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17, 2021
A new decade
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ISSN 2668-7798
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Technium Social Sciences Journal
Vol. 17, 259-267, March, 2021
ISSN: 2668-7798
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The relationship between maladaptive cognitive patterns and
self-esteem in adolescents
1
Mihaela Luminița Sandu1, Calin Mariana Floricica2, Mogos Nicoleta3
12
Ovidius University of Constanta, Romania – Faculty of Psychology and Educational
Sciences, 3Independent Researcher
mihaela.sandu@365.univ-ovidius.ro1, mariana.calin@365.univ-ovidius.ro2,
mogos.nico8@gmail.com3
Abstract. The motivation for choosing this topic is based on our desire to understand how the
cognitive patterns formed in the early periods of adolescent development, influence and affect
the formation and development of self-esteem during adolescence. Adolescence is a crucial and
critical period in the development of the individual, a period of transition between childhood and
adulthood, and self-esteem plays a very important role for the development of the individual
during this period. The mental development of the adolescent is largely determined by the family.
Love and trust, answers and competent advice are the fundamental "tool" of parents that help
children become autonomous and competent adults.
Keywords. relationship, cognitive schemas, self-esteem, adolescent
1. Adaptive cognitive schemas - conceptual delimitation
Pattern therapy is a global, integrated psychotherapy developed by Dr. Jeffrey Young
and colleagues (1990, 2003) that essentially extends to traditional concepts and treatments of
cognitive behavior.
This therapy integrates elements from different psychological theories, such as
behavioral-cognitive therapy, object relations, psychoanalytic school and Gestalt therapy in a
single unified approach to treatment (Young et al. 2003) regarding the treatment of personality
disorders.
Young et al (2003) noted that specific regimens prevented rather than promoted therapy.
Thus, they began to explore a new approach to treatment. They did not intend to develop another
mode of treatment, but rather to expand on previous therapies.
Their new approach to treatment, called the therapy regimen, has proven effective and
appropriate in treating many personality disorders, especially Borderline personality (Nordahl
and Naeaseter, 2005).
Young and colleagues agree with the psychoanalytic school on the importance of the
early childhood environment in the development of psychological problems. They hypothesized
that early negative experiences with caregivers (usually parents) cause the child to develop a
distorted view of himself, others, and the world, or lead to what Young called early
maladaptation schemes (EMS).
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These patterns begin adaptively and become embedded throughout life, causing
maladaptive behaviors and responses. Young himself postulated that these schemes of struggle
for survival are part of human motivation for consistency (Young et al., 2003 p.61). Young and
his collaborators highlighted 18 maladaptation schemes, divided into five areas.
These schemes are triggered when the person encounters a situation similar to the one
that produced his schemes. In the triggering phase, the person experiences intense negative
effects.
To avoid these conditions or to adapt to the pattern, people use coping strategies.
According to Young, the scheme itself does not contain a behavior, but rather leads to the
behavior that becomes part of the coping responses. (Young, et al., 2003)
Aaron Beck (1967) defined the scheme as a (cognitive) structure for screening, coding,
and evaluating stimuli that affect the body (p. 238) and as specific rules governing information
processing and behavior (Beck et al., 1990, p. 8).
In the literature, schemas have been defined in several ways, and to add even more
confusion it seems to be used interchangeably with the term basic faith (Weishaar & Beck,
2006). Conceptually, this fact retains a certain level of ambiguity between the two terms.
Despite their association, a schema seems to be a cognitive processing, an informational
structure that works in accordance with the pre-existing beliefs contained in it.
2. Early maladaptive patterns and adolescence
EMS research among young people is considered to remain poor compared to that of
adult tests. Even so, EMS is thought to have originated in early life, born of family adversity in
childhood.
Only a small number of studies have attempted to address the first key assumption of
schema theory, that schemas have their origins in childhood.
