1.

0 History

History of Indian music, lost in antiquity, is so interwoven with mythology and

legends, that it is surrounded by misconceptions and mystery. In spite of this,
Indian music has maintained it's characteristics in it's highly developed melodic
and rhythmic structure. Traditionally, the history of Indian music is divided into
three periods. They are:

[1] The Ancient period (6000 BC? to between 200 BC and 400 AD)
[2] The Medieval period (400 AD to 1500 AD)
[3] The Modern period (1500 AD onwards)

2.0 Concepts

2.1 Naada, shruti, swara [Musical sound or tone, microtone, note]

Naada is a musical sound. It is a series of regular vibrations in a medium like air

(as opposed to irregular vibrations, which would be heard as noise). The
frequency of a vibration decides the pitch of the sound it represents (how high or
low the sound feels to the ear). The frequency is reported in a unit called Hertz
(Hz). The frequency range of a sound the human ear can hear is 20 Hz to 20,000
Hz.
Now, as an example, take a sound (or tone) having a frequency of 100 Hz.
Another sound, having twice the frequency, that is, 200 Hz, will sound the same.
But it will sound 'higher'. The frequency ratio 200:100, which is 2:1, represents
what is called an octave. The number of sounds that the human ear can hear, in
an octave, is infinite. But the number of sounds that it can discern, differentiate,
or grasp, is 22. They are called shruti-s (microtones). Shruti has been variously
translated as: microtone, microtonic interval, interval, step etc. It is mainly
determined through fine auditory perception
So, to continue with our example, there exist 22 shruti-s, starting with the first
shruti on the starting point of 100 Hertz. Taking the sound represented by 100
Hz as the point of reference, we get 22 ratios. The 23rd ratio takes us to the
sound represented by 200 Hz. These ratios are called intervals. The intervals are
measured in relation to the reference sound (100 Hz in our example). The octave
is represented by the ratio 200:100, or the interval 2:1. This sound of reference
is called tonic, key, or "Sa", etc. In Indian musical terminology, it is known as
shadja, "Sa" for short. It is represented by the symbol S. Out of the 22 shruti-s,
7 are selected to form a musical scale. The tonic is fixed first, followed by 6 more
shruti-s to form a 7-ladder scale. These 7 sounds, or tones, are called swara-s (or
notes). The tonic, in our example, would fall on the sound represented by 100
Hz. This would be our "Sa (S)". The Sa would be followed by 6 more notes, 7 in
all. The 8th note, the sound represented by 200 Hz, would sound like the tonic,
but it would sound "higher". The 7 notes form the "saptaka" of Indian music; the
8 notes-- the eighth note being the "higher" Sa -- form the "octave" of the
Western music. The seven notes are named as follows:
 shadja, "Sa" for short, symbol S; rishabha, "Re", R; gandhara, "Ga", G;
madhyama, "Ma", m; panchama, "Pa", P; dhaivata, "Dha", D; and the 7th,
nishada, "Ni", N.
For convenience, let us call the Western musical note, C, as our tonic, the "Sa".
Then the seven notes would be: C, the "Sa"; D, "Re"; E, "Ga"; F, "Ma"; G, "Pa"; A,
"Dha"; and the 7th, B, "Ni".The first and the fifth notes, namely C (Sa) and G (Pa),
are regarded immutable ("achala"). The remaining 5 notes have two states
each. Thus we have 12 notes in an octave. The 12 notes are designated short
names and symbols as under:

# Name Symbol Symbol

Indian Western
1 Sa shuddha (natural) S C
2 Re komala (flat) r D flat
3 Re shuddha (natural) R D
4 Ga komala (flat) g E flat
5 Ga shuddha (natural) G E
6 Ma shuddha (natural) m F
7 Ma teevra (sharp) M F sharp
8 Pa shuddha (natural) P G
9 Dha komala (flat) d A flat
10 Dha shuddha (natural) D A
11 Ni komala (flat) n B flat
12 Ni shuddha (natural) N B

