UNIT- I 50LID STATE

Am idoliy penpeck Cvkal i s oms uieh Åas n a

Aams wwt col a d Contoims the Aoma Lottice pris
nincu tho CNska .T tam imtpenteetion
daetmeas tne daiation che ideay ene
CvupkaQ4 Re tha eridie amagememt
ConstitRmty .Aoe a e wo tpes deUs
1.PeimtDA¢As 2.ime deledts
Point aeA 1 the doviatirn drcs beCau
miimg atom displacad atoms ,the impenRectigm
,

namod as a psimt dolet.Tis clalet is dms to

The l e t
eimmpena rckimg dunimg R eigimal
CYskalliazatiom cl a r i Pl A ma ibhatims
atom ak klevaed kempenaauna beca witu incal
Am thamal men thns imonead prebobiliy
individuao akms jumpimg tu thin peitins e
AueyTnend
schottky Deks. Thox daeta anie Soma
tw
Lattice oimls im a cvystal ane moccupiad.Tha primty
h i c n ana wnozupad ane Called Lattica \accamcies
The Rci>tmea s &up accamces,, me dus tb a
+
miing Na ton and Tha Gtin due to a mising C
C ima cystal Noacl. Tha
Cvuskal, as a uhko,
Wmcuns meulnal bécaw The rumber k wemg
beature amd ggeatuue Lony i Tha amo

hotty dleks can aemenally Am lonic Cvyals

i n usnich tho nbare omd Themegatiie ona do mat
digpn >nuch imAi2e.cq Nacl.
2ecaue Sechattlzy doleks t h Cvskal Js im a
ptition tz Cowduet eleckiiciy to a smalo oxlev
by m tonc mechamissm.Tha eistomto saccmciy
a l o Amalley Lay moememt ct atomy c Lony Anm tha

CVyskre chanac'mq placey witn ons nothan. Thiy aCComt)

fe Tha phenomemon o a i o n AM i d s
Aemlcel DeleckS Thex delets aix ushm o v
Cccpies an imtestial poition betweem the attice
bsimbs TAs i shown fon the Cvyskl AgB. Jn
AgB Cvystal , Gna t h e A ions dccupiey apsmtiom
im the imkerstial pace nathon tham i b oun
appopiate Sste imthe AattiCo . Thoug a accomy

voakel im th lattic,th Cvystal nomaims

eutaal imce the Mumbu peitue ions As
The Aame a s the wmber e g a t w e Con ZnS
As anothwr Crystal im uhieh Frenleel Aasecks
pea tvotpa.d im tha imteustial
2m Cons CMs

pae leavim9 Vaccomcies m the Kattice -Fnemkel

dole s aapoanim vyskals im ahih the egenk.ue
Lony ane
mac anqen Tham situe iony Cvysaly
wt smleel doe dts haws (ondutton q al catecly
cmdthe henomimom o drttaim im sslsAs .
 Mekal Excos Daeo.TRa (tgu lemtvas
TRa cvyptal Nal is Kaakee im Sodium rpoun,
AE
oquvas a yellaw Casn.i > uellew Cgasun iy dus
Ao the slmatian o a man sicniometnie Compond
saum chlaude im whieh thkons A pigfat extoos e
>oium lons Sam 3odium mekal qets dap
Amt the c i m ehlsido evysrel l a c atom cn

