MODERN INDIAN SCHOOL

Chobhar, Kathmandu

G.P.O Box: 1497, Kathmandu

Tel: 4330088, 4330163
Fax: 4331690

For the partial fulfillment of CBSE AISSCE Examination

(2024-2025)
Biology Project on
“Cancer and its treatment”

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

Name: Vardhan Agrawal Mr. Krishna K. Sinha
Class: XII Section: ‘A’ H.O.D. Biology
Roll Number: 12026
MODERN INDIAN SCHOOL
CERTIFICATE OF MERIT
For the partial fulfillment of
AISSCE 2024-2025
This is to certify that the Biology Project has been successfully completed by
Vardhan Agrawal of Class 12 ‘A’ of Modern Indian School during the Academic
session 2024-2025 as per the guidelines issued by Central Board of Secondary
Education

____________________ __________________ ____________________

Principal Biology (H.O.D.)
Col. (Retd.) Raju Peter External Examiner Mr. Krishna K. Sinha

Internal Examiner
 Index

I. Acknowledgements
II. Introduction to Cancer
a) Definition
b) Occurrence of Cancer
c) Causes
d) Symptoms
III. Types of Cancer

IV. Metastatic Transformation of Cancer Cells

V. Diagnosis

VI. Treatment

VII. Preventative Measures

VIII. Conclusion

IX. Bibliograph
Definition
Cancer is a disease involving the rapid creation of
abnormal cells that grow beyond their usual boundaries,
and which can then invade adjoining parts of the body
and spread to other organs – this process being called
metastasis. Metastases are the primary cause of death
from cancer.

Occurrence of Cancer
Cancer arises from the transformation of normal cells
into tumour cells in a multi-stage process that generally
progresses from a pre-cancerous lesion to a malignant
tumour.
Cells may become cancerous due to the accumulation of
defects, or mutations, in their DNA. They then grow,
divide, and spread abnormally (metastasis) instead of
self-destructing as they should. Cancer cells metastasize
to other sites via the lymphatic system and the
bloodstream.

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Causes
The majority of cancers, some 90–95% of cases, are
due to genetic mutations from environmental and
lifestyle factors while the rest 5-10% are due to
inherited genetics.
Genetic Mutations
Mutations of genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 (linked to an
increased risk of breast and ovarian cancers) can inhibit
the body's ability to safe-guard and repair DNA. Copies
of these mutated genes can be passed on genetically to
future generations, leading to an increased risk of
cancer.
Environmental Factors
Cancer can also result from the interaction between a
person's genetic factors and external agents including:
 Physical Carcinogens - ultraviolet rays, ionizing
radiation
 Chemical Carcinogens - asbestos, components of
tobacco smoke, aflatoxin (food contaminant), and
arsenic (drinking water contaminant).
 Biological Carcinogens - infections from certain
viruses, bacteria, or parasites.

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Symptoms
A cancer can grow into or begin to push on nearby
organs, blood vessels, and nerves. This pressure causes
some of the signs and symptoms of cancer.
Cancer cells use up much of the body’s energy supply
and can also cause the immune system to react in ways
that produce these signs and symptoms.
Common signs and symptoms include:
 Fatigue
 Unexplained weight loss
 Appetite loss
 Unusual lumps or swelling
 Blood in stools
 Cough or hoarseness that does not go away
 Seizures, headaches or vision problems
 Sores that do not heal

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 Types of Cancer

 Carcinomas - Carcinomas are cancers that occur in

epithelial tissues in the body and comprise of 80-90%
of all cancers. This class includes the two most
common skin cancers, basal cell carcinoma and
squamous cell carcinoma and also includes
the glandular cancer adenocarcinoma.

 Sarcomas - Sarcomas occur in connective tissue like
the bones, cartilage, fat, blood vessels, and muscles.

 Myelomas - Myelomas are cancers that occur in

plasma cells in the bone marrow.

 Lymphomas - Lymphomas are cancers of the

immune system cells.

 Leukemias - Leukemias are a group of different

blood cancers of the bone marrow and cause
abnormal blood cells to enter the bloodstream.

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5
Metastatic Transformation of Cancer
Cells

A normal cell is transformed into a cancer cell through

alteration in differentiation of the genes that regulate
cell growth.
The affected genes consist of Oncogenes, which
promote cell growth and reproduction, and tumour
suppressor genes, which inhibit cell division and
survival. Malignant transformation can occur through
the formation of novel oncogenes, the over-expression
or under-expression of normal oncogenes, or disabling
of tumor suppressor genes.