The octave can be divided into two equal parts: the lower tetrachord, consisting
of C-D-E-F, and the upper tetrachord, made up of G-A-B-C. This last-mentioned C
has the interval 2:1 with the first C in the lower tetrachord. The lower tetrachord
is called "poorvaanga" (poorva + anga), the upper tetrachord, "uttaraanga"
(uttara + anga) in Indian musicology. Further, Full expression of Indian music
requires up to 3 octaves. They are: the "mandra saptaka" (lower octave), the
"madhya saptaka" (middle octave), and the "taara saptaka" (higher octave).
Note: The notes in Western music use the tempered scale, while in Indian music
the notes use the natural harmonic scale.

2.2 Thaat [Scale]

A thaat (scale) is a 7-ladder scale, made up of 7 primary notes. A thaat must

contain all 7 notes, each in any one of the "shuddha", "komala", or "teevra"
state. The word thaat is synonymous with "mela". We have the following 10
thaat-s, with their names and the included 7 notes in each:

Thaat Notes
1 Bilawal S-R-G-m-P-D-N
2 Khamaj S-R-G-m-P-D-n
3 Bhairav S-r-G-m-P-d-N
4 Kafi S-R-g-m-P-D-n
5 Asavari S-R-g-m-P-d-n
6 bhairavi S-r-g-m-P-d-n
7 Kalyan S-R-G-M-P-D-N
8 Marva S-r-G-M-P-D-N
9 Poorvi S-r-G-M-P-d-N
10 Todi S-r-g-M-P-d-N
11 *Kirvani S-R-g-m-P-d-N
* Added, being important as the harmonic minor scale.

Each Thaat is a group of seven notes from which raga-s have been formed (or
can be formed). The musicians perform raga-s, never thaat-s. Note: The notes
in Western music use the tempered scale, while in Indian music the notes use
the natural harmonic scale.
The names of these thaat-s happen to be the very names of raga-s, too. But a
thaat does not have any aesthetic value. So it is never performed. On the other
hand, a raga has aesthetic appeal, and is performed by musicians.

2.3 Raga [Sometimes translated as "Mode", though imperfectly]

The concept associated with the term" raga" is highly developed and complex. It
defies any definition or description. We can, at best, enumerate some of the
characteristics of the raga. Even then its concept eludes us. The only way to
grasp the concept of the raga is to listen to its development over prolonged
periods of time and repeatedly. It is like learning a new language: However
enjoyable, it requires consistent and continuous effort. Let us take up some of
the characteristics of the raga:
1. The raga must be aesthetically pleasing. It must delight the heart of the
listener. It must be capable of existing in its own right, as an individual entity,
with unique aesthetical value.
2. The development of a raga is. in principle, constant attainment of aesthetic
tensions, followed by resolutions, through various degrees of sonance
(consonance and dissonance). This is achieved by the use of the permissible
notes, singly or in combination, through the movements in three octaves. There
are regulations that govern these movements.
3. Basically, a raga is capable of being developed into an infinite number of
melodic patterns, following certain guidelines.
4. A raga should be capable of being classified into one of the thaat-s.
5. A raga cannot be formed out of less than 5 notes. "Sa" has to be present as
the reference note. Both "Ma" (the fourth) and "Pa" (the fifth) cannot be
simultaneously omitted from the raga. So, it must have the following notes: SA;
one of the Re or Ga; Ma or Pa; one of the Dha or Ni, Further, if only one of the
Ma/Pa is present, the raga must include either both Re and Ga, or both Dha and
Ni, so as to achieve a total of 5 notes.
5. It cannot include two states (out of the three possible states: shuddha,
komala, and teevra) of same note consecutively.
6. The raga must follow the time theory. This means that a raga can be
performed only at its stipulated time of the day (or night, or a season of the
year).

