PHILOSOPHY

(NATURE AND
HISTORY)
NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy is a broad and deep field of
study that explores fundamental questions
about existence, knowledge, values, reason,
and the mind.
Ultimately, philosophy is about engaging with the
"big questions" of life and using reasoned thought
to examine both the answers and the questions
themselves. It promotes reflection on our beliefs,
values, and actions in a way that helps us better
understand ourselves and the world around us.
 NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
The nature of philosophy can be characterized by several key aspects:

1.Critical Thinking and Inquiry: Philosophy encourages questioning and

critical analysis of the world around us. It invites people to examine
assumptions, challenge beliefs, and assess the validity of arguments in a
systematic way.

2.Conceptual Analysis: Philosophers often break down complex concepts

into simpler components to better understand their meanings, relationships,
and implications. This allows for clearer thinking about issues like justice,
truth, freedom, and morality.
 NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
3.Theoretical Exploration: Philosophy often deals with abstract,
speculative, and theoretical ideas that are not always immediately
applicable in the practical world. These ideas might concern things like the
nature of reality, the existence of God, or the principles of ethics.

4.Interdisciplinary Connections: Philosophy frequently overlaps with other

fields of study, such as science, politics, religion, art, and literature.
Philosophers often explore the assumptions, foundations, and implications
of these domains of knowledge.
 NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
5.Pursuit of Wisdom: The ultimate aim of philosophy is the search for wisdom—a
deeper understanding of life's fundamental questions. Philosophers seek not just to
answer these questions but to understand the nature of knowledge itself and the
process of inquiry.

6.The Role of Ethics: Philosophical inquiry also deeply explores moral questions—what
is the right thing to do, how should we treat others, and what kind of society is just. This
makes philosophy relevant to everyday decisions and the functioning of society.

7.Open-Endedness and Diversity: Unlike many fields that aim for definitive answers,
philosophy often embraces the complexity of questions, accepting that there may be
multiple perspectives and interpretations.
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
"the unexamined life is not worth living,"
philosophy is a way to
challenge accepted
wisdom, encourage critical
self-reflection, and pursue
knowledge and virtue
through dialogue and
questioning.
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
Philosophy is the pursuit of truth and
wisdom, through the process of dialectical
reasoning.

"The Republic," emphasizes

that philosophy is about
understanding the ideal forms
or the true essence of things
beyond what appears in the
physical world.
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
Philosophy is the pursuit of knowledge through
empirical observation and logical analysis.

