ECONOMICS OF CLIMATE RESILIENT PRACTICES AMONG

SMALLHOLDER RICE FARMERS IN TOFA LOCAL GOVERNMENT OF KANO

STATE.

BY

AMINA ISAH

AGR/17/AGR/01248

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND EXTENSION, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE,

BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

B. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND EXTENSION.

SEPTEMBER, 2023.

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 BACKGROUND STUDY

1.1 Introduction

Climate is defined as a long-term weather patterns that describe a region. Globally, climate

change is the most serious environmental threat that adversely affects agricultural productivity.

According to inter-governmental panel on climate change (IPCC) report, climate change refers to

any change in climate over time, due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. This

climate change mainly caused by greenhouse gases accumulation in the atmosphere, which

results in increased greenhouse effect. Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes,

both of which take place on a global scale and their relationship is of particular importance as the

imbalance between world population and world food production increases. Based on some

projections, changes in temperature, rainfall and severe weather events are expected to reduce

crop yield in many regions of the developing world, particularly sub-Saharan Africa and parts of

Asia. The impact and consequences of climate change for agriculture tend to be more severe for

countries with higher initial temperatures, areas with marginal or already degraded lands and

lower levels of development with little adaptation capacity (Yohannes H, 2016).

A key element required for sustainable and transformational development in agriculture is

ensuring that investments are informed by robust evidence about past and future climate risks.

Climate resilient is a fundamental concept of climate risk management. In this context, resilient

refers to the ability of an agricultural system to anticipate and prepare for, as well as adapt to,

absorb and recover from the impacts of changes in climate and extreme weather. Resilient can be

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enhanced by implementing short and long-term climate mitigation and adaptation strategies, as

well as ensuring transparent and inclusive participation of multiple actors and stakeholders in

decision-making and management processes (Alvar-Beltran, 2021).

Today, resilient rice farming is an increasingly popular aspect of strategies that attempt to

overcome the challenges faced by agriculture as a result of climate change. Rice is a staple food

for more than half of the world’s population, with record consumption figures in recent years.

However, in the face of growing demand, production is often insufficient. There are numerous

reasons for this that varies depending on the area of the world. Yet what affects agricultural

production in particular, albeit in different ways, is climate change. In recent years, climate

change has accelerated beyond the predictions of theoretical models. This has had major

consequences, including increasing temperatures, rising sea levels, more frequent floods and

prolonged droughts. These climate variations threaten world agriculture and in particular rice

production, jeopardizing the food security of billions of people. Although rice grows in a wide

variety of environments, it is particularly sensitive to weather conditions and temperature

changes. In many regions of the world, the effects of climate change are already visible and have

had a noticeable impact on rice production. For example, the rise in average global temperatures

can accelerate the growth of rice. Although this effect may seem positive, it is actually

counterproductive, as it reduces the ripening period and consequently the yield. In addition,

floods and rising sea levels—phenomena closely related to climate change—can submerge rice

fields, destroying crops and rendering land unusable. Drought is also a growing threat, Water is a

key resource for rice cultivation and lack of water can seriously affect production. In recent

years, this has become evident even in areas that historically have never had a problem, such as

in Piedmont. Finally, while the increased concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere may boost
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plant growth through its fertilizing effect, it could also alter the nutritional quality of rice, with a

potential impact on human health.

The term resilient in agriculture, which is also relevant to rice farming, refers to the ability of an

agricultural system to cope with critical situations and to continue to function productively, even

in the face of significant changes. This may include not only climate change but also a broad

range of critical issues, such as plant diseases, market changes, and social and economic

pressures. Resilient in agriculture is particularly important in the age of climate change, as the

acceleration of this now unstoppable phenomenon leads to increasingly unpredictable and

extreme consequences. Strategies to increase resilience may include the cultivation of more

resilient crops, the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, crop diversification,

technological innovation and continuous learning (MUNDIRISO, 2023).