geks Conidimo Na amd due to Cyptad mongy

This lokAan tccopias a ite h a t usauld honuri ba

6cpiad by a chlside ion

TAoyptal a a whele Ameual bu thne
n eces Na Lo imtie Cvysta.Thne ona

i z Na Aites adjacentE to the sacamt ite oLuhted

by the lecban .Tho Rzlva electna i thus shansd
betues alltho i a Na Lons Khidn implius
hat thi slechon ig mat.- Kocalkjed a t the Vacm
ilte Alo tis eleknon is i i l a n to he
dalocased T aletaa bYeemE Am mdscukass
Contoumim j g a t e dusuble bonds. Ligt is
ass whe this delotalired tlecton makes m
Lay hamnion Kum ila giomd state Ao om eccitod
state As a nelt, Th man-gidmomenie Relm o
Sotim chloidla HplavA zlguned.Be Cay c t i s ,
he Rites dccupied b t h a a pleclvany ans kman
as Celsun Cembves. Tha a i alyD Callad E Contvey.
, Amstnn 2rmmle q mehal RxcOMs dekets i tha dmaon
K s mantaichiemetaic Comawnd t-
Mckaleicdency Dcta. T tis d a s , tne
hpsntue lons is nwizsmg a m its latica s t
n d tho xtva mogakie Chana AD balomto by Dano
meanby ekal Co Gquinim wo Changu imakeod

dne Thone is a deictmey tho metal tony altnouala 0

the cyst as a ushale is maula0,.This tape 4 dopedt is
emeolly pumd monaNt t e Cowmpoumd vomaition
mekals which exhibet aniallo Vyaleuoy Cystals
Cam

o Feo, Fes omd Nio show ths type dolecks Ths

ANma nekal depeeitmy daets im Tha Cvystal
e o is illustvated im hhe tllawigi
A Eapes tom colects namlt im ha Cyeation afR
valamiics n hofay imthe katticay s Cvystals. Tho
pena hdes kowe the cdoniky as
well as th
Kattrce Amengy 6 The skalbility e Tha Cvyskals.Tha
NRemee tvom oy Asy may Caune a antial
Co@apxe T h e lattscs
i m Deks: Dlocoations
1 s f e A p t e t i n OCc whenthe pevio.
dicity t h e atomic Qattico anay is imtenaupted
alan
aNarvg cotaim dineckions i a cvyslad. Suet
Amtinuptims &c alovy o s a cvystal tveuvs
m d n a Callod ima doledS. ha met Corwhmcn e
Kima dale uitwim evystal isa dslncntion The
a

Yetnce dulocations lults Am lany delanaton

mwth Åmluonta a shaan hves
Ede dWalocatin. Thi wfpa d o e a n i vim
TRss. a Nin miAmmal-edn in th cuntaliom e
adjacom- pants thu gNowia cvysrals noalking
im The Åmtvednetion q on a i a hon &atoms
TMa Rda t h akomic plame ermimate e t i m t h

Cvysal imsead paing all th urthvcu

Ovder t h
iact tha naan the dislocaian mres
aLvos t Cvysa im n c a urty tha the b ha
Th Cvysal Adisdaed Gna tCa dAstomta uitu
e e to the kowtn alTh motiom q m edge
distocaion unde xhsan i Rnavsn imths diogvonm
Nsa tha edge dislocation the atoms ans buiel

togehan aore Hh edge and pulisd oponF bcan *ha

edge. Tm T h uruy t h Ámpuuy oto r t Korgen
cdia metes thom poNent atomy temd to ovcomtvate
bolaw the edae nd tha Apuni atomy ihn ioallen
diametes tend o Concomlvnte aloe ths ehe. Az oa
euit bimdig k al-tha dislointion., ik-
m dipicult nar a disloCain im am
imbuve mteial.This ithe ea2on wiy aleys
cauiv gyaateL ahaavm {ols e pamamamt
dalelmaion hovm do ths n s m a
 e lecais The faimation a scvaw
dRslocatin Cm e imali kd by. Cuttimg a Aulle
DRs oll o uts dois and thin buaing Gn n
nd s thar. a CVRaad m the sthen imd.T
iiiall The Stopen Cemteuned akoms atnaulan
ttice primts, dGeNmention usnu Comentth kavall
lans akomy Melmal the ais imw a leind
inal Ram.Snin a dirplaceme- t n aty
nsitmtes Khr s nawm a &New disocation. A
scve dislecation Xsps im lay CYypl gretu
becanx atms Cam be added al t skp.aes
dislecabiny Seutt i n eay dovmutn e (ystal
A The Sme sty as i Aone by edge dislecations
T hvactica sal dis locatiany me miatnas
ede duslecako md scvew diskoctims slecaty
pnrida Ra preiaTred Ries urtuin a cvyst
Chamical cations amd pyhcal Changs mdn a
h a tvovns{ovnain yecapiatin aa ctelins).Ths
paim mengone c a dislecatim a TheJune
aCvysted a a ite inhavuced Chemcal
eatii
Elackicae kopentiey. Hall ape t
Condactima wwatenial A plats
Ra ampla
in a wwim g m o t i c d e and a Culremt
Cengtn the Conducrl a