Stallard (2007), in a six-month study with non-clinical children, 9/10
years, found that the patterns were present and moderately stable over time. However,
the methodological limitations of the study must be taken into account.
Stallard reported that the same EMS were found in a sample of young children (8-13
years old) as in adolescents and adults, however, only eight of the 15 EMS were supported. This
finding was a result of some schemes (self-sacrifice), being associated with positive effects in
childhood, which suggests that these schemes are not maladaptive. This hypothesis could be
true, as autonomy is a task for the development of adolescence, while in childhood a close
relationship with parents is considered to be protective. In addition, self-sacrifice, which
includes the need to please others, can be seen as a prosocial behavior in childhood (Rijkeboer
and de Boo, 2010).
Young (1990) theorized that EMS is congruent with psychological symptoms and should
correlate significantly with those symptoms. A small number of studies have investigated
whether the content of specific regimens preferentially relates to specific symptomatology in
adolescents, but most studies have been performed in adults. Some of the studies that
investigated adult evidence found particular patterns that discriminate between different types
of psychological disorders (Schmidt et al. 1995).
3. Self-esteem in adolescents
The first influential definition of self-esteem dates back to James (1980), who defined
self-esteem as “the relationship between success in relevant areas of life, focused on the
individual processes that form self-esteem” (Sowislo & Orth, 2013).
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For example, Cooley (1902), in his conception of himself, stated that explicit or implicit
feedback from others serves as a basis for self-opinions.
This affective self-assessment is not objective and is not related to specific behaviors.
According to Rosenberg (1989), high self-esteem “expresses the feeling that one is good
enough. The individual simply feels that he is a person worth. He does not necessarily consider
himself superior to others”(p. 31).
Global self-esteem is the positivity of a person's self-evaluation (Baumeister, 1998, p.
694) or the level of global respect he has for himself as a person.
Adolescence is important for the process of self-esteem formation. The formation of
self-esteem can be stimulated, encouraged by both parents and teachers. The level of self-
esteem is reflected in the attitude and behavior of the adolescent, both at home and at school.
Adolescents with a high level of self-esteem have the following characteristics: they are
able to positively influence the opinion and behavior of others; approaches new situations
positively and confidently; have a high level of tolerance for frustration; they accept early
responsibilities, evaluate situations correctly; communicate positive feelings about themselves;
they manage to have a good self-control.
On the other hand, high self-esteem functions as a role of resilience or positive
adaptation.
The correlations between self-esteem and self-esteem stability are generally low,
suggesting that they are independent manifestations of self-esteem, although they are both
related to psychological well-being (Kernis and Goldman, 2003).
The processes related to the formation and development of self-esteem determine the
perimeters of the relationship between the adolescent and the world around them, contribute to
the development of their skills and the quality of activities performed.
Rosenberg found that higher self-esteem is largely driven by parents' interest in their
children.
The study model of self-esteem based on the discrepancy between real and ideal self,
considers the lack of correspondence between them to have high unrealistic ideal standards in
a particular field or as a result of the individual's perception of insufficiently good performance
in a particular area. When the individual believes that his real and ideal selves are incompatible,
he tries to reduce the discrepancy between them, and the search for self-worth is one of the
strongest motivating forces in human behavior in adolescents and adults.
The perception of the discrepancy between the real and the ideal self is associated with
frustration, inferiority and depression.
The social situation in which the adolescent finds himself depends largely on the mental
development determined by the family. Parents and other significant family members need to
know the specifics of adolescence and help the child overcome difficulties, treating the future
citizen with love, respect and trust. While self-esteem appears to decrease during adolescence,
it increases in young adulthood (Tsai, Ying, & Lee, 2001).
Huang (2010) proposed that global self-esteem can change when people go through
changes in their lives and that it can increase when people manage to face challenges in the
process of development, maturation and changes in their lives medium.
