1). What is Philosophy?

Christian theology, contributing to Scholasticism, a system that

used logic and dialectical reasoning to reconcile faith with
Philosophy is the systematic study of fundamental reason. Philosophers like Avicenna and Averroes also preserved
questions/truths about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and expanded Greek philosophy, influencing both Europe and the
mind, language, and the nature of reality. It involves Middle East.
methodological investigation using logical reasoning and critical
analysis. Renaissance and Early Modern Philosophy (1500-1800)

2). The root word of Philosophy This era was centered on Humanism, which emphasized human
values, reason, and the pursuit of knowledge through classical
The term Philosophy originated from the Greek word texts. It also saw the rise of skepticism and empiricism.
Philosophia, which means:
Key figures:
●​ Philo - love
●​ René Descartes - emphasized reason and doubt,
●​ Sophia - wisdom famously stating "I think, therefore I am."

Therefore, Philosophy is known as “love of wisdom.” ●​ John Locke - argued for natural rights and limited
government.
3). Importance of Philosophy
●​ Immanuel Kant - attempted to reconcile rationalism and
Philosophy matters as it helps us think critically, enhances
empiricism, arguing for the importance of both reason
communication, and deepens self-understanding in tackling life’s
and experience in knowledge.
complex questions. It teaches us to evaluate ideas, solve
problems logically, and see things more clearly without bias. It 19-century Philosophy (1800-1900)
encourages us to reflect on our values and beliefs while
broadening our understanding of different cultures and Addressed the issues brought on by industrialization, political
perspectives. Ultimately, it also guides us in making ethical change, and the exploration of human psychology. Thinkers like
choices, helping us act with fairness and integrity in both Hegel, part of the German idealist movement, and existentialists
personal and societal concerns. like Kierkegaard and Nietzsche delved into deep questions about
freedom, individuality, and the search for meaning. Meanwhile,
4). History of Philosophy philosophers like Bentham and Mill advocated for utilitarianism.

Ancient Philosophy (600 BCE-500 CE): ●​ Idealism - the belief that reality is fundamentally mental
or spiritual, with ideas or consciousness shaping the
●​ Pre-socratic: Early Greek thinkers, such as Thales,
world.
Anaximander, Heraclitus, and Parmenides, sought
rational explanations for the natural word. They ●​ Existentialism - a philosophy focusing on individual
explored questions about the fundamental substance freedom, choice, and the search for meaning in an often
of reality and the nature of change. indifferent universe.

●​ Classical Period: This era is considered the golden age ●​ Utilitarianism - an ethical theory that suggests actions
of Greek Philosophy, with figures like Socrates, Plato, should promote the greatest happiness for the greatest
and Aristotle laying the foundation of Western number.
Philosophy.
●​ Romanticism - a movement valuing emotion, nature,
○​ Socrates - introduced the “Socratic Method” of and individualism, often as a reaction against
questioning rationalism and order.

○​ Plato - developed the “Theory of Forms” 20th and 21st Century Philosophy (1900-Present)

