a sentence) 18‘The predator's strong powerful vise like jaws ripped cruelly and ferociously into the soft delicate underbelly of the frightened quivering prey. ‘The predator's powerful jaws ripped ferociously into the soft underbelly of the frightened prey. The last technique for revising sentence structure is sentence combination, joining sentences or parts of sentences together. Sentences can be joined together using either coordinating conjunctions (such as and, but and for) or subordinating conjunctions (such as although, unless, because, if, etc). Avoid faulty reasoning ‘Avoid faulty reasoning when writing your opinions. There are four kinds of faulty reasoning: false analogy, over-generalization, irrelevant argument, and begging the question False analog comparing two things that are not similar. Some people like to gamble. They are just like thieves because they steal from other people. Gamblers do not steal: they attempt to beat others in games of chance. The person who loses always has the choice of not playing. The unfortunate people who are victims of theft do not, have a choice in the matter. Over-generalization is stating that something is true for all things or in all cases, when in reality itis only true for some things or in some cases. Look at these examples. Allcollege students drink. All teenagers drive recklessly. ‘These statements are obviously not true since many college students do not drink and many teenage drivers are very cautious and safe behind the wheel To avoid over-generalizations don't use never or always as adverbs of frequency- instead use rarely, hardly ever, almost never, or usually not. Instead of using no, none, or all as quantifiers- use very few, hardly any, ‘almost none, almost all, or most of An relevant argument is one in which an example or a reason is given that does not relate to the ion. Consider this example | don't think the accountant was embezzling money from her company because she was so nice to me. Just because someone is nice does not mean that they cannot embezzle money, nor do they have to be unfriendly and rude. Some of the best con men in the world are very charming, which is one reason they make good con men. When you give a reason for an opinion which only restates that opinion, you are begging the question. Look at this example. Stealing is wrong because it is immoral. ‘Wrong and immoral in this context basically mean the same thing. To eliminate begging the question you need to state why stealing is wrong or immoral. Consider this: Stealing is immoral because it deprives others of their hard eamed possessions, 19‘There are numerous structures that can be used to write sentences in English. The structure used will many times depend on which part of the sentence the writer wants to emphasize. For example, the following ideas could be included in a sentence: * Public speaking makes me nervous. * Ihave to give a speech on Friday. * I hope my speech goes well ‘These three thoughts could be combined into one sentence, but the sentence could be written in several different ways, depending on what part of the sentence the writer wants to emphasize. For example Public speaking always makes me nervous, so | hope my speech goes well on Friday. (This sentence emphasizes the nervousness that the writer experiences.) Friday | have to give a public speech, but I'm a lttle nervous: | hope everything goes well. (This sentence emphasizes when the speech will be made) ''m hoping that my public speech goes well on Friday; I'm a litle concemed because speaking in public always makes me anxious. (This sentence emphasizes that the speech goes well.) Parallelism Parallelism in writing is the repetition of the same grammatical forms or structures, (Which includes words, phrases, and clauses), when listing items that are being compared or contrasted Reading a passage that does not have a parallel form is distracting and confusing to the reader because they must try to determine the relationship between similar ideas. If list of items begins with a noun, than all the other items in the list should be nouns. Similarly, ifthe first item in the list is a dependent clause (or adjective, adverb, verb phrase, etc), than all the other items in the list should be independent clauses (or adjectives, adverbs, verb phrase, etc.) Parallelism is achieved with the use of coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) and correlative conjunctions (both ... and, not only ...but also, neither ... nor, either ...or) to join ideas together. Look at the following examples. Parallel Alice enjoys cooking, sewing, and knitting. (gerunds) Not parallel Alice likes cooking, sewing, and to cook Parallel Mr. Thomas is educated, sophisticated, and domesticated. (adjectives) Not parallel Mr. Thomas is an educated man, sophisticated, and is domesticated Parallel Dolphins swim with grace, power, and swiftness. (nouns) Not parallel Dolphins swim with grace, powerfully, and are swift Parallel The gymnast moves gracefully, powerfully, and effortlessly. (adverbs) Not parallel The gymnast moves with grace, powerfully, and without effort Parallel Tobe healthy, wealthy, and wise is a good thing to strive for. (infintives) Not parallel To be healthy, have wealth, and wisely are good things to strive for.Exercise 1.13 Rewrite the sentences below so that they contain parallel structures. 1. Betty's sister is an accomplished artist, writes children’s books, and a gourmet cook. 2. Three things that citizens can do themselves to help reduce air pollution is to join car pools, walking or bicycling to work, or to use mass transportation 3. To leam a foreign language requires a lot of dedication, working hard, and being exposed to the language continuously. 4. Thrill seekers must be brave, cool headedness, and yet be wary of caution. 5. Individuals who want to accumulate wealth need to save regularly, shopping wisely and frugally, and have an investment plan 6. Bill and Tom's favorite activities are swimming, collecting stamps, and to exercise. 7. A good soldier must always act bravely, unseffishly, and with purpose and be dedicated 8. The president promised voters he would lower taxes, increasing benefits for the elderly, and to allocate more resources to education 9. Asa student, the things I hated most were spending tim tiredness from not getting enough sleep. the library, writing term papers, and 10. Peacocks have large, brightly colored, and beauty plumage.Active and Passive Voice Voice is the verb form that shows the relationship of the subject to the action of the verb. The passive voice should be used when the receiver of the action is more important than the performer of the action or when the performer of the action is unknown or unimportant In the active voice, the subject performs the action of the verb. Using the active voice makes your writing more forceful, direct, and concise, so it should be used most often in writing In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is the receiver of the action of the verb The structure of a sentence in the active voice is: subject + verb + object Bob ate the candy bar. Many young boys play baseball in the spring Many housewives watch soap operas while doing housework. In the passive voice, what is done is important or stressed, not who did it. The structure of a sentence in the passive voice is: subject + auxiliary verb + past participle + agent The candy bar was eaten by Bob. Baseball is played by many young boys in the spring. Soap operas are watched by many housewives while doing housework. Exercise 1.14 Rewrite the following sentence: the passive voice. 1. Many college students in the United States consider their social life far more important than their academic life 2. Native American Indians of the Plain States ate buffalo meat as their primary food source. 3. The atomic bomb completely decimated Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War Il 4. After months of study, Min Ju finally passed the Bar Exam. 5, Most tobacconist regard Cuban cigars as the best in the world.Exercise 1.15 Rewrite the following sentences in the active voice. 1. The cat was chased by the dog across the yard. 2. Cookies are made by my mother every Saturday afternoon, 3. The touchdown was scored by the quarterback with three seconds left on the clock. 4, The final World Series game was won by the Arizona 5. The five page report due at the end of the semester was assigned by the teacher.