4. Research objectives
The research objectives were to investigate the relationship between maladaptive
cognitive patterns and self-esteem in adolescents. The aim was to highlight the differences, if
any, between adolescents from bi-parental families and single-parent families and also to follow
the gender distribution of the adolescent population investigated.
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5. Research hypotheses
1. It is assumed that there are significant differences between adolescents from bi-
parental families and single-parent families, in terms of the formation and development of early
cognitive patterns.
2. Adolescents are presumed to have different self-esteem depending on the family of
origin (biparental or single parent).
3. It is assumed that there are significant gender differences in the development of
maladaptive cognitive patterns in adolescents.
4. It is assumed that there is a negative correlation regarding the development of
maladaptive cognitive patterns in adolescents and self-esteem.
6. Research methods and techniques
The tools used for this research were the Young Cognitive Scheme Questionnaire - Short
Form (YSQ - S3) and the Unconditional Self-Acceptance Questionnaire (USAQ).
7. Research participants
This study was conducted on a sample of 60 high school students, aged 15-17 years.
From the very beginning, the establishment of two samples on the basis of gender
criteria and family structure was considered: bi-parental family and single-parent family, for
statistical processing.
As the research was conducted online, the participation group was extended to students
from several geographical areas in Romania, although most of the respondents came from
Constanța County.
8. Data analysis and processing
Hypothesis 1: It is assumed that there are significant differences between adolescents
from families nuclear and those from single-parent families, in terms of the formation and
development of early cognitive patterns.
Table 1. Test statistic Mann-Whithey-Wilcoxon
We observe that Z = - 6,323 at a
significance threshold p <0.01, therefore
there are significant differences between
adolescents from nuclear families and
those from single-parent families -
hypothesis is confirmed.
The family is a basic unit of society
that has evolved with the changing needs
and requirements of individuals and
society.
The single-parent family is a kind
of family in which either the father or the
mother is absent due to various causes such
as: divorce, marital separation or death.
Single-parent status affects children mentally, emotionally and psychologically.
According to Young et al. (2003), maladaptive patterns are formed as a result of the
interaction between children's emotional disposition and terrible events in childhood or
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adolescence. One of the most difficult life events for children was the separation or divorce of
the parents, as well as the death of the father or mother.
The results of the statistical analysis, as well as the qualitative analysis of the answers
indicated that adolescents from single-parent families scored higher on social isolation /
alienation, failure, dependence / incompetence, compared to adolescents from bi-parental
families.
The results showed that there was a significant difference in terms of social isolation /
alienation, failure, dependence / incompetence, schemes of subjugation and self-sacrifice
between the two groups. In addition, the results revealed that there was a significant difference
in subscales of anxiety / depression, depression, social problems, attention problems and
aggressive behavior between the two groups.
Hypothesis 2: It is assumed that adolescents have different self-esteem depending on
the family of origin (biparental or single parent).
Analyzing the results of the Levene Test (Table 4.7) which shows us the homogeneity
of the variances. F = 7,114 at a significance threshold p = 0.010 As p is statistically significant
it follows that the hypothesis is confirmed.
Table 2. T test for two independent samples
Analyzing the results of the Levene Test (Table 2) which shows us the homogeneity of
the variances. F = 7,114 at a significance threshold p = 0.010 As p is statistically significant it
follows that the hypothesis is confirmed.
Thus, the hypothesis that we assume that there are significant differences between
adolescents from nuclear families and those from single-parent families, in terms of their self-
esteem, is confirmed.
The results indicated that adolescents from single-parent families had a lower self-
esteem compared to adolescents from two-parent families.
It seems that adolescents from single-parent and nuclear families with two parents are
different in terms of self-esteem. Self-esteem is the psychological term that refers to a person's
overall assessment or appreciation of his or her own worth.
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Hypothesis 3: It is assumed that there are significant gender differences in the
development of maladaptive cognitive patterns in adolescents.