Rice is a cereal grain and monocot; a plant with a seed that has one embryonic leaf. The only two

types of cultivated rice are African rice (Oryza glaberrima) and Asian rice (Oryza sativa). The

plant itself grows between 90-150cm. The sheaths which enclose the leaves are smooth and

hairless, with slim leaves of up to 30cm long and 15mm wide. The small flowers have 6 anthers

(the part of the stamen with pollen) and 2 stigmas (where pollen germinates). It has a dry fruit

and spreads its seed through the wind. The grain gets processed into rice. Rice loves wet places.

It’s spread across warm, tropical and aquatic conditions like flood plains, wetlands, ponds and

streams. Whilst rice farms are global, it’s concentrated mainly in Asian developing countries.

But it needs a good infrastructure to support the industry, including disease and pest control.

Rice can take up to 200 days to mature, and then it’s a hard process of manual work to hand-

harvest it from the paddy fields and dries out the plants. Then the seeds are threshed and milled

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with a huller, removing the outer husk until it becomes rice. Much like making bread, the more

you mill, the ‘whiter’ the rice becomes. However, it loses some of its nutritious properties in the

process. Other techniques, like parboiling, polishing or puffing, turn it into the different types of

rice you can buy. Steamed, boiled or fried, there are multitudes of ways to prepare it. As a

complex carb, it is the primary source of energy for over half of the world’s people. Depending

on the strain of rice, it can contain decent amounts of fiber, protein, vitamin B, iron and

manganese. This means it can play a vital role against malnutrition. In some cultures, rice is

thrown at weddings. In others, a Dewi Sri, the rice goddess, is worshipped. The whole plant can

be re-used for cooking fuel or feeding livestock. The husks can be recycled as fuel or bedding, or

added to building materials or turned into paper. In traditional medicine, rice has been used to

treat skin or gastric conditions, or boiled down for an eye lotion. It can even be an ingredient in

beauty products to make shiny hair. Rice production can devour water resources. It’s a delicate

balance between ‘too hot’ and ‘too wet’. Extreme temperatures can stress the plants; flooding

can destroy the paddy fields and heat waves can stop it from growing at all. If the environment

becomes too humid, then disease can spread. Improper farming techniques like over-irrigation or

misuse of insecticides can negatively impact production. Diseases like the grassy stunt virus,

which destroyed over 116,000 hectares in Asia, are also a problem (Kew, 2019).

1.2 problem statement

Climate change through extreme temperature, frequent flooding and drought and increased

salinity of water supply used for irrigation has become a recurrent subject of debate globally and

Nigeria is one of the countries contributing to global warming.

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A recent research has shown that rice can be used to offset the major impacts of climate change

because of its potentials and unique properties as a food crop for urban poor and rural rice-

growing populations (Manneh et. al. 2007). Rice is a major cereal in Nigeria in terms of its

output and land area. The crop is currently grown in more than 70% of the states in the country.

In spite of availability of cultivable land area, the current level of demand for rice in Nigeria is

about 5 million metric tons which is more than twice the quantity produced (2.2 metric tons). At

present about 4.9 million hectares are suitable for rice production but just about 1.8 (37%) are

currently utilized for cultivation. To amend the problem, West African Rice Development

Association (WARDA), International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and ministry of

agriculture are frequently improving adaptation measures in rice agriculture in Nigeria. In

addition, Nigeria governments have invested more to increase rice production than other cereals.

In 2009 for instance, the nation spent more than 66.67 million US dollars in public-private

partnership schemes to improve the irrigation systems and set up about 17 new rice processing

mills. The major problems associated with rice production include drought, flooding, salt stress

and extreme temperatures, all of which are expected to worsen with climate change. Drastic

changes in rainfall patterns and rise in temperatures will introduce unfavorable growing

conditions into the cropping calendars thereby modifying growing seasons which could

subsequently reduce the crop productivity. So far, there has not been any study to address the

economic impacts of climate change on rice farming and farm level adaptations that rice farmers

make to mitigate the potential impact of climate change (scielo, 2010).