 Oncogenes code for proteins that function to drive

the cell cycle forward, typically causing cells to
proceed from one of the G (gap) phases to
either chromosome replication (S phase) or
chromosome segregation (mitosis).
Genes that code for the normal proteins controlling
these processes are called proto-oncogenes.
However, once they are altered to become
oncogenes, their abnormal protein products exhibit
increased activity that contributes to tumor growth.

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 Therefore, instead of stopping within a G phase, a
tumor cell continues to progress through
subsequent phases of the cell cycle leading to
uncontrolled cell division.
 Proto-oncogenes turn into oncogene via
mutations which permanently activate proteins
that normally interchange between active or
inactive states.
 Proto-oncogene can also turn into an oncogene
through chromosomal translocation occurs when
the pieces of broken chromosomes reattach
haphazardly, leading either to the formation of a
fusion protein or the altered regulation of protein
expression.
 Tumor suppressor genes code for proteins that
normally operate to restrict cellular growth and
division or even promote programmed cell death.
Therefore, oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, link
cell cycle control to tumor formation and development.

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 Diagnosis

Various tests may be performed in order to confirm a

cancer diagnosis. These include:
 Lab Tests – High or low levels of certain substances
in your body can be a sign of cancer while some tests
involve testing blood or tissue samples for tumour
markers. Tumour markers are substances secreted by
cancer cells in higher number than that of normal
cells.
 Ex. of tumour tissue markers - FGFR3 gene
mutation analysis to help determine treatment for
patients with bladder cancer
 Bone Scan - Bone scans are a type of nuclear scan
that check for abnormal areas or damage in the bones.
They may be used to diagnose bone cancer or cancer
that has spread to the bones. This is done by injecting
a small amount of radioactive material into the vein
which detects abnormal areas in the bone as it travels
through the blood. It is then picked up by the scanner.
 Biopsy - A biopsy is a procedure in a sample of tissue
of the patient is taken and observed to identify
whether it is cancerous or not.
 PET-CT Scan - A small amount of radioactive
glucose is administered, which highlights areas of
your body where the cells are more active than normal

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 (PET Scan) and 3D images are generated. At the same
time, x-rays are passed through your body and 3D
images of CT are generated.
After diagnosis, Doctors use the stages of cancer to
classify cancer according to its size, location, and extent
of spread. Staging helps doctors determine the prognosis
and treatment for cancer. The TNM staging system
classifies cancers according to:
 Tumour (T): Primary tumour size and/or extent
 Nodes (N): Spread of cancer to lymph nodes in the
regional area of the primary tumour
 Metastasis (M): Spread of cancer to distant sites
away from the primary tumour

The TNM classification is combined with other factors

to determine the stages of cancer:
 Stage 0: This refers to cancer that is "in situ,"
meaning that cancerous cells are confined to their
site of origin. This type of cancer has not spread
and is not invading other tissues.
 Stage I: This stage is usually a small cancer or
tumour that has not grown deeply into nearby
tissues. It also has not spread to the lymph nodes or
other parts of the body. It is often called early-stage
cancer.

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 Stage II and Stage III: These stages indicate larger
cancers or tumours that have grown more deeply
into nearby tissue r other lymph nodes but not to
other parts of the body.
 Stage IV: This stage indicates the cancer has spread
to distant lymph nodes, tissues, or organs in the
body far away from the site of origin.

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 Treatment

Numerous treatments for cancer which differ depending

on the type and stage of a cancer as well as the overall
health of the patient. These include:

Chemotherapy
It is the treatment of cancer with one or
more cytotoxic (cell toxic) anti-neoplastic (abnormal
growth) drugs. They consist of various drugs that act by
killing cells that divide rapidly.
Targeted therapy is a form of chemotherapy that targets
specific molecular differences between cancer and
normal cells. For ex. targeted therapies blocked
the estrogen receptor molecule, inhibiting the growth of
breast cancer.
Chemotherapy is curative for some cancers, such as
some leukemias and ineffective in some brain tumors
but its effectiveness is often limited by its toxicity to
other tissues in the body.

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Radiation Therapy
Radiation therapy involves the use of ionizing
radiation in an attempt to either cure or improve
symptoms. It damages the DNA of cancerous tissue and
kills it while sparing normal tissues. This is done by
shaped radiation beams which are aimed from multiple
angles to intersect at the tumor, providing a larger dose
there than in the surrounding, healthy tissue.
Radiation can be delivered externally, where X-rays,
gamma rays, or other high-energy particles are
delivered to the affected area from outside the body, or
internally which involves the placement of radioactive
material inside the body near cancer cells
(brachytherapy).
 Ex. Radioactive iodine (I-131) for thyroid
cancer, strontium-89 for bone cancer

Surgery
Surgery is often performed to remove malignant tumors
and allows for the determination of the exact size of the
tumor as well as the extent of spread and invasion into
other nearby structures or lymph nodes.
Sometimes, cancer cannot be entirely surgically
removed it could damage critical organs or tissues.
Therefore, palliative surgery is performed to reduce the
effects of a cancerous tumor. Reconstructive surgery
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can also be performed to restore the look or function of
a part of the body after cancer surgery.