Table 3. Mann-Whitney statistical test
We observe that Z = - 0.444 at a significance
threshold p> 0.05. It follows that there are no
significant differences between adolescents according
to gender - the hypothesis is not confirmed.
Hypothesis 4: It is assumed that there is a negative correlation in terms of the
development of maladaptive cognitive patterns in adolescents and self-esteem.
Table 4. Correlation between YSQ-S3 and USAQ
According to Table 4, the significance threshold is p <0.05 (0.000) and the correlation
coefficient is - .752, so the correlation is significant.
In the following figure we graphically represented the correlation between the two
variables using the point cloud.
Figure 1. YSQ-S3 and USAQ point cloud
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The point cloud is the graphical representation of the correlation between the two
variables. The dots are oriented to the left, which shows a negative correlation between the two
variables - the hypothesis is confirmed.
Conclusions
Research in developmental psychology highlights the self-patterns of young people as a
possible way to improve the functioning of adolescents and promote positive developmental
results.
As we have seen, studying the literature, adolescence is a crucial and critical period in
the development of the individual, a period of transition between childhood and adulthood, and
self-esteem plays a very important role in the development of the individual during this period.
The mental development of the adolescent is largely determined by the family. Love,
trust, answers and competent advice are the fundamental "tool" of parents that help their
children become autonomous and competent adults.
The research aimed to identify the relationship between maladaptive cognitive patterns
and self-esteem in adolescents.
The current study tried to answer the question: Are there statistically significant
differences in early maladaptive patterns and self-esteem among adolescents according to
gender or family structure from which they come?
Identifying factors related to single-parent status and the basic differences between
adolescents from single or bi-parental families can be a real help in creating appropriate
conditions for education.
We aimed to investigate and identify the relationship between maladaptive cognitive
patterns and self-esteem in adolescents. The aim was to highlight the differences between
adolescents from bi-parental and single-parent families and also to follow the sex distribution
of the adolescent population investigated.
The conclusions on the results of the current study will be guided by the initial research
questions:
The family is a basic unit of society that has evolved with the changing needs and
requirements of individuals and society.
The single-parent family is a kind of family in which either the father or the mother is
absent due to various causes such as: divorce, marital separation or death. Single-parent status
affects children mentally, emotionally and psychologically.
According to Young et al. (2003), maladaptive patterns are formed as a result of the
interaction between children's emotional disposition and terrible events in childhood or
adolescence. One of the most difficult life events for children was the separation or divorce of
the parents, as well as the death of the father or mother.
The results of the statistical analysis, as well as the qualitative analysis of the answers
indicated that adolescents from single-parent families scored higher on social isolation /
alienation, failure, dependence / incompetence, compared to adolescents from bi-parental
families.
Also, the results of this study indicate and confirm the existence of significant
differences between adolescents, depending on the type of family they come from, in terms of
self-esteem. Therefore, childhood events affect a person's self-esteem, so it is not surprising that
a teenager who experiences the absence of parents also has a lower self-esteem.
However, very high self-esteem can have negative consequences leading to aggressive,
anti-social behaviors. Also, a very high self-esteem makes people more vulnerable to criticism
and more difficult to accept negative feedback. .
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Extensive research has shown that low self-esteem increases the risk of developing
depressive symptoms during adolescence. However, the mechanism underlying this association
remains largely unknown, as well as how long adolescents with low self-esteem remain
vulnerable to the development of depressive symptoms. A perspective on this mechanism can
not only lead to a better theoretical understanding, but also provide indications for possible
interventions.
Also, the analysis of the statistical answers of this paper confirms the existence of a
negative correlation between maladaptive cognitive patterns and self-esteem. The lower the
self-esteem, the higher the scores obtained in the measurement measurement questionnaire.
No significant gender differences were identified in the development of maladaptive
cognitive patterns in adolescents who participated in the current study.
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Journal of HUMAN-SOCIAL SCIENCE: Linguistics & Education Volume 17 Issue 3
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