POLITICAL SCIENCE: SYBLS/BALLB SEM 3

Introduction to Elite Theory of Power:

Elite theory is a perspective in political sociology that explores

the distribution and exercise of power within societies. It
challenges the notion of equal distribution of power and
suggests that power is concentrated in the hands of a few
elites. This theory emerged in the early to mid-20th century,
with notable contributions from thinkers like Vilfredo Pareto,
Gaetano Mosca, and Robert Michels. Elite theorists argue that
society is inevitably divided into ruling elites and the masses,
and political processes are essentially mechanisms through
which elites maintain their dominance.

Key Concepts of Elite Theory:

Pareto's Circulation of Elites: Vilfredo Pareto proposed the

concept of the "circulation of elites," suggesting that over
time, one set of elites is replaced by another. However, the
overall concentration of power remains relatively constant.

Iron Law of Oligarchy: Robert Michels introduced the "iron law

of oligarchy," asserting that in any organization, even those
with democratic principles, a small group of leaders eventually
1
consolidates power. This small group becomes an oligarchy,
undermining the democratic ideals of the organization.

Elite Reproduction: Elite theory contends that elites have

mechanisms to reproduce themselves across generations. This
can occur through education, social networks, and other
exclusive institutions that enable the transmission of power
and privilege.

Examples and Case Studies:

Political Elites in Democracies:

United States Congress: Despite being a democratic system,
the U.S. Congress has been criticized for having a
disproportionate number of wealthy individuals. High
campaign costs and the influence of lobbyists contribute to the
perpetuation of political elites.

Corporate Elites:
Boardrooms of Multinational Corporations: The elite theory is
applicable to corporate settings where a small group of
executives and board members often make critical decisions.
Interlocking directorates, where individuals serve on multiple
boards, contribute to the concentration of corporate power.

2
Media Elites:
Media Ownership and Influence: Media organizations are
often owned by a handful of conglomerates, and decisions
made by these owners or executives significantly impact public
discourse. This concentration of media power aligns with the
elite theory.

Educational Elites:
Ivy League Universities: Elite theory can be applied to
educational institutions, where certain universities are
considered prestigious and contribute to the formation of
social and political elites. The transmission of power through
alumni networks is an example.

Military Elites:
Military Juntas: In cases of military coups or juntas, a small
group of military leaders takes control of the government. This
reflects an elite seizing power and often maintaining control
over the long term.

Critiques of Elite Theory:

Overemphasis on Stability: Critics argue that elite theory tends
to assume stability in the existing power structure, neglecting
the potential for social change and challenges to elite
dominance.

3
Neglect of Diversity: Elite theory may oversimplify the diversity
of elites and overlook the existence of multiple, competing
elites within a society.

Limited Focus on Non-Elite Agency: Critics contend that elite

theory underestimates the role of non-elites in influencing
social and political change. Movements and revolutions led by
the masses challenge the notion of an unchanging elite order.

In conclusion, elite theory provides a valuable lens for

understanding power dynamics in various social spheres.
However, it is essential to consider its limitations and the
dynamic nature of societies, where power relations are subject
to change and challenge.

Introduction to Marxist Theory of Power:

The Marxist theory of power is rooted in the works of Karl

Marx and Friedrich Engels, emphasizing the role of economic
structures and class relations in shaping societal power
dynamics. According to Marxists, power is fundamentally tied
to the control and ownership of the means of production, and
class struggle is the driving force behind historical and social
change.

4
Key Concepts:

Base and Superstructure:

Marxists argue that society is divided into two main
components—the economic base and the superstructure. The
economic base comprises the means of production (factories,
land, etc.), while the superstructure includes institutions like
government, education, and culture. The base determines the
superstructure, and changes in the base lead to changes in the
superstructure.

Class Struggle:
Marxists posit that history is a series of class struggles, with
different epochs characterized by different dominant classes.
The bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the
proletariat (working class) are central to this theory. The
struggle between these classes, according to Marxists, is the
engine of social change.

Ideology:
Marxist theory emphasizes the role of ideology in maintaining
the dominance of the ruling class. The ruling class
disseminates ideologies that justify and legitimize the existing
social order. These ideologies, Marx argued, serve the interests
of the ruling class.
5
Examples and Case Studies:

Industrial Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution marked a significant shift in
economic structures. The rise of factories and capitalist modes
of production led to the emergence of a powerful bourgeoisie
class. The state, legal systems, and ideologies evolved to
support and protect the interests of this new dominant class.

Russian Revolution (1917):

The Marxist theory of power is exemplified in the Russian
Revolution, where the proletariat, led by the Bolsheviks,
overthrew the bourgeoisie, establishing a socialist state. The
revolution aimed to shift power from the capitalist class to the
working class, demonstrating the centrality of class struggle in
Marxist thought.