Philosophy was divided into various

branches like metaphysics, ethics, and
logic, aiming to understand the nature
of reality and human life. Aristotle
viewed philosophy as a way to seek
the causes and principles behind the
phenomena of the world.
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
At its core, philosophy is about questioning and exploring
assumptions, understanding different perspectives, and
developing deeper insights into both the world around us and our
own thoughts.
It encompasses a wide range of subfields, including:
Metaphysics (study of the nature of reality)
Epistemology (study of knowledge and belief)
Ethics (study of morality)
Logic (study of reasoning and argument)
Aesthetics (study of beauty and art)
In essence, philosophy seeks to clarify
concepts, deepen understanding, and
engage with complex questions that have
no easy or straightforward answers. It
encourages open-mindedness, intellectual
curiosity, and a reflective approach to life.
HISTORY OF
PHILOSOPHY?
Ancient Philosophy (circa 600 BCE – 500 CE)
•Pre-Socratics (6th – 5th century BCE): These early thinkers, such as Thales, Heraclitus, and
Pythagoras, focused on the nature of the cosmos and the origins of the universe. They were the first to
propose rational explanations for the world, stepping away from mythological explanations.
•Socrates (470-399 BCE): Considered one of the founders of Western philosophy, Socrates emphasized
the importance of ethics and self-examination. His method of questioning (the Socratic method) aimed to
stimulate critical thinking and expose contradictions in beliefs.
•Plato (427-347 BCE): A student of Socrates, Plato founded the Academy and explored ideas about
justice, the nature of reality, and the theory of forms, where the physical world is seen as a shadow of a
higher, more perfect realm.
•Aristotle (384-322 BCE): Plato's student, Aristotle, founded his own school, the Lyceum. His work
covered a wide array of topics, from metaphysics to ethics, and he is known for developing logic as a
formal discipline. Aristotle’s concept of virtue ethics remains influential today.
HISTORY OF
PHILOSOPHY?
Medieval Philosophy (5th – 15th century)
•This period was deeply influenced by the rise of Christianity, with many philosophers
attempting to reconcile reason with faith.
•Augustine of Hippo (354-430): A key Christian philosopher who integrated Platonic
thought with Christian theology, focusing on the nature of God, sin, and human will.
•Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274): A Dominican monk who synthesized Aristotelian
philosophy with Christian doctrine, arguing for the compatibility of faith and reason and
articulating natural law theory.
•Islamic and Jewish philosophers: Figures like Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn
Rushd) in the Islamic world, and Maimonides in Jewish philosophy, played key roles in
preserving and expanding upon Greek philosophy during the medieval period.
HISTORY OF
PHILOSOPHY?
Renaissance and Early Modern Philosophy (14th – 18th century)
•Renaissance humanism revived interest in classical Greek and Roman texts and
placed emphasis on human potential, individualism, and critical inquiry.
•René Descartes (1596-1650): Often called the father of modern philosophy, Descartes
is famous for his statement "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). He is known
for his work on skepticism and the nature of consciousness.
•John Locke (1632-1704): A key figure in the development of empiricism, Locke
argued that the mind is a "blank slate" at birth and knowledge comes from experience.
•Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): In his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant tried to reconcile
empiricism and rationalism. He proposed that knowledge comes from both sensory
experience and innate structures of the mind.
HISTORY OF
PHILOSOPHY?
19th Century Philosophy
•The 19th century saw the rise of new ideas about society, politics, and the nature of
human existence.
•Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831): Developed a system of thought called
dialectical idealism, emphasizing the process of history and ideas unfolding through
contradictions and their resolution.
•Karl Marx (1818-1883): A key figure in the development of political philosophy, Marx
critiqued capitalism and proposed a materialist interpretation of history, focusing on
class struggle and the eventual rise of socialism.
•Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900): Nietzsche famously declared "God is dead" and
criticized traditional morality and the concept of absolute truths. He promoted the idea
of the "Übermensch" (superman) and the will to power.
HISTORY OF
PHILOSOPHY?
20th Century and Contemporary Philosophy
•The 20th century saw a shift to more diverse and specialized areas of philosophy.
•Existentialism: Thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger focused on
themes of individual freedom, responsibility, and the meaning of life in a seemingly
indifferent or absurd universe.
•Analytic philosophy: Figures like Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein focused
on logic, language, and the philosophy of mind, emphasizing clarity and precision in
philosophical analysis.
•Postmodernism: Thinkers like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida questioned the
idea of objective truths, focusing instead on power dynamics, language, and the social
construction of knowledge.
LOGIC
WHAT IS LOGIC?
Logic is the study of principles of valid reasoning and
argumentation. It provides a framework for distinguishing
between correct and incorrect arguments, allowing us to
evaluate statements and inferences based on their
structure.
OVERVIEW OF LOGIC
•Aristotle (384-322 BCE): Aristotle is often
considered the father of formal logic. He
developed the system of syllogistic logic,
which is based on deductive reasoning. In a
syllogism, two premises lead to a conclusion
(e.g., "All men are mortal; Socrates is a man;
therefore, Socrates is mortal").
•Example:
•Major Premise: All humans are mortal.
•Minor Premise: Socrates is human.
•Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
•Aristotle's system is also known as
term logic or syllogistic logic.
OVERVIEW OF LOGIC

•René Descartes and John Stuart Mill further

developed logical thinking in relation to the philosophy of
science, where logic was often employed to support
empirical evidence and reasoning.
OVERVIEW OF LOGIC

Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead created Principia

Mathematica (1910-1913), a landmark work in formal logic and the
foundations of mathematics, with the aim of proving all mathematical truths

•Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead

using logical principles.

created Principia Mathematica (1910-1913), a

landmark work in formal logic and the foundations
of mathematics, with the aim of proving all
mathematical truths using logical principles.
CONCEPTS OF LOGIC
Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning:
•Deductive reasoning involves drawing a conclusion that
necessarily follows from the premises (e.g., in a syllogism). If the
premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
•Inductive reasoning involves drawing a general conclusion
based on specific observations. Inductive arguments are not
guaranteed to be true, but they can provide strong or weak
evidence for the conclusion.
CONCEPTS OF LOGIC
Propositions and Arguments:
•Propositions are statements that can be either true or false.
•An argument consists of a set of propositions, where some (the
premises) are intended to support the truth of another
proposition (the conclusion).
•An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the
premises, regardless of whether the premises are actually true.
CONCEPTS OF LOGIC
Logical Connectives: Logical operations combine or modify statements.
These include:
•AND (Conjunction): Both statements must be true (e.g., "It is raining and
it is cold").
•OR (Disjunction): At least one statement must be true (e.g., "It is raining
or it is cold").
•NOT (Negation): The opposite of a statement (e.g., "It is not raining").
•IF...THEN (Implication): If one statement is true, then another must follow
(e.g., "If it rains, the ground will be wet").
•IF AND ONLY IF (Biconditional): Two statements are either both true or
both false (e.g., "You are awake if and only if you are not asleep").
CONCEPTS OF LOGIC
Logical Fallacies: Fallacies are errors in reasoning that weaken
an argument. Common logical fallacies include:
•Ad Hominem: Attacking the person making the argument
instead of addressing the argument itself.
•Straw Man: Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it
easier to attack.
•False Dilemma: Presenting only two options when more exist.
•Circular Reasoning: The conclusion is assumed in the
premises