2.4 Classification of Raga-s

There are several ways in which a raga can be classified. The clasification may
be based on
(A) The number of notes which comprise the raga. We have three types: (i)
"audava", with 5 notes; (ii) "shadava", with 6 notes; (iii) "sampoorna", with 7
notes.
(B) Tempo of movement. (i) "alapa-pradhana", if slow movement brings out the
characteristics of a raga better; (ii) "taana-pradhana", if the raga sounds better in
fast movement.
(C) The importance of the tetrachord in the development of the raga. (i)
"poorvanga-pradhana", if the development of the raga is more prominent in the
lower tetrachord; (ii) "uttaranga-pradhana", if the development of the raga is
more prominent in the upper tetrachord.
(D) Grammar and Syntax of the raga. (i) "shuddha" (uncontaminated); (ii)
"chhaya-laga", if it reminds the listener of another raga; (iii) "samkeerna", if it is
a mixture of many raga-s.
(E) Nature of its movements. (i) "satala", if its developmental movements are
straightforward and plain; (ii) if the movements are complex and zigzag .

2.5 The Defining Elements in the Raga

The following elements define the grammar, syntax and aesthetics of a raga:
(1) Graha. It used to be the starting note of a raga. It has lost its significance in
today's improvised style of singing.
(2) Amsha. It is the most frequently used note in a raga. This term is not in use
in today's music.
(3) Nyasa. It is the ending note in the performance of a raga. Again, this term is
not used much these days.
(4) to (8). Taara, mandra, apanyasa, sanyasa, vinyasa. These terms are not in
use any more.
(9) Alpatva. It indicates very little use of a note (or notes) in a raga.
(10) Bahutva. It indicates very frequent use of a note (or notes) in a raga. It is
effected by either repeated use of a note, or by emphasing and prolonging a
note.
(11) Tirobhava. It means hiding the prominent features of a raga when
perfoming it.
(12) Avirbhava. It means highlighting the prominent features of a raga when
perfoming it. It is used to indiate showing the prominent features of a raga again,
after hiding it (in tirobhava).
(13) to (16). Vadi, samvadi, anuvadi, and vivadi. These are treated separately in
2.6 below.

2.6 Vadi, Samvadi, Anuvadi, Vivadi [ Sonant, Consonant, Assonant, Dissonant]

Vadi. It has been described as the King of the notes occuring in a raga. It
dominates the development of the raga, it is accentuated, it is emphasised. The
melodic patterns are woven around the vadi. If it is located in "poorvanga"(the
lower tetrachord), the raga is developed with greater emphasis in the lower
tetrachord, Similarly for "uttaranga" (the upper tetrachord). See 2.4(C). Also, if
the vadi of a raga is located in the "poorvanga', that raga is performed at any
time except the morning. If the vadi of a raga is located in the "uttaranga', that
raga is performed in the morning.

Samvadi. It has been given importance next only to the King (vadi). Samvadi
also enjoys great importance in the development of a raga. If the vadi of a raga
is located in "poorvanga"(the lower tetrachord), its samvadi will be located in the
"uttaranga" (the upper tetrachord). And vice versa.
The samvadi is always a fifth or a fourth in relation to the vadi. The
relationship of the fifth is called "shadja-panchama bhava". The relationship of
the fourth is called "shadja-madhyama bhava". Vadi-samvadi relationships
exemplify perfect consonance.

Anuvadi. The notes occuring in a raga, apart from the vadi and the samvadi,
are called anuvadi notes. They bring the number of notes in the raga to atleast
five. They help in creating aesthetic tension, to be followed by resolution. (See
2.3, 2). Sometimes. an anuvadi can have great importance, the same as, or next
only to samvadi. Such an anuvadi can be called "pranuvadi". Very often, an
anuvadi acts as the leading note, creating aesthetic tension, till it leads to "Sa"
(especially in higher octave), resolving the tension.