ltnae is eed ho daekP a nigtat omales to

both dinecion ctha Cuuemt ow andthat
the maametie PAedd T EKoge is kmaunm ay t h
1Aallntage and i alue is ecvw ts daselop
Gn the mgnuticRidd snength amd an tms
n e t þaaxd
onsidon a meimem i n th Rem a oc
Cwgnla nss-ecugn Cosayimg a Cwemt I

im tua dinetion. Ta wwiem mAamatic

Ro i s oiod alavg t e 2- o u i i k s
fsune hat am mk daielaps alo th Y-doui
(i) im a dveckion spmaiculan ap
Thi 2tage is Callod tha Hal ualtage
th
a Pist Cowbilor t h tuation beeee
magnalic dd Ab imtvoduced.Tna iy m ecnic
C n m b {Rowig m tha te -Aecion,
n maam that th Codneion Aeorons oniytn
Ltn a elsny im the muatue -diacon
WKm tna maAmeie fsld Amtyodced te Lolon2
nu FL Cawy Th eletiony to bend dausnusand
a hgwn im t h e g A a heuek,ladtow) atuumu
lat Gn t h l a w a m n i odmcemg a mt
 chanae tus SimulNamerwsy a mot Þsiiv
ehana ns t h pen nlae,R laux t h
daecimcy elelnns thn The Combimation e
peurtmd nigatire n n e changey cVaates a
dsu uld wmich sA Callsd t h Hall dd

E +4 + ++++ +++

Hall
uld

d Cvym demsnty

Pie eo pleciiciy
Cercuimstaly Libr quantz Lithim
C

Niobate, Baniumm Ttamate, Roehelle saltat

a n sbakehsd e
CombveAsd alog Cetoum
C s l\emown a mschemaCal Aas) am
acical pokemtial dikenemce bvadan ced
alona aepmoiculon s Clemom ous
Raeniel 'aous) .Ths is kmow as Pte20
leckic T t skeloniciy see
ny i n Cvsaks withovmE Cevmtva a
m
. Pia 2o le t i ciy i Ame m mot hang Ån
b&ai 2 t n tht nemlts wacnai ham Ca
atim a (YysW
 t h lon A is obuiouy

Cemve wwatvy .wum t h aNUy ka heeu

Campvakd by a mchamical facC the ion B Ran
beem maued to Lon A T
cls dotvearimg
Tha BA dipeo momamt. Howeue t ion C has
alo beom moed clorkr to ton A wich dacVaang
The CA dipele momemt b ha a m mGmÅm
the onta dinecion tD ths dacveaein BAA
moment,hus Mo me changc in pdanirntim Nel
v machemiCal delalmalion aCvqstal wetL
Combna wey
.
4 o Skwmc ane withanF Cemtve AymmaVy
fha dipka mmdmemt As datermimsd wimg om l n
plws ucbion l a h bs mavAsmuighlnva
a