○​ Aristotle - emphasized “Empiricism” Explores topics such as language, logic, social justice, and
technology. Key movements like existentialism, phenomenology,
●​ Hellenistic Period: New schools of thought emerged
analytic philosophy, and postmodernism emerged, with
like Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism.
influential figures such as Heidegger, Sartre, Russell,
Wittgenstein, and Derrida shaping the field. It continues to
●​ Late Antiquity: The rise of Neoplatonism, a
address global issues by drawing from various philosophical
philosophical system that asserts all reality originates
traditions.
from a single, transcendent source, The One, and that
the goal of life is to return to this divine unity through
●​ Analytic Philosophy - a philosophical approach that
spiritual growth.
emphasizes clarity, precision, and logical analysis in
examining philosophical problems. It focuses on
Medieval Philosophy (500-1500)
language, meaning, and the structure of arguments,
During the medieval period, philosophy was closely linked with aiming to resolve confusion through logical reasoning.
religion, particularly Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Thinkers
like Augustine and Aquinas merged classical philosophy with
 ●​ Continental Philosophy - consists of various schools of reality, and knowledge without necessarily thinking about
thought that deal with abstract concepts and critiques immediate solutions for typical problems. Understanding
of modernity, culture, and reason. fundamental truths, such as what it is to exist or the underlying
causes of everything in the universe, is of interest to speculative
○​ Phenomenology - founded by Edmund Husserl philosophy. While practical philosophy aids in getting through
and developed by Martin Heidegger and challenges in life, speculative philosophy encourages us to
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, focuses on studying reflect more thoroughly on the world's grand questions.
conscious experience from the first-person
perspective. It emphasizes subjective 9). Metaphysics
expertise, perception, and intentionality,
aiming to uncover the essential structures of Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that studies what is
how we experience the world, free from beyond the physical, exploring the fundamental nature of reality,
preconceived theories. existence, and being. The term has its roots in the writings of
ancient Greek philosophers and is derived from the Greek words
○​ Post-structuralism - argues that meaning is meta (after) and phusiká (physics). It seeks to understand the
not fixed or determined by underlying basic principles that govern the universe.
structures but is instead constantly shifting
and dependent on context, culture, and Some of the Key Questions:
individual interpretation.
●​ What is the nature of reality?
●​ Post-modernism - characterized by a worldview that
●​ What exists?
emphasizes religious and metaphysical explanations
for the nature of existence, focusing on divine order,
●​ What is time and space?
tradition, and authority.
10). Cosmology
5). Philosophy and Man
Cosmology is one of the key sub-branches of metaphysics,
Humanity and philosophy are intertwined as different views on
which examines the origins, evolution, and structure of the
philosophy address a range of significant questions, including
universe like the Big Bang theory.
knowledge, morality, values, the nature of reality, and more.
Increased self-awareness results from this, and human progress Some of the Key Questions:
improves society.
●​ What caused the universe to begin?
6). Why is Philosophy the Mother of all Science
●​ How did galaxies, stars, and planetary systems form?
Philosophy is often called the "mother of all sciences" because
it’s where humanity’s journey for knowledge and understanding ●​ Is there life beyond Earth?
began. Early philosophers asked fundamental questions about
life and reality, paving the way for scientific thought. Others 11). Epistemology
converted their philosophical reasoning into scientific
Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that focuses on the
advancements. Philosophy also gave us tools like logic and
study of knowledge and its limits. It ensures that what we learn
reasoning, which became the foundation for exploring and
is true, rather than mere assumptions.
understanding the universe through scientific methods and
conceptual frameworks. Over time, specialized disciplines like
Some of the Key Questions:
biology emerged from philosophical inquiry. Even now,
philosophy guides science by improving its methods, ideas, and ●​ What is knowledge?
decisions to navigate ethical dilemmas.
●​ What are the necessary conditions for something to be
7). Practical Philosophy considered knowledge?

Practical philosophy is a branch of philosophy that uses 12). Psychology

philosophical concepts to deal with daily life, concentrating on
issues such as moral judgment, how to lead a fulfilling life, and Psychology is the study of how our minds work and how it
the best way to structure society. It is not just theoretical; influences the way we act. It looks at everything from our
instead, it provides us with ways to make better decisions in our thoughts and emotions to our social interactions, using research
communities, relationships, and workplaces. It also enables us methods like experiments and observations to understand these
to reflect more thoroughly on our choices, helping us to live in a processes. Different branches of psychology, like developmental,
way that is in touch with our values and advances a better cognitive, social, and clinical, dive into specific areas of human
society. experience. The knowledge gained from psychology is applied in
real-world settings such as mental health care, education,
8). Speculative Philosophy
business, and law, helping to improve lives and address
challenges. Hence, psychology aims to offer a clearer
Speculative philosophy is another branch of philosophy that
understanding of ourselves and others.
explores more theoretical and abstract issues than practical
ones. It's all about understanding broad concepts like existence,
13). Social Philosophy
Social philosophy is a subfield of philosophy that focuses on conduct, and the importance of natural law in human
understanding the ethical implications of our interaction as a life.
society. It examines how our institutions and social structures
influence our lives and examines concepts like justice, equality, ●​ The Modern Period - The Enlightenment in the 17th and
and freedom. Considering topics such as identity, power, and 18th centuries introduced secular approaches to ethics.
justice, social philosophy helps to decide how to build a more Philosophers like Immanuel Kant emphasized
equitable and balanced society, particularly in light of today's duty-based ethics (deontology), while John Stuart Mill
challenges promoted consequentialism (utilitarianism).