Vivadi. They are the notes which do not occur in a raga. However, quite
often, a vivadi is included, in a specific way, in the develpoment of a raga. This
is because a vivadi can embellish a raga by making it sound exceptionally
charming.
2.7 Aroha, avaroha [Ascending, Descending]

Aroha is the successively ascending notes of a raga, starting on the tonic

("Sa"), and ending in the "Sa" in the higher octave.
Avaroha is the successively descending notes of a raga, starting on the "Sa" in
the higher octave.and ending on the tonic ("Sa"), it is the opposite of aroha.
Aroha-avaroha indicate the notes comprising a raga. They are useful in a very
general way: they do not specify characteristics of a raga. In fact, it is possible
for two raga-s to have the same aroha-avaroha, though the ragas may be totally
different aesthetically.

2.8 Jaati-s of a raga [Classification of a raga]

As shown in 2.4 (A), a raga may be classified, based on the number of notes it
contains. Thus, we have three types: (i) "audava", with 5 notes; (ii) "shadava",
with 6 notes; (iii) "sampoorna", with 7 notes. Depending on the number of notes
in the aroha, and in the avaroha, we derive the following nine theoretical classes:
(i) audava-audava: 5 notes in aroha, 5 in avaroha.
(ii) audava-shadava: 5 notes in aroha, 6 in avaroha.
(iii) audava-sampoorna: 5 notes in aroha, 7 in avaroha.
(iv) shadava-audava: 6 notes in aroha, 5 in avaroha.
(v) shadava-shadava: 6 notes in aroha, 6 in avaroha.
(vi) shadava-sampoorna: 6 notes in aroha, 7 in avaroha.
(vii) sampoorna-sampoorna: 7 notes in aroha, 7 in avaroha.
(viii) sampoorna-shadava: 7 notes in aroha, 6 in avaroha.
(ix) sampoorna-audava: 7 notes in aroha, 5 in avaroha.

2.9 Time Theory of Raga-s [Time of Performance]

According to the time theory, a raga can be performed only at a particular time
assigned to it, out of 24 hours of the day, or, in some cases, a particular season
of the year is assigned. It is not clear why this is so; but the theory is strictly
followed even today. See 2.4 (C). "poorvanga-pradhana" raga-s are sung during
the time period 12 noon to 12 midnight. "uttaranga-pradhana" raga-s are sung
during the time period 12 midnight to 12 noon. In addition, each raga has been
assigned a particular "prahara" only in which it can be performed. A "prahara" is
90 minutes.

Timewise, the raga-s are divided into the morning raga-s, the midday/midnight
raga-s, the twilight raga-s, and the night raga-s. In this context, the following
generalizations have been observed
(i) Raga-s with shuddha Re (D), Ga (E), Dha (A) and Ni (B) are performed in the
first quarter of morning or night.
(ii) Raga-s with komala Ga (E flat) and Ni (B flat) are performed in the middle
of the day or night.
 (iii) Raga-s with Sa (C), Ma (F), and Pa (G) as prominent notes, are performed
in the last quarter of day or night.
(iv) Raga-s performed from afternoon till midnight, contian teevra Ma (F
sharp).
(v) The raga-s with komala Re (D flat) and Dha (A flat), are performed at the
twilight (morning as well as evening). Such raga-s are called "sandhi-
prakasha" raga-s. Also, they often use both shuddha Ma (F) and teevra Ma (F
sharp).
Note: There are two exceptions : On being ordered by a King, and when learning
from your Guru, you can perform any raga at any time.

2.10 Taal, Laya [Rhythm, Tempo]

Various terms associated with the rhythmic concept in Hindustani music are: taal
(rhythm), matra (beat), sama, khali, taali, khanda (division), avartana (cycle),
laya (tempo), Tempo types : vilambita (slow), madhya (moderate), and druta
(fast), bol (mnemonic sounds), and theka (basic cycle of bol-s).

