Author:

Muhammad Mushtaq Jadoon

DMG
Project Director,
Literacy For All Project,
Govt. of NWFP, Peshawar

Consultants:

• Dr. Mumtaz Manglori

Educationist,
Ex-Subject Specialist, NWFP,
Textbook Board, Peshawar.

• Prof. Allah Rakha Saghir

Ex-Chairman, Planning &
Management, Allama Iqbal Open
University, Islamabad.

• Arshad Saeed Khan

Senior National Specialist
(Education)
UNESCO, Islamabad.

• Dr. Muhammad Saleem

Deputy Education Advisor,
Project Wing, Ministry of Education,
Islamabad.

• Mr. Inayatullah
Former Chairman,
National Literacy Commission
(President, PACADE),
Lahore, Pakistan.

Draft Review:

• Syed Jawad Ali Shah

Deputy Director (M & E)
Literacy For All Project
Govt. of NWFP.

• Wasil Nawaz Khattak

Deputy Director
Elementary Education Foundation,
Peshawar.
Data Analysis and
Research:

• Amin Khan Bangash

Statistical & Planning Officer
Literacy For All Project
Govt. of NWFP. Peshawar

• Zaheer Ahmed
Computer Programmer
Literacy For All Project
Govt. of NWFP. Peshawar

Computer & Technical

Assistance:

• Amjad Akhounzada
Assistant Statistical Officer
Literacy For All Project
Govt. of NWFP. Peshawar

• Zafar Usman
Data Processing Officer
Literacy For All Project
Govt. of NWFP. Peshawar
 PROLOGUE
Initially this report was compiled as Part of Literacy Manual.
After extensive deliberations, it was deemed fit to separate the
“Conceptual Framework for Literacy Programme” from,
“Operationalization Of Literacy Programme” due to the fact that both
have different audience.

This report is meant for the policy makers, planners,

managers and supervisory staff of Literacy Programme. It deals with the
basic concepts and related factors of literacy programme. It took us three
years to compile this report. Many changes were made on the basis of
feedback and research data collected during implementation of, “Literacy
for All” Project, NWFP. The research data is based on operationlisation of
37000 plus literacy centres having 0.85 million learners (six batches
each of 4-5 months) in all the 24 districts of NWFP.

The aim of this report is not only to educate the policy

makers so as to ensure effective communication and advocacy at the
policy level but also equip the management, supervisory staff and other
stakeholders with the basic concepts, approach, strategy, processes and
socio-political environment withregard to literacy programme.

Clear understanding of peculiarities of non-formal literacy

programme is essential. Once the basic concepts of management and
supervisory staff are clear the operationalization of literacy programme
would be much easier.

This report was minutely examined by the experts in a

conference held in Abbottabad in June, 2007.
 The revised draft was reviewed by the Consultants. Valuable
contribution made by Mr. Arshad Saeed Khan, Senior National Specialist
(Education), UNESCO, Islamabad, Prof. Allah Rakha Saghir, Ex-
Chairman, Planning & Management, Allama Iqbal Open University,
Islamabad, Dr. Mumtaz Manglori, Educationist, Ex-Subject Specialist,
NWFP Textbook Board Peshawar and Mr. Inayatullah, Former Chairman,
National Literacy Commission (President, PACADE), Lahore enabled us to
present the report in its present shape.

Change is inevitable and this report would only attain

finality once objectives of promotion of literacy are attained.

We expect productive feedback from the readers.

MUHAMMAD MUSHTAQ JADOON

D.M.G
Project Director, ‘Literacy For All’ Project, NWFP
Managing Director, Elementary Education
Foundation.
NWFP, Peshawar.
January, 2008
E-mail: cdnwfp@yahoo.com
Website :www.eef.org.pk
 THE TASK AND CHALLENGES
1.1. REALITY CHECK
Eradication of illiteracy through non-formal adult literacy
programme is not a permanent solution. In the absence of a viable strategy to
achieve 100% net enrolment, at least upto primary level, it would tantamount to
perpetually live on life-saving drugs without addressing the actual causes of
ailment.
Pakistan with 54% overall literacy rate (65% male and 42% female)
is not in an enviable position. NWFP with 46% overall literacy, having 64% male
and just 30% female literacy rate, is ranking third among the four provinces of
Pakistan1.

Last five years data (2000 – 2005) indicates one percent annual
improvement in literacy. At this pace of development it would take us many
more decades to achieve 100 % literacy provided we reduce the current dropout
rate of about 20% during the first two years of schooling to zero, coupled with
reduced population growth rate2. The current population growth rate of NWFP,
2.8%, stands highest in Pakistan.