Against the aforementioned background of the study would try to find answers to the following

research questions

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I. What are the level of awareness on climate resilient practices

II. What are the identified climate resilient practices adopted by the smallholder rice farmers

III. What are the profitability and resource efficiency of climate resilient practices in rice

production

IV. What are the factors that influence farmer's choice of adaptation method to climate resilient

practice in the study area

V. What are the challenges associated with application of climate resilient practices and rice

production

1.3 Study Objectives

 Describe the rice farmers profile and their awareness level on climate resilient practices,

 Identify the different climate resilient practices among farmers,

 Estimate the profitability and resource efficiency of climate resilient practices in rice

production,

 Estimate the factors influencing rice production,

 Describe the challenges associated with application of climate resilient practices and rice

production.

1.4 Justification

Climate change is already affecting rice production in the region, with droughts and floods

becoming more frequent and severe. Investing in climate-resilient practices can help farmers

adapt to changing conditions and maintain or improve their yields, which can lead to increased

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incomes and improved food security. Climate-resilient practices can also help to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, which can contribute to global efforts to mitigate

climate change.

1.5 Scope and Limitations

This study aims at examining the effect of climate change on smallholder rice farmers in Kano

State and how it can be overcome.

The scope was limited to economics of climate resilient practices among smallholder farmers in

Tofa Local Government of Kano state.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study area description

Tofa local government area is domiciled in Kano state, North-west geopolitical zone of Nigeria.

The headquarters of the LGA are in the town of Tofa and the LGA is comprised of several towns

and villages which include Langel, Yanoko, Lambu, Tofa, Gajida, Yarimawa, Kwami, Jobe,

Janguza, Dindere, Wangara, Ungwan rimi, Kadawa, Doka, Ginsawa, and Yalwakarama. The

estimated population of Tofa LGA is put at 169,738 inhabitants with the area predominantly

occupied by members of the Hausa/Fulani ethnic group. The Hausa language is commonly

spoken in the LGA while the religion of Islam is widely practiced in the area. Notable landmarks

in Tofa LGA include the Gerawa primary School.

Tofa LGA sits on a total area of 202 square kilometers and has an average temperature of 32

degrees centigrade. The average wind speed in the LGA is put at 10 km/h with the total

precipitation in the area put at an estimated 1270 mm of rainfall per annum.

Tofa LGA has a vibrant trade sector and hosts a number of markets which include the Kofar

Ruwa Iron rod market. Animal rearing also blossoms in the LGA with domestic animals such as

cows, donkeys, and rams reared and sold in the area. Other economic enterprises indulged in by

dwellers of Tofa LGA include crafts making, farming and food processing.

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3.2 Sampling approach

Simple random sampling approach was used for this study. A simple random sample is a subset

of a larger population in which each member of the population has an equal chance of being

selected. This is the simplest and most straightforward type of probability sampling. It's often

used in research studies because it's relatively easy to implement and it provides a high level of

statistical validity. Ten (10) rice farmers will be selected randomly in six (6) different

communities of Tofa local government area of Kano state, which will be 60 in total. The six (6)

communities are Janguza, Wangara, Lambu, Doka, Langel, and Ungwan rimi.

3.3 Data collection method

Primary data was used for this study. Data was collected using a well-structured questionnaire,

which was administered in the study area. For section A, data was collected based on

identification information of the respondent. For section B, data was collected based on socio-

economic characteristics, such as age, sex, marital status; years of experience, etc was collected.

For section C, data was collected based on climate resilient practices among the farmers. For

section D, data was collected based on production efficiency in the rice production. For section

E, data was collected based on problems associated with rice production.