Neo-Colonialism:
Marxist theory can be applied to understand global power
dynamics, especially in the context of neo-colonialism.
Economic structures and power relations between developed
and developing nations reflect the Marxist idea of an
exploitative relationship, with the dominant economic powers
maintaining control over resources and markets.

6
Cultural Hegemony:
Antonio Gramsci, a Marxist theorist, introduced the concept of
cultural hegemony, referring to the domination of a culturally
diverse society by the ruling class. This can be observed in
media, education, and cultural institutions, where the ideas
and values of the ruling class are normalized, shaping the
worldview of the masses.

Class Struggle in Contemporary Capitalism:

Marxist analysis is often applied to contemporary capitalism,
where income inequality and class disparities persist.
Discussions about the 1% versus the 99% and movements
advocating for workers' rights can be understood through the
lens of Marxist theory, highlighting ongoing class struggles in
modern societies.

Conclusion:

The Marxist theory of power provides a lens through which to

analyse historical and contemporary social dynamics. It
emphasizes the role of economic structures, class struggle,
and ideology in shaping power relations. While criticisms exist,
particularly regarding the simplistic economic determinism,
Marxist theory remains influential in understanding societal
power dynamics and the quest for social justice.
7
Introduction to Max Weber's Theory of Authority:

Max Weber, a prominent sociologist, developed a

comprehensive theory of authority that goes beyond
traditional explanations based solely on power or coercion. In
his essay "Politics as a Vocation" and his seminal work
"Economy and Society," Weber identified three ideal types of
authority: traditional authority, charismatic authority, and
legal-rational authority. Each type has distinctive
characteristics, sources of legitimacy, and implications for
social organization.

Key Concepts:

Traditional Authority:
Traditional authority is based on long-standing customs,
traditions, and the personal authority of leaders. Legitimacy is
derived from historical continuity and the sanctity of
established norms. Monarchies and feudal societies are often
cited as examples of traditional authority.

Charismatic Authority:
Charismatic authority is derived from the personal qualities of
an individual leader. Charismatic leaders possess extraordinary

8
traits, such as charisma, vision, or heroic qualities, that inspire
followers. Examples include religious leaders like Jesus or
political figures like Martin Luther King Jr.

Legal-Rational Authority:
Legal-rational authority is based on a system of rules and laws.
The legitimacy of authority derives from adherence to formal
rules and procedures. Modern bureaucratic organizations and
legal systems exemplify legal-rational authority.

Examples and Case Studies:

Traditional Authority - British Monarchy:

The British monarchy provides an example of traditional
authority. The legitimacy of the monarchy is rooted in
historical continuity, with the monarch's authority passing
through generations based on established traditions and
norms. While the British monarchy has evolved, elements of
traditional authority persist.

Charismatic Authority - Mahatma Gandhi:

Mahatma Gandhi is often cited as an example of charismatic
authority. His leadership during India's independence
movement was based on his personal qualities, including

9
moral authority, nonviolent resistance, and a charismatic
ability to mobilize and inspire masses.

Legal-Rational Authority - Modern Bureaucracies:

Modern bureaucratic organizations exemplify legal-rational
authority. Government agencies, corporations, and other
institutions derive their authority from formal rules,
procedures, and legal structures. Decision-making is guided by
adherence to established regulations rather than personal
qualities.

Revolutionary Leaders - Fidel Castro:

Fidel Castro's leadership in the Cuban Revolution is an example
of the interplay between charismatic and legal-rational
authority. Initially, Castro's charisma and revolutionary vision
played a crucial role in rallying support. As the revolution
succeeded, the establishment of a legal-rational bureaucratic
system became necessary for governance.

Religious Leaders - Pope Francis:

The leadership of Pope Francis in the Catholic Church
demonstrates a combination of traditional and charismatic
authority. While the papacy has a long tradition, Pope Francis
is also known for his charismatic appeal, emphasis on humility,
and efforts to reform and connect with diverse audiences.

10
Conclusion:

Max Weber's theory of authority provides a nuanced

understanding of the different sources of legitimacy that
underlie social and political leadership. By categorizing
authority into traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational types,
Weber's framework allows for a comprehensive analysis of
historical and contemporary examples. This theory remains
influential in sociological and political studies, contributing to
discussions on leadership, governance, and societal
organization.

Divine Right Theory:

The Divine Right Theory was one of the earliest theories of

origin of the State. In primitive stage, people used to believe
that the state and the ruler were the result of God's will. It was
believed that obedience to the king amounted to loyalty to
God. Because the ruler was said to be the representative of
God on earth, he should be obeyed totally without questioning
his authority or actions. For all the acts of commission and
omission, the ruler is responsible to God only. It is the bounded
duty of the subjects to obey the orders of the King. It they
refused to do so, it was considered to be an act of sin.