1.1.1 Draft Education for All (EFA) Plan NWFP envisages attainment of
100% Primary Education, 50% early childhood education (3-5 years age group),
and 86% adult literacy (10 + years age group) by the year 2015 with a total cost
of 72 billion rupees. These estimates are preliminary. Cost estimates for
achieving 86% adult literacy is Rs.15 billion. NWFP EFA Draft Plan was
formulated in the year 2003. Since Dakar Declaration (2000) a period of seven
years has already elapsed without substantive achievements.

1
Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey (2005-06). Federal Bureau of
statistics. Statistics Division Government of Pakistan, March, 2007.
2
Education For All (EFA) Draft Plan. Schools and Literacy Department Govt. of NWFP.
Pakistan.
 NWFP is comparatively younger than other provinces as its 81%
population is below 39 years of age. Currently there are about 7 million
illiterates in the age group of 9-39 years of age. While 3.5 million illiterates are
in the age group of 9-20 years of age. Every year 0.25 to 0.3 million children
surpass 9 years of age as illiterates and are added to the huge number of 7
million illiterates3.

Even if target of 100% enrolment is achieved, and that too by the

year 2015, we would continue to grow with some 10 million illiterates for
decades to come. Therefore, apart from promotion of literacy through formal
school system, non-formal literacy programme are required to clear this huge
backlog of illiterates.
Instead of waiting for mega projects such as implementation of EFA
Plan, a start has to be made. EFA Draft Plan (2003) NWFP, even after lapse of
four years, is yet to be finalized for implementation. Availability of resources is
still not sure. In a financially deficient province like NWFP it would be an uphill
task to meet the financial requirements without federal grants and donors
assistance. With a view to ensure continuity, the literacy component must be
incorporated in the Five Year Plan.

The provinces, in pursuance of National Policy, have already

initiated some reforms and measures such as Early Childhood Education and
Education Sector Reforms.

LFA Project is the first major initiative in this direction. No major

effort has been made after the winding up of ‘Nai Roshni’ Project some two
decades ago.

LFA project can not encompass all the related issues of illiteracy.
Some are even beyond the control of Provincial Government, but it is surely an
elemental step.

3 Projected population Census 1998 and EMIS Schools & Literacy Deptt: Govt. of NWFP. Pakistan.

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2
1.2 PROGRAMME DESIGN AND APPROACH
1.2.1. Literacy programme is to be developed on the basis of ground realities.
Peculiarities of NWFP and related socio-economic issues warrant distinct
approach. There is no denying the fact that there are myriads of problems
ranging from lack of political will, continuity, sustainability, resource
constraints, both of trained human resources as well as financial, geographic
and social barriers. These are some of the potent factors which have to be
tackled in an effective manner. In certain districts of NWFP there is resentment
against promotion of female literacy and insensitivity towards the overall
literacy. In quite a few districts environment for female literacy is conducive. It
would be an uphill task to bring the left-out, dropout, adolescent and adults to
the Literacy Centres and that too without offering on-the-spot financial
incentives or integrated package. Quite a few institutions in this country have
made efforts to address the issue of literacy through an integrated approach.
Whereas no one can deny the vital importance of such an integrated approach
but it has its own ramifications.

There are two vital issues in case of integrated approach. Literacy is

politically not a rewarding activity. For politicians, it is not a vote-generating
activity. Unless there is an overall awareness and societal pressures on the
lawmakers the literacy would remain a low priority. The intention is not to paint
a bleak or rosy picture but the planners and the managers should be mindful of
the socio-political situation and the ground realities.

In case of an integrated approach other activities such as skill

development and productive infrastructure get priority over the literacy. In Third
World Countries where culture of political patronage prevails such activities
attract political interference which prove detrimental for the entire project. The
management efforts get diluted due to lack of ‘Focused’ approach. The
promotion of literacy is relegated to low priority. Integrated approach is not only
attractive for the learners but also takes care of post-literacy. In poor countries,
however, resource constraints are to be considered. Devising a six or nine

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3
months integrated package of literacy and skills development would mean
manifold escalation in the cost. For less developed countries it is an issue of
prioritisation and allocation of resources.

As a matter of fact poverty is one of the major reasons for illiteracy.

But addressing the issue of poverty is not only a national but international
issue. One way to promote literacy is to tackle the issue of poverty first so as to
provide an enabling environment. It is precisely for this reason that exponents of
integrated approach advocate the idea. But poverty alleviation is a complex issue
for which separate programmes at national and international level are in
progress.

Solution of such a thorny issue is beyond the mandate of

educationists. It would only detract the attention of planners and cause
inordinate delay. The grave situation of illiteracy warrants immediate action.
There is hardly any room for complacency. The other option is to wait for the
economic situation to take a turn for the good. These are some of the ground
realities which are too obvious to be ignored, but a start has to be made
irrespective of related hardships.

A viable approach of literacy programme is to be based on

flexibility, financial and administrative autonomy, community participation,
transparency and an effective process and progress monitoring. The first priority
should be to target the 9 – 25 years age group, backward areas, and the female
illiteracy.
Complex managerial issues are involved. There is scarcity of data.
Available data is not much reliable. One of the shortcomings in the past literacy
programmes had been the lack of proper documentation. There is acute shortage
of institutional memory. Thus the past programmes, due to lack of
documentation and non-existence of proper evaluation, have not been of much
help in devising the future strategy.

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4
 The only worthwhile literacy programme was launched in mid
eighties under the title of ‘Nai Roshni’ schools but was abruptly closed due to
political reasons. Only sketchy details of this mega project are available. Thus
there are only few past precedents to learn lessons and devise a strategy
accordingly.

In such a situation, the only viable option is to take a fresh start

and analyze the situation critically in the context of NWFP as this Province has
peculiar socio-political, historical and geographic environment.

While due political credit should be given to the incumbent

government for promoting the noble cause of literacy, but the programme should
not be reduced to the status of a recruitment agency for political favorites.
Promotion of literacy is our national agenda and thus it should be promoted
through national consensus. Literacy programmes in Pakistan are, somehow,
‘politicized’. Such programmes could not assume national level status. Instead
the literacy programmes were closely identified with the incumbent governments
of the day and the political personalities. One of the disadvantages of such an
approach has been that noble cause of literacy was subjected to controversies.
In the process, such projects earned notoriety and political enmities. With the
change of governments, the literacy programmes were the first casualty.

Successive governments, mainly because of aforementioned factors,

and certain perceptions, considered continuation of educational policy and

promotion of literacy as a political credit to the previous government. Thus it
was deemed fit to discontinue and abandon the whole programme. No scientific
analysis of educational policy is possible under such an environment. Thus each
government, with a view to show change vis-à-vis the previous government came
up with grand plans hardly supported with the provision of resources and taking
into account the ground realities.

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5
 The past bitter experiences indicate that politicization of
programmes results in either failure or closure of the programme by the
subsequent governments.

1.2.2 Care is to be taken in launching literacy programme. There should

be no indulgence in un-necessary sloganeering. While due credit should be given
to the government of the day for allocating resources for promotion of literacy
but without reducing the literacy programme to the level of propaganda wing of
a political party or a personality. Unfortunately such bad practices are not
uncommon in this country. Illiteracy should not be equated with ignorance or
literacy with the wisdom. The purpose is not to glorify illiteracy. It is surely a
disability; but of temporary nature. So the basic approach should be to cure this
disability.

The society of NWFP is highly conservative and religious. The locals

are ‘educated’ but illiterates. They resist any outside institution or organization
which is not akin to their social norms. Literacy programme can only succeed
through active community participation. In a conservative and traditional
society like NWFP social feasibility of literacy projects is the foremost. Lack of
resistance or opposition to literacy programme should not be viewed as social
acceptance. It is not sufficient to ensure community participation.

1.2.3. It must be realized by the project staff that creating a formal

organization for running a non-formal literacy programme is not an easy task. It
tantamounts to ‘formalising’ a non-formal activity. Non-formal education has
certain merits with its own shortcomings. Under a formal school system, every
activity is institutionalized. Responsibilities of all the stakeholders such as
managers, supervisors, teachers, students and the parents are clearly defined.

Literacy Projects are organized through low paid contract staff. The
activity is of short duration (3 hours-a-day with 4 -5 months course). The
literacy centres are established in far flung remote areas because it is one of the

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6
objectives of literacy project to promote literacy in backward areas. Thus a viable
organizational setup is required due to complexities of non-formal system of
education.

1.3. THE TASK

Considering the related socio-political, organisational factors and
issues like scaling of targets and cost, we have a formidable task ahead. Since
Dakar Declaration and setting of Millennium Development Goals much time has
been wasted while talking about achieving the desired goals by the year 2015.
NWFP took the lead by launching, “Literacy For All Project” (2004-2007).Under
LFA Project the overall progress (upto December 2007) is as under:-

Cost of the Project Rs.863.711 million (All contribution by the Government of

NWFP)
No. of Number of Literacy Centres Number of Learners
Batches Male %age Female %age Total Male %age Female %age Total

06 11627 38 18857 62 30484 252468 37 431747 63 684215

It is expected that upto December 2008; LFA Phase-I would achieve the
target of establishing 44000 literacy centres. About 1.1 million learners will be
made literate.
Under LFA project Phase-I, a solid foundation for promotion of non-
formal literacy has been provided. The following table indicates the projected
population, improvement in literacy and contribution through non-formal adult
literacy programme. Upto the year 2015 about 0.16 million literacy centres are
to be established to achieve the target of 86% overall literacy. There are
expectations that by the year 2015 dropout will be reduced to zero coupled with
100% net enrolment and removal of gender disparities.

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Table-I. Project population, literacy, accumulative number of learners and overall
expected literacy.

LFA Contribution
Accumulative Literacy Rate
Literacy LFA
Year Population Number of with LFA Cont
(%) Contribution
learners in (%)
million

2004 20.90 42 0.00 0.00 40

2005 21.48 44 0.10 0.10 44
Phase-I
2006 22.08 46 0.25 0.35 47
2007 22.70 48 0.65 1.00 52
2008 23.34 50 0.50 1.50 56
Phase-II 2009 23.99 52 0.50 2.00 61
2010 24.66 55 0.50 2.50 65
2011 25.33 57 0.50 3.00 69
2012 26.06 60 0.50 3.50 73
Phase-III 2013 26.80 62 0.50 4.00 77
2014 27.54 65 0.50 4.50 81
2015 28.31 68 0.50 5.00 86

PHASE-II (2008-2011)
Table: Requirements of Literacy Centres
Number of Batches Number of LCs Number of Learners
6 60,000 2.00 Million

Estimated Cost= Rs.2.00 billion.

Unit Cost of LC= Rs.33333. (Including overall management Cost)

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PHASE-III (2011-2015)
Table: Requirements of Literacy Centres
Number of Batches No of LCs Number of Learners
10 100,000 2.5 Million
Estimated Cost= Rs.4.00 billion.
Unit Cost of LC= Rs.40000. (Including overall management Cost)

Thus we can achieve the targets, as per Dakar Declaration and Millennium
Development Goals, by the year 2015 with an estimated cost of Rs 6 billion. The
task is huge but not impossible. Initiatives taken by the Government of NWFP
can be continued and consolidated with the assistance of Federal Government
and the International Donor Agencies.

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 THE ENVIRONMENT AND SITUATION ANALYSIS
Environment includes socio-political,economic, climatic and
geographic factors. Certain factors such as geographic and climatic are
permenant whereas socio-political and economic factors keep on changing. Few
such factors are summarised as below:-

2.1 GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC

Locational disadvantages are of permanent nature. In Southern

region of NWFP, scattered population with poor road network is a major hurdle
in the establishment of schools. Similarly in Malakand and Hazara regions the
population is scattered on higher altitudes right upto 7000 feet and deep inside
the remote valleys. Access to these areas is difficult during winter. Some of the
population of Kohistan, Mansehra, Dir and Swat districts is of migratory nature.
Temporary migration during winter, specially from Malakand and Hazara
regions to Punjab and Sindh in search of jobs, is a common phenomenon.
During severe winter, the local population has no major work to do. Therefore, to
supplement their income, the locals migrate to down country. The managers
must consider this aspect while opening male litercay centres in the cited areas
during winter months. Winter rains and snowfall also adversely affect
communication infrastruture.

The population is scattered in hot plains of D.I.Khan, Tank, Lakki

Marwat and Karak. Development of infrastructure in such areas is a problem.
Due to scattered population in hilly areas of Hazara and Malakand regions,
provision of educational facilities is a costly affair. Availability of qualified
teachers is another issue. Due to lack of infrastracture facilities effective
supervision is difficult. Lack of proper monitoring is one of the causes of
absenteeism specially among non-local teachers. Summer in the Southern
region of NWFP are so hot that without electricity facility the heat is unbearable.
Scarcity of water is a common problem. Establishing a feasible school, with bare
minimum facilities, in such an area is a difficult task.

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10
 Rough terrain of mountaneous region, coupled with harsh winter
climate, and lack of roads are some of the major problems specially for small
girls to reach distant schools. Social norms do not permit the girls to walk or
travel to distant schools. The number of female schools is far less as compared
to male schools. Barring few instances of social acceptability the female are not
allowed to be enrolled in male schools even at primary level. The management
must take into consideration factors of terrain and climate. Climatic factors are
relevant withregard to availability of learners and monitoring of activities.

2.2. ADMINISTRATIVE