Other treatments include:

 Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplants - Involve the
infusion of stem cells into a cancer patient after the
bone marrow has been destroyed by high-dose
chemo and/or radiation.
 Photodynamic therapy (PDT) - Involves the
application of laser energy of a specific wavelength
to tissue that has been treated with a
photosensitizing agent, a medication that makes
cancerous tissue susceptible to destruction with
laser treatment.
 Angiogenesis inhibitors - Medications which
inhibit the growth of new blood vessels that
cancerous tumors need in order to grow.

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 Preventive Measures

More than a third of cancer could be prevented by

modifying or avoiding key risk factors which include:

Tobacco
Smoking causes approximately 30 percent of all cancers
and 90 percent of lung cancers. Globally, tobacco
causes just over five million deaths a year and is
projected to cause 1 billion deaths worldwide by the
end of the century. It also significantly increases the
risk of kidney, bladder, pancreas and cervical cancers.

Alcohol use
Alcohol use increases the risk for many cancer types
including cancer of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx,
oesophagus, liver, colorectum and breast.

Physical activity
Regular physical activity and the maintenance of a
healthy body weight, along with a healthy diet, will
considerably reduce cancer risk. Exercise lowers the
risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes, osteoporosis, high

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blood pressure, and prevent cancer.

For ex. Exercise helps maintain healthy levels of

hormones like estrogen and progesterone in the blood
which prevent breast cancer while help control insulin
levels which can prevent colon cancer.

Diet
A healthy diet can help lower the risk of many
cancers. Evidence shows that a risk-reducing diet is:
largely plant based, low in animal products (red meat),
low in sodium, and for men, not too high in calcium
(less than 1500mg/day).
A daily multivitamin with folate, a B vitamin that has
been shown to lower the risk of colon cancer, as well as
15
breast cancer, may help reduce the overall risk of
cancer.
Glutathione plays a major role in the antioxidant
activities of the body. Glutathione metabolism is able to
play both protective and pathogenic roles and hence, is
crucial in the removal and detoxification of
carcinogens. Alterations in this pathway can greatly
affect cell survival.

Protection from the Sun

High sun exposure directly increases the risk of
melanoma (skin cancer). Tanning beds and indoor
tanning are carcinogenic to humans as it can increase
the risk of melanoma by around 20 percent.

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To lower the risk of skin cancer, one must avoid the sun
during peak burning hours, wear long sleeve shirts, long
pants, and wide-brimmed hats, properly apply and re-
apply broad-spectrum sun screen.

Infectious diseases
Some infections cause chronic inflammation that can
change the behaviour of infected cells. Infections that
compromise the immune system (like HIV) also
increase cancer risk by making the body less able to
defend against infections that can cause cancer.
Viral hepatitis B and C cause cancer of the liver, HPV
infection causes cervical cancer, and the bacterium
Helicobacter pylori increases the risk of stomach

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cancer. Preventive measures include vaccination and
prevention of infection and infestation.
Regular Screening Tests
Screening tests find cancers early when they’re most
treatable and are the best way to protect against cancer.
Breast (mammogram), cervical (Pap test), and colon
screening should be priorities for women. Colon
screening should be a priority for men.

Conclusion

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Cancer, a complex disease characterized by
uncontrolled cell growth and the ability to spread to
other parts of the body, remains a significant global
health challenge. Despite advances in medical science,
its high mortality rate is primarily due to metastasis,
which allows cancer cells to invade other tissues.
Understanding cancer’s causes, progression, and
molecular mechanisms has led to improved diagnostic
techniques and diverse treatment options.
Today, treatments like surgery, radiation,
chemotherapy, and targeted therapies offer more
tailored approaches to managing cancer. These
advancements have enhanced survival rates, but
challenges such as side effects and drug resistance
persist, especially in advanced stages. Preventative
measures—such as lifestyle modifications, regular
screenings, and vaccinations—are vital in reducing
cancer risk and improving early detection, allowing for
timely intervention.
Research into cancer biology is ongoing, with the goal
of developing more effective and less invasive
treatments. While there is no definitive cure yet, strides
in prevention, early detection, and treatment options
have significantly impacted patient outcomes.

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 Bibliography

www.nature.com

www.euro.who.int

www.wikipedia.org

www.onhealth.com

www.cancer.org

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