11
The theory of divine right was to found in the literature
pertaining to the ancient Indian polity.

In Manusamhitha, a few verses run like this: The Lord created

the king for the protection of his whole creation....... even an
infant king must not be despised (from an idea) that he is (only)
a moral, because he is a great deity in human form." Again,
when the world was without a king and dispersed in fear in all
directions, the Lord created a King for the protection of all. And
because he has been formed of fragments of all those Gods,
the king surpasses all other beings in splendour..........

In the Ramayana, the great epic of India, it is said that men

approached Brahma to give them a king just as Indra was there
as King of Gods. After all the Gods had spared a portion of their
power, Brahma made a sound which became the name of the
king, appointed by Brahma

In the Mahabharata, there were references to the Divinity of

the King. It is said that a person endowed with superior talent
and caliber descended from heaven to be the king on the
earth. He was really a portion of Vishnu on earth. "Established
by the Gods, no one transcends him."

Similar ideas of divine origin of the state can be found in

different references in the Puranas also. The Agni Purana says,

12
"having installed the King Pruthu over the people, Hari and
Brahma, parcelled out sovereignty unto others." It was
mentioned in other Puranas that the Kings were the
embodiments or forms of Vishnu, the supreme creator.

The Divine Right Theory is also found in Bible. St. Paul says that
the authority of the prince comes from God. St. Thomas says,
"A ruler who fails to act faithfully as the office of Kingship
demands in the government of a community, deserves to
suffer the consequences that his subjects should refuse to
keep their pact with him." The Hebrews also believed that
their system was of divine origin, and that Jehovah took active
part in the direction of their affairs The Muslims believe in
Quran. They have faith that Quran was announced by Allah to
Prophet, who rendered it to the world and they believe that
the Islamic Kingdom is the creation of Allah. The Islamic rulers
rule their Kingdoms according to Quranic principles only.

In modern times, the theory of divine origin was conveniently

interpreted in the 16th and 17th centuries in England and
France in order to justify the position of an absolute monarch.
The divine right theory assumed a sort of legitimacy in the
form of the divine right of kings which was supported by
Robert Filmer and James I. King James I of England says, "Kings
are justly called Gods; for they exercise a manner of
resemblance of divine power on earth. As it is atheism and
blasphemy to dispute what God can do, so it is presumption

13
and high contempt in a subject to dispute what the king can
do or say that a king cannot do this or that."

During the Middle Ages; there was a tussle between the

Church and the state for supremacy over the people. In order
to justify the supreme position of Church it was said that God
had created two institutions-the Church to look after the
spiritual needs of the people and the King to conduct the
secular affairs. Since God created the King, investing him with
absolute powers, the King derived powers from God.
Monarchy was hereditary and it is the unquestionable divine
right of the monarch that the son should succeed the father to
the throne. The king was accountable to God only. It was a sin
to go against the will of the ruler as the ruler represented God.

The Stuart Kings in England supported the Divine Right. Theory

in order to justify their absolute powers.
Barker explains that, "The necessity which stands above and
apart from the citizen and the governing authority is that of
the emanation and delegation any governing authority is
essentially an of divine authority."
According to Benn and Peters, "The authority of the ruler
stems not simply from inherence according to custom, or from
popular acclamation; these are regarded as the consequences
rather than the grounds of authority. The true source is divine,
and his authority is, therefore, independent both of human
choice and custom."
14
All the religions believed that God had instituted Government
because people needed it. Benn and Peters say, "Obligation
may be primarily to oneself or to another, or to one's country
or to all mankind; but it must ultimately be to God. It was
inconceivable that there could be any obligation merely to
man, for this reason, and for no other, it may be said that all
right is divine."

Criticism:

The divine right theory was criticised severely.

(1) There was no historical evidence to prove the God had

either sent the ruler as His agent or delegated His powers to
him.
(2) It is illogical and unscientific because if God is considered
to be full of grace and love, there should not be unkind and
cruel rulers. History is replete with such despotic Kings and
ruthless rulers.
(3) It is objected to on the ground that it tries to replace
responsibility by religious authority.

Value or Merit:

15
The divine right theory has a definite value as religion too had
played a crucial role in the evaluation of State.

(1) In ancient times, political obligation was considered a

religious duty. The divine right theory taught men to obey
when they were not yet ready to govern themselves.
(2) This theory provided a religious sanction to the state power
and bound the people by religious discipline and obedience.
(3) It gave the state the moral authority and assigned high
status and respect.
(4) It bound the people of different places into 'oneness'.