14). Philosophy of Man ●​ Contemporary Era - In the 20th and 21st centuries, new
branches such as applied ethics addressing real-world
The Philosophy of Man or Philosophical Anthropology is a issues like bioethics, environmental ethics, and
branch of philosophy that deals with the fundamental nature of business ethics arise, with a growing emphasis on
human beings, exploring aspects such as identity, moral relativism, suggesting that ethical principles can
consciousness, morality, and the relationship between vary across cultures and societies.
individuals and society. In a general sense, when talking about a
“man’s philosophy,” it refers to their worldview and guiding 18). Importance of Ethics
principles shaped by their experiences, values, cultural
background, and intellectual influences. Ethics is essential because it helps us make the right choices
and treat others with respect. It guides how we act, ensuring we
15). Aesthetic take responsibility for our decisions while fostering trust and
fairness in society. By focusing on what’s right, ethics not only
The study of Beauty or Aesthetics, one of the branches of supports personal growth but also helps build stronger, more
philosophy, is about exploring the nature of beauty and what harmonious communities.
makes something visually or emotionally pleasing. Examples are
art, music, photographs, and paintings, in which aesthetics is 19). Ethics and Morality
concerned with understanding why we find certain things
beautiful and how they affect our thoughts and emotions. Ethics is the study of what guides our behavior, helping us figure
out what’s right or wrong, often laid out in external codes or rules
Some of the Key Questions: established by a group or community. Morality, on the other
hand, is about the personal beliefs and values each of us holds
●​ What is beauty? when it comes to right and wrong. While ethics gives us a
broader framework, morality is more individual, shaped by our
●​ How do we define art?
own experiences and cultures.
●​ How do cultural contexts influence our perceptions of
20). Ethics and Law
beauty?
Laws are the official rules set by governments to maintain order,
16). Ethics
and they are enforced through penalties like fines or
The study of moral principles, known as Ethics, is a branch of imprisonment. They provide clear guidelines on what is
philosophy concerned with questions of what is right and wrong acceptable behavior in society. Ethics, on the other hand, is
in human behavior. It comprises of a set of guidelines to be a about the moral compass that guides individual actions, shaped
better person that will benefit a society. Real-life applications of by personal values and social norms. It’s not enforced by
ethical principles can be seen in contemporary debates about authorities but by social approval or disapproval. While laws are
issues like environmental responsibility and medical fixed, ethics can vary from person to person or culture to culture.
decision-making. This means something can be legal but still be frowned upon by
society, and something ethical may not always be legally
Ethics seeks to answer questions like: required.

●​ What is the good life? 21). Ethics and Man

●​ How should we resolve ethical dilemmas? Ethics is not separate from man; it is intertwined with the human
nature, behavior, and social existence, providing ethical
17). History of Ethics guidelines to deal with the complexities of daily life. Moral
principles of every man, may it be shaped by cultural values or
●​ Ancient Period - Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, societal norms, influence their individual actions, affecting their
and Aristotle focused on virtue and justice, while interactions with others and the larger society. Hence, ethics
Chinese thinkers like Confucius and Laozi emphasized helps us reflect on what truly matters and encourages us to
social harmony and living in nature. make choices that not only benefit ourselves but also contribute
to a fairer society.
●​ Medieval Period - Ethics during the Middle Ages was
strongly influenced by religious teachings, particularly 22). Schools/Branches of Ethics
Christianity, with thinkers like St. Augustine and St.
Thomas Aquinas integrating Christian theology with ●​ Descriptive ethics - deals with what people actually
Greek philosophy. They emphasized divine law, moral believe or what made to believe to be right or wrong
 and holds up the human actions acceptable or living in accordance with virtue and aligning one’s life with these
unacceptable or punishable under a custom or law. ideal Forms. According to Plato, the soul has three parts: reason,
spirit, and appetite. Ethical behavior is achieved when reason
●​ Normative ethics (prescriptive ethics) - deals with governs the spirit and appetite, leading to inner harmony.
“norms” or set of considerations on how one should
act. It is known as a study of “ethical action” and sets 26). Aristotelian Ethics
out the rightness or wrongness of the actions.
Aristotle argued that virtues are not just about knowing what’s
○​ Deontological ethics - an individual requires right but about practicing and building good habits over time. We
understanding of his/her moral duties and the develop virtues like courage and generosity through repeated
rules that exist to regulate those duties, actions. Aristotle proposed that moral virtue lies between
arguing that actions must be done out of duty extremes. For instance, courage is the balance between
and respect for moral law. Actions are morally cowardice and recklessness, encouraging moderation in our
right or wrong based on their adherence to a behavior. Aristotle emphasized the importance of practical
set of rules or duties, rather than the wisdom (phronesis), which involves not only knowing what is
outcomes they produce. right but knowing how to apply that knowledge in real-life
situations.
○​ Teological ethics (consequentialism) - the
morality of an action is determined by its 27). Stoicism/Stoic
outcomes or consequences. An action is
considered right if it leads to good Stoicism is a philosophy that teaches us to find peace by
consequences, vice-versa. focusing on what we can control—our thoughts and
actions—while accepting what’s beyond our control. It
○​ Virtue ethics - focuses on developing good emphasizes that virtue, such as wisdom, justice, courage, etc.,
character traits, rather than following strict not external circumstances, is the true path to happiness. By
rules. It emphasizes that individuals with developing strong internal character and making wise decisions,
virtuous character will naturally make better stoicism helps us deal with life’s challenges with resilience.
decisions in life.
28). Hedonism
●​ Meta-Ethics (analytical ethics) - deals with the origin or
nature of the ethical concepts themselves, exploring Hedonism is the idea that the main purpose of life is to seek
the scope of moral values in the life of individuals. pleasure and avoid pain. It suggests that people are motivated
by what feels good and that only pleasure has real value, while
●​ Applied ethics - deals with the study of applying pain is seen as bad. However, this way of thinking can have
theories in everyday life/philosophical examination of negative effects. It might lead to selfishness, focusing only on
particular issues in private and public life which are short-term enjoyment instead of long-term goals. It can also
matters of moral judgment. cause people to avoid challenges that are important for personal
growth. In some cases, it may result in addiction or
23). Sophism overindulgence, which can harm both happiness and well-being.