Taala is a rhythmic cycle (avartana). It consists of a certain, fixed number of

beats (matra). A beat is the duration of silence between the first and the next
count. The count can be done by clapping, or counting numbers, or saying the
sounds of the bol. The number of beats varies from one taal to another. Each
taal has a name. For example, the taal called Teental, is a cycle of 16 beats. On
completion of 16 beats, the counting starts again from 1 through 16. And so on.
Counting is done at a uniform, steady pace. If counting is slow, the resulting
tempo will be slow (vilambita laya). If counting takes place at a moderate speed,
the tempo will be moderate (madhya laya). Fast counting will result in fast
tempo (druta laya). The first beat of the rhythmic cycle is the most important
one. it is called the sama (pronounced like the word "sum"). A little beyond half
way, another important beat occurs. It is called khali. It means "empty". it is so
called because it is assigned negative weight (taking something out). Taali
means clapping. It occurs at different place(s), depending upon the taal. The
cycle of a taal is divided into parts, each part is called a khand. The bol-s of a
taal are a set on mnemonic sounds. Some examples of bol-s are: taa, naa, dhin,
tin, dhaa, dhin,etc. They are the alphabets -- about 15 in number -- of the
language of taal. taal-s are played on percussion instruments like the tabla and
pakhavaj, Tabla is the most popular percussion instrument.
We can repeatedly play the bol-s of a taal, in a plain, simple way. Playing like
this is called theka. Playing theka means playing just plain bol-s of a taal,
without any embellishments. In classical music, teental, with its variations like
Punjabi and Sitarkhani, is the most popular taal. Some other taals played are:
Ektaal, Jhaptal, Jhumra, and Tilwada. The details:

Taal # of Beats
Teental 16
Jhaptal 10
Ektal 12
Jhumra 14
Tilwada 16

There are, of course, several other taal-s and several other percussion
instruments.
The percussionist, for example, a tabla player, can play a taal by way of
accompaniment to a vocal or an instrumental performance. Or, he can play it as
a solo performance. In the two cases, the requirements are very different. and
so also the styles of performance. It is easy to follow these differences, if we
frequently listen to tabla accompaniment and solo performances.

Some other popular taals, used commonly, are:

Name of the Taal Number of Beats

Dadra 6
Khemta 6
Roopaka 7
Keharva 8
Bhajan 8
Deepchandi 14

3.0 Vocal Music

3.1 Genres
Every vocal performance is rendition of or based on some raag. However, there are
several forms or genres of Hindustani classical singing. Each of them has a distinct
identity and characteristics. Each one also requires certain exclusive skills to
perform. A raag can be presented in any of these styles. Some popular genres of
vocal classical music are described below :
§ Dhrupad An ancient style that is often used for
religious or philosophical renditions. Dhrupad
singers use syllables like Om, Nom, Tom etc.
to develop the raag being performed.
Dhrupad singing has its own special taals
which are not used in other forms of vocal
music, e.g., Chautala. Pakhawaj is used as
percussion instrument to accompany a
 dhrupad performance, and not Tabla.
Gamaks are used frequently in a dhrupad
performance. There are four sub-styles of
dhrupad, called four banis, e.g., Dagar-bani,
Gauhar-bani, etc. Dhrupad is a dying art and
there are very few remaining practitioners of
it.
§ Khayaal By far the most popular style of vocal
classical singing in the present era. Khayaal
singing involves presenting a lyrical
composition in classical style. Most vocal
performances these days fall in this
category. Khayaal is of two kinds - chhota
khayaal and bara khayaal. The former is a
small composition sung at a medium or fast
tempo, usually to the accompaniment of a
percussion instrument. The latter is a longer
rendition that allows deep exploration and
gradual expansive development of the raag
being performed. A typical vocal
performance involves a bara khayaal follwed
by a chhota khayaal in the same raag.
Khayaal singing is typically accompanied by
Tabla as the percussion instrument. Besides
using a lyrical composition to present a raag,
khayaal singing involves the various
ornaments (taan, meend, etc.) using aakaar
(using syllable aa for all swaras) or sargam
(using consonents for the corresponding
swaras, i.e., Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni).
§ Tarana Tarana singing does not involve any lyrics
but instead uses syllables like tana, deem,
oder, dir, tadiyan, etc. A tarana performance
is usually at a faster pace than Khayal or
Dhrupad. The percussion instrument used to
accompany taranasinging is Tabla.
§ Thumri A light classical form of singing, usually set
in Deepchandi taal (14 beats). Thumri
singing usually involves lyrics with
sentiments of lovers, like separartion,
complaint, request etc.