Chne e kae an Tivd Racm eTh CMangay s

t e savest maighouva). when 3evouimsdthy
1

Lom Lm amd Ar Meighbsuns

Phab&ndnctiianiky
Photonductinety As m optical and alodricl
ohtmsma Am nnicn a matenial bocom) mune
ectica0 Covduckine d to ab2nptin
lacknowagmaic nodialion uen a iika kght
wiaruisks Raakr, imkorad ighk l gaww.a Dudiation
WA iaht is abaad ba matovial Audn as mi
Covnckel ha umbu t h lectvon and dnn
Males imoisaxs amd Aaiie ik eknical ondnct

h mwicmduekn mult Kore msh nony

Aain odhony acvYsth bamd eb. wim a b
sras md a lgad dois mw wx im henney
eth th miCmdud tage dhop aNGD Îna
sad ensov Can ba maaud whm tna chonge
An eleutnical Covdmttvdy e th mmwteal
Asiey tha
CnAem Thwovh TAa Ciycnni
EKomhle
tCockinebKsmn - þRynenu Camr2da im
Rod So,hida -
We im im/hoaed dbbection-
aplicaims
Salimium -

Amplryd im Ronly telaniion omi

 lRn a ohao ornan c k t matenial s Canmeczd
s a ant ea Cincuit, , i amction as a
2eis whs heristamc depends on Me igh
Amtmiy Tn tns Conteat tha wwwlwnial is
Calod photneriakat Calo Callad liatht dopavdanm
o onoo Coonehn)
Nogatwe ohowconductinuyo matonals
RaibiF dtouation i n jphoto ondnckiny
p n Rpsmna tp i u n i a tin. ona ionimomr
eiomyla i onogeated vmsdhs hlicmiH)
i m whin a mttestalble edution n Joo-
Conoutiviy s obumble.
 2

ocleetiicitgy
law cetain teeLtne t is s d that
Sme makevialy. povntovhesuky Aqume om eethic
diee ananevt. "ihoe malonialby erhibit a kystousis
CcUue o s w s E maThis Con be eplaine by

domain kypóllueio
. w l i o n Av lk enocle cnie state is a
CooNent ine phomamenn uhich is accompami
by ilic heat cnaly by a latent ont
Cwd ik paans hat at he biomition kombeuturce
th vyskl atbee pemeswsy owstolby to a move
Camhlicate) uckave
.mnt lotric aieo mament
hene auo lhvee maim tyes C u s Stnetune
i c h 2ahibit nocledtuicilyD Rocholle &aek
Saucens d by Pechdile 3atk Na (Cy)G,Ho
t h JLOslLi qrou Con istin ainy
ttomtio
o iokrtes, hih uium itoamatRPTio,
ith etensirdln 2tadied ane the dikuduogen
phsais md axnales , Rg.kH, POL
Im
Renoclecties thene one anae Aagiony wich
cManac teized by tha aipmmment q th electade
Pild. Ta thisneaon tho cletiaic Ridd tumw t
ul sncn Acagion imt dietion -tha PicA
 nd &v Comay agtntirnthto
th. thenmal
oCen ths oletie ipdoy in diltnmE
dnackions h s alkgme Rlotie sds mdn
Aodions eoele t i Connbimad itnto avon
Aaonre ildAMcvamg tha un
dni
Thon&mds ttme. . The chaa a {nknse
AS Nm CvRafd Th wnr ina fn a
RennLeekocoic wxd imdbzad a i
Wim am lotbhie idd is ypker
a pin
a enoclaue Cvystal, tn ptaizoation vat
A apridy rtu opice ild o a d a aboe
wwweAhe yindance i imea .LinRar
aevapelation to 2 Puld v a hatuvation.
CL hponmtamerms psonization .Om nlexanentia
edncimg th Qul ho 2 e tumamen (lasidua)
,

beaizatinm V fomams . "Tha Ugatc fisd A

odnce t k ptai 2ain 2-es As
Cnins iuld amd nabV2Aentod EcThe eaisma
a dilsctuic i e t u i s kaep Ama dielecie
matenial implies thattha mbakme pexey a
pontamerus bai2aion and tho tiue oB domdh
pan a wwbe o vdkov s e n ay The dinemion
thopoimmem th temeuabuno , th terkna
th yskal the thnmal amd aleic al
t
,