Sophism refers to deceptive arguments that appear true but are 29). Ethics of Hegel
false, often used to mislead others. Originating in ancient Greece
with sophists who prioritized persuasive rhetoric over genuine Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel’s ethical philosophy emphasizes
knowledge and moral truth, sophism remains prevalent today, that true ethical life (Sittlichkeit) arises from the shared values,
particularly in politics and advertising with authorities focusing customs, and institutions within a community, as opposed to
on self-interest. being solely based on individual moral reasoning (Moralität). He
argued that human freedom and ethical development are best
24). Socratic Ethics
realized within the context of organized social institutions that
Socrates believed that true virtue comes from understanding provide structure and purpose. According to Hegel, the family
what is truly good. If a person knew what was good, they would nurtures personal relationships and moral grounding, civil
naturally do good things. Wrongdoing, for him, arises from society fosters individual needs and economic interdependence,
ignorance. Socrates famously said, "The unexamined life is not and the state embodies the highest ethical order, uniting
worth living," emphasizing the importance of self-reflection and individuals in a rational and collective pursuit of freedom and
critical thinking in living ethically. He saw virtues like justice, justice.
courage, and wisdom as interconnected. To be truly virtuous,
30). Immanuel Kant Ethics
one must continuously engage in inquiry and dialogue to
understand and improve themselves. Kant’s ethics focuses on the importance of duty and following
universal moral principles, not worrying about the
25). Platonic Ethics
consequences. He introduced the categorical imperative, which
Plato built on Socratic ideas, proposing that the world we see is suggests we should act only in ways that could be applied
just an imperfect reflection of perfect, eternal Forms. The Form universally, treating everyone with respect and dignity. For Kant,
of the Good, for Plato, is the highest and most important form of the only thing that is truly good is a good will, driven by duty
goodness. True happiness (eudaimonia), for Plato, comes from rather than personal desires. He believed that we make moral
choices freely, guided by reason, and that respecting others as
ends in themselves, not as tools for our own purposes, is key.
The core takeaway is that morality comes from doing what’s
right, based on universal laws, and respecting each person's
worth.

31). Karl Marx Ethics

Marx’s ethics critiques capitalism for creating inequality and

exploitation. He argued that history is driven by class struggles,
and a just society can only emerge through communism, where
exploitation is abolished. Marx believed ethics are tied to
material conditions and societal organization. In a communist
society, cooperation would allow people to reach their full
potential. To achieve justice, exploitation must be dismantled.

32). Frederick Nietzsche

Nietzsche criticized traditional morals, especially Christianity, for

promoting weakness and self-denial. He believed in the "will to
power," urging individuals to create their own values and strive to
be an Übermensch, rising above societal norms. His concept of
perspectivism suggests that morality is shaped by different
viewpoints, not universal truths. Nietzsche argued that
traditional morality limits personal growth, and we should foster
values that promote strength and self-improvement.

33). Christian Ethics

Christian ethics centers on loving God and others. It teaches that

morality comes from following God’s commands. The Golden
Rule encourages treating others as we would like to be treated,
and virtues like compassion, forgiveness, and humility are
central to ethical behavior. Christianity teaches that our actions
are not just about following rules, but about inner transformation
through faith and grace.

34). Confucius Ethics

Confucian ethics emphasizes the importance of social harmony

and the roles we play in relationships. Central values include Ren
(benevolence), Li (proper conduct), Yi (righteousness), and Xiao
(respect for parents). Ethical behavior is seen through the lens of
how we treat others and fulfill our roles, whether as parents,
children, or community members. Confucius believed in the
power of education and self-cultivation to develop moral
character. Living ethically involves fulfilling your social
responsibilities with respect, kindness, and righteousness.

35). Buddhist Ethics

Buddhist ethics is all about ending suffering, which is seen as a

fundamental part of life. This is achieved by following the
Eightfold Path, which includes practices like right speech, right
action, and right mindfulness. At the heart of Buddhist ethics are
the values of compassion (Karuna) and loving-kindness (Metta),
and the commitment to non-violence (Ahimsa) towards all living
beings. The ultimate goal is to eliminate suffering by cultivating
inner peace and harmony with others.