3.4 Data analysis

Data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive statistics include

frequency distribution, mean, percentages was used. Descriptive statistics was used for Objective

I, II and V. Gross margin and Resource use efficiency was used for Objective III. Multiple

Regressions was used for objective IV.

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3.4.1 Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics: are concerned with scientific methods for summarizing, presenting and

analyzing data as well as drawing valid conclusion and making reasonable decision on the basis

of such analysis.

Mean: this is the sum values in the data group divided by the number of values. It is the most

useful and fundamental measure of the location.

X=€FX/€f

Frequency distribution: this is an organized display of data set that shows the number of

observation from the data set which fall into each for mutually exclusive less. Frequency

distribution enhances organization and presentation of data in social research.

Percentages: these are proportions obtained by dividing the number of observations in each

class divided by the total number of observations, multiplied by a hundred.

3.4.2 Gross margin

The gross margin of an enterprise is the difference between total revenue from production and

variable cost of production. Gross margin is used as a measure of profitability when fixed cost of

the enterprise is negligible. Gross margin will be used to determine the profitability of climate

resilient practices in rice production.

GM = TR-TVC

Where;

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GM = gross margin

TR = total revenue

TVC = total variable cost (cost of seeds, cost of labor, cost of fertilizers, cost of agro-chemicals).

3.4.3 Resource Use Efficiency

Resource use efficiency will be obtained from the production function analysis. Efficiency is

generally defined as the quantity of output (y) per unit of input (x) used in the production

process, that is, the average physical productivity (APP). In order to ascertain whether resources

are efficiently utilized, the marginal value product (MVP) of the variable inputs used will be

computed and compared with their input prices. The following ratio will be used to compute the

efficiency of resource use. Efficiency ratio mathematically written as;

r =MVP/MFC

Where;

r = efficiency ratio

MVP= marginal value product

MFC= marginal factor cost

MFC= Pxi (Pxi = the price paid per unit of input)

The MVP value will be estimated as follows;

MVP= Bi × Xi/Yi × Py

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Where;

MVP= marginal value product

Bi= regression coefficient

Xi= mean of input

Yi= mean of output

Py= price per unit output

Decision rule;

MVP>MFC: Under-utilization of resources (gives a ratio of greater than 1, INEFFICIENT)

MVP<MFC: Over-utilization of resources (gives a ratio less than 1, INEFFICIENT)

MVP=MFC: Optimal utilization of resources (gives a ratio equal to 1, EFFICIENT)

2.4.4 Multiple Regression Model

Regression models are used to describe relationships between variables by fitting a line to the

observed data. Regression allows you to estimate how a dependent variable changes as the

independent variable(s) change.

Regression model will be used to estimate the factors influencing rice production. The multiple

regression models were implicit stated as:

Y=B1+ B2X2 + B3X3 + BnXn + U

Where
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Y= output/yield of rice

B1= constant/intercept

B2-Bn= coefficient of regression

X2= quantity of seed

X3= fertilizer

X4= manure

X5= farm size

U= error term

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References

 Yohannes H (2016) A Review on Relationship between Climate Change and Agriculture. J

Earth Sci Clim Change 7: 335. Doi: 10.4172/2157-7617.1000335

 Alvar-Beltrán, J., Elbaroudi, I., Gialletti, A., Heureux, A., Neretin, L. Soldan, R. (2021).

Climate Resilient Practices: typology and guiding material for climate risk screening. Rome,

FAO.

 MUNDIRISO (2023) on Rice and Climate change: resilient rice production strategies.

https://www.mundiriso.com/2023/07/11/rice-and-climate-change-resilient-rice-production-

strategies/

 Kew (2019) on the importance of rice. https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/the-importance-

of-rice

 Scielo (2010) on impact of climate change on rice agriculture in Nigeria.

https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1870-04622011000200018

 Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopedia (2023, August 27). Kano. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/place/Kano-state-Nigeria

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climate change in the region BY Aliyu baba Nabegu (2009)

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