cvta. bichpontiey d
 Tha l a z Om auoymign omplikicer
mnln mixim Aadation. Lav adiw|
imcyeaNna peplain
Reikad tate 6UtlAtuar dAw qvgwo An2 .Gl
pepulabion imvuMim . Tha kepuntion imrjion
Cam he
achieetiova ptacal puriping
ANectnico dischogey a by a chiical ACaionh
HNodnco> mtacuOos im tha ezikd ate mete
pepuation imurian Kasbaan adhiesrd,tha impimi
h Kas a qyan LikaQihood ncsumtaring

meccake n t . As a Covaona photm

Aniiion a n thom phdn annpton is Bimw
Thw the atted o h n bam fas qvaatn imtenit
Thon tu Amident imtmn T cld Leana
z e n atim Ceee best umdaritod by
Conidang th gollamng Ra Aas îhe qione
ate rkeculo ab2abe d ptekon md aiy h
t iked ata CF o),Tm te i t
macu Umdogees mametu imision a ean

CS
Ab2noien ontameguy 5ttwula beAA
ewiymn
 7QeKAmg to the gvound Frg.le) An
karte. Tm

wimg notom mcoemteny ameacnle that

adeodu Aan tua Rcgiket ate Mimalatey tha
m ac a to *hec Nenttothe 9Noen toate by
phorn. H e lazer auiov
ittiNA
witting a eCond
Kas bam ameved
mngies Cam be deliaded tD a m
ee aes
aonbing s e m o buid oksnt þqpuation
Ämsenion Tho CollCim
ons Nadialion inny, Collimm

nengy n d cemical nonay.culation mstNon

Com oecn m ystemy i e n K a e fhveeG
enay kouelg Tm twe oel oystem
s . a

al tne Cerueek fuaumes pelates enonay avtl 3,

th proam besng Callnd cyicel pumpig. T t
to Annyeel 2, a
ypemthen ehsdly daca
bepulaxon ÅmstuNion y to orcu betUeem mo1y
Revels 2 md 1

tical
3
For doc
pical
Oco Faat decay
2

1
Lam
Far docay

Thvee-Qarel ahea Fsu e l Lare.

Petpulatiom imnion truny betten im tom
h a i n g u m n e s . T ncna y t o
is naig AD meng e l 3 by pumping o
Thone is Last da cay ho vepy e l 2, C
popntim mtwson &Lcus beturesn mny
2 amd ..ha lar boamm is ignly dliet
Agnal mmDcnomatie amd CohenE.
B ePWnagMC
Buewmgemco i tha Ctical paenky a
natenial Karimg a ehatine imedoz That

doponds ani 2atign emd p2opaga tion

tho

diactio ighr. Thee ttica misovapic

mateialy ma >eid o ba biakigemtC6l bienac
tine).Tha binolniaones As e m quomtin
ay t h marimum dpenmeco betueom ealina
Amdice eahibited tha matna (vyplals
wrthmm- Cubic Cvysnl smkuvey ane sften
bieingpnt, as plastiess molun machowca!
/Stes
Piaimgemte AToprnslla a thanmmem
u l k o sation whenby a ay ignt,vhm
imcidmt upon a biveliaen matenial, piE
bpeni2atio Amho wo Aatavimg ighthy
dRennt poths
uw UCenc: Matrialy hien cm abnb
hot y twang theiv n Xevety Cn alx
Lmit tom acle,amd tha nadiation
ible heion t h i
Aiws in
inon callo
KmimescimCo T tha tim dela
alosapion omd eiwiwion A losthon botuean-
wateial
10
said o be
Kaaen he mateial
{suves Cemt md , |
wsan he
A
ssphaescont.Tm kumi.
2ccitima otons Kare eater
queatan
nenoy thom tha Amite hotons. Frr e-imiimn
meyy
ollcesaie eetinda,educing kummimycomca
nomuman. n a mut be uiGla
im t bane ggap Annoy
md nch Lovels m a
avely
Åmpuitiey ana Called hvcduced
akiakas
Actiyatay Kant ooyeely mean The
.