Gilchrist sums up the divine right theory thus: "To regard the
State as the work of God is to give it a high moral status; to
make it something which the citizen may revere and support;
something which he may regard as the perfection of human
life."

The Consent Theory (Social Contract Theory):

The divine right theory was replaced by the consent theory.

The consent theory occupies a high place of importance in the

history of political thought. The consent theory enumerates

16
that the authority of the state is based on the consent of the
people. Sanction of political obligation is in the will of the
people. The citizen is tied to the governing authority, first
because he is common with all other citizens, has made a
contract with a person or body of persons, under which that
person or body receives authority in return for the protection
and service of declaring and enforcing a system of legal rules,
and, secondly, because he and his fellows are bound by natural
law to respect and perform the terms of that contract. A
common theory of state origin in the East and West seems to
be the social contract theory. The subjects have the obligation
to obey the ruler and the King is under the precise obligation
to protect the people from foreign aggression and
establishment of order and security within the state.

In India, the Aithereya Brahmana and Tattairaya Brahmana

infer that the King was elected to wage a successful war against
the demons. The election of the King was explained in terms
of some agreement between the people and the elected King.

According to Digha-Nikaya', a Budhist work, people elected a

King Mahasammatha, who undertook the responsibility of
enforcing law and order among people, provided he was given
1/6 of the produce of the harvest (Paddy) and the negative
power of punishing the law-breakers.

17
The Atharvana Veda refers that the people (Visah) chose thee
to govern the Kingdom, these quarters, the five Goddesses
chose Thee. It also suggested that the king as chosen by
nobles, king makers, village headmen, chariot makers, and
metal workers etc. Thus, we find, a sort of election of the King
to some extent in these ancient writings.

However, Kautilya's Arthasastra makes a reference to show

that a contract was concluded according to which the King-was
to defend the life and property of the subjects.

Similarly, the Santhi Parva of the Mahabharatha, refers to a

contract, executed with the section and sanction of Brahmins!
different chapter of the Santhi Parva, it is said that people
assembled and agreed to pay a share in gold, grain and cattle
to the superior, who in turn protected their life, liberty and
property. Originally, the contract theory was propounded by
the Sophists. Even the Roman lawyers like Cicero argued that
popular consent was the basis of the State. In the Middle Ages,
Marigold and the old Testament supported this theory of social
contract.

In modern times, Hooker was considered to be the first writer

for giving a logical analysis to the theory of social contract.
However, the social contract theory received prominence in
the writings of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Rousseau who
gave it a systematic and technical treatment.
18
People used to live in a state of nature where there was no
organised government and rules. Whatever may be the
reason, the people decided to abandon the state of nature and
entered into a civil society in pursuit of some political order.
The state was the creation of a deliberate and voluntary
agreement among people. A civil society was established
where everyone lost his natural liberty that he enjoyed in the
state of nature; in the place of civil liberty, some form of civil
rights was conferred on the individual.

Hobbes says that people who wanted to escape from disorder

and anarchy in the primitive time made a social contract
according to which they committed themselves to obey the
laws of an absolute King, who was the product of the contract.

Locke says that "No one can be subjected to the political power
of another, without his own consent." He spoke of the
contracts : social and governmental. He says that while the
people agreed to obey the laws of the government according
to the contract, the ruler too had to govern property failing
which people could exercise their right to revolt against him. I

Rousseau opined that man enters into a contract with civil

society, and he becomes bound to obey the law of the general
good represented by General Will, which he prescribes to all,
including himself and that constitutes his real liberty. He
19
vested sovereignty in the general will. He gave law-abiding
people the right to revolt, if the ruler misused his power.

Thus, Hobbes and Rousseau say that people voluntarily agreed

to obey laws and made consent the basis of obedience.

Criticism:

The consent theory is totally speculative in character. There is

no historical evidence to prove that the state has come into
existence on the basis of a contract.

The consent theory has grave weaknesses. It makes the state

an artificial organisation. The terms 'consent', 'contract',
'general will' used in this theory are generally applicable in
ordinary contracts between man and man. For every decision
of the Government, it could not approach the people for their
consent.

Application:

However, the value of social contract theory is immense as it

sought to blend political authority with the liberty of the
people. The social contractual thinkers laid the formulations
for evolution of democratic theory and institutions by making
20
the consent of the people as the basis of the state. Hobbes laid
the foundation of individualism and scientific materialism,
while Locke paved the Iway for democratic revolution and
Rousseau took popular sovereignty to mystical heights.

DO LIKE, SHARE AND SUBSCRIBE.

LAW_WITH_JANVI

21