3.2 Stages of a typical vocal performance

A typical vocal performance includes two broad stages – aalaap followed by bandish
in the same raag. Aalaap is the act of illustrating and developing the raag using
aakaar and/or sargam. Aalaap doesn’t require any words or lyrics. At this stage the
artist explores the swaras of the raag and gradually develops phrases and patterns.
Bandish is a composition, i.e., rendition of lyrics in a raag. Bandish is usually set to a
passrticular beat (taal). The tempo (laya) of a bandish increases gradually from slow
(vilambit) to medium (madhya) to fast (drut). Very slow and very fast tempos are
called ati-vilambit and ati-drut respectively.

4.0 Instrumental Music

4.1 Stages Of A Typical Instrumental Performance

A typical instrumental performance includes four broad stages – aalaap followed by
jor followed by jhaala, and finally gat, in the same raag. Much like in vocal singing,
Aalaap is the act of illustrating and developing the raag swar by swar, and then
phrase by phrase. (To be completed…)

5.0 Miscellaneous Terms

Naad Sanskrit for sound.

Ahad Naad Asound produced artificially, e.g., by striking, plucking, blowing,etc.
Anaahad Naad The natural sound energy pervading the universe which is not audible
to humanear.
Harmony Whentwo or more notes are produced simultaneously and the
combination sounds agreeable and pleasant. Indian classical music
does not have the concept of harmony. Western classical music does.
Melody A sequence of individual notes (not simultaneous) that sounds
agreeable and pleasant. Indian classical music is melodic.
Western classical music involves melody as well as harmony.
Samvaadita When two swaras are produced simultaneously and the combination
sounds agreeable and pleasant, it's called samvadita(consonance).
Different combinations of swaras sound agreeable to varying degrees.
The consonance of Sa and Sa (of two different saptaks) is the most
agreeable and pleasant (highest concord), with Sa-Pa and
Sa-Ma consonances following in descending order of concord.
Tirobhaav The act of an artist constructing and dwelling on phrases or patterns
Of swaras technically allowed in the raag being performed but not
Usually performed in that raag. By emphasizing the unusual and
rarely heard phrases, the artist is in a way hiding the known and
popular character of the raag. Though theoritically permitted,
this may result in audiencenot being able to identify the raag.
Only well-accomplished artists, Who are established authorities,
usually attempt tirobhaav.
Avirbhaav The act of an artist, having done tirobhaav for a while, returning to
the known and characteristic phrases or patterns of theraag being
performed. Tirobhaav having confused the audience, avirbhaav
immediately gives them a sense of familiarity and identification of the
 raag. While tirobhaav hides the usual character of araag, avirbhaav
brings it out. Tirobhaav not followed by avirbhaavis not generally
prescribed.
Nyaas-swar The act of halting or staying on aswarin a composition, before taking
the next swar.
Upaj When starting a performance, the artist presents the notes of the
Raag one by one, (using aakaar or sargam). The act of repeating and
emphasizing aswarat this stage is called Upaj.
Barhat When starting a performance, the artist presents the swaras of the
raag (using aakaarorsargam). The act of slowly and gradually
introducing the swaras one at a time while weaving and establishing
characteristic patterns of the raagis called barhat. For instance,
when performing raag Yaman, the artist may first dwell on only
Madhya Sa and Mandra Ni. Then introduce Mandra Dha, and dwell
on Sa, Ni and Dha for a while. And then introduce Madhya Re, and
so on.