lama band shoa) o-akilaly Aave

mouy
Kavel mar ho Condnuson band .Fa
kiawnhe,
2mS i w x astke aukinnh m
C
C astna (o-akinala- The atinalo
.

baride
imbenmadinte nonery evels &s th i t
ANe nms to (all. The Co-autA
babr ats as a
nap a tha ele tnons thovuby geucwing te
CAme doday tcnna betucem abrption d
wion ocRM uwimeycon Rccitad
.

otons iy CallcA shobeminasCime hm

exute
yCextaim chemwical neakiomy at is CaL
c mniAumimAcm Ca
Magmeie Ynmenties
The onca F aking tataee wo magmatie

dipdas Snat m, md m, ponaad ba

diskomuu , ij qan b
F =
m,ma / n
wh a Conakom channdaisbt et t
madium amd Cae naarnetxe peimmaabilit
thamaaium. . Magmaae. peimaability wmmayma
tha kendimu tha maametie lim a c Fo
TWona ths msdium Compa wih thin tendency
o F a Tvogh sacnAm i wiih M=1 . A
mbdema aid to be damagmetic n <1
amdbova magnetie uhm >1.Thuy a diamag
ntic abstome is kes meayle to tha nagnatae
R a C a Thom a UacLLum .The m4noic liuy
t ooReckAuay om a diomaqmokic Aomaplo
hnay thy doko kowond) epaNamag moic Sonnla
The manoki PADeis c matten m
dRDCune n tem tha magmukie Rdimtevwib
u ec a , H md magnotie iduceion B. wåo a
Sanoama aced ima mwgneticeld the
magokA 2aEign t a magrnetie namemt pn
u t ulums i nolaed o onsd H. btha
olon
B=plCH+M)
 hens hois the peleatliy s a uuum
Ao B-H (2)

M Hp/no) - 1] H (Mn 1)
nednum
Awy impovkewnt uandi nagnekic sohiiGy-
dalimed a
= M
=M-1
Fer diama gmnetic elids,th nelatire eimeabiity
1 otna X is mgdatire Al X is
.

Amdenimdtmt magmatic Puld intmty ond

empaatave. .Coper,gvapmbe, am meney
omd bibmutn. l'o bavamagmekic mbakomcus Auen
Cuy AR, PE An>1 0othnt is psitie AiD
*As imdeaendemt agmatkc pa Aneni
n d docvea) Wzth Åmtvza Am temhenn twv
F omngmebie stkdy (nch ay Fe, Co Ni)

beeom 200 omd looooo . X

i dopend pm
he qnolic fisdd imtmmiyha emhentanve md
Pewi misoyy the Smde
emagnceim amd Antiievo moamabim_
sAtds at lon wmpentur
Sms
S ma vamaqnotie
o a Slate in hicn
wdeao
wieo aomytion

kaae iemaa ims me

aliamae ovallel
a etwn Ct°TT):TWis CooPiatme
moanat
2Atin .
he
Rznomatnetic mitien 6uuvs

at t i wie temeentvs nd Aelta im

netiSm C tue s t n hamd m Som

Kenno m .

Cepenate

aeteating Apim eimmtins CTLTAT

J)
e Aaw magmeti zatiom. The
ii at t u
vom t i m LuVA
CmtiRemomagmeiic
md O m l t s im emli
Nal ttmpeatuve
ndmaqmeksAn, whm
the aligmmemt
magnmetic momemta Compn SnBovy
magmaie mmomem y
acmikAn

im
magmatic memEnts e aliamol
thene
pwallzl md omtipnvallel divetiony but
i s Somt Avmltom magnetie momemt(tt}TT)
CleedRemmaqmelie Amlostomies
e FOu, Mg Fa,o , CuFe, O , 2mFe,O, ste.
AR tne gmeically Cukouel Xdl) CFemo , am
v o Cmd Rnimagnatie ) vmaan o pavamagnut
statea Riahn tempantve dna hv Aomdowisahona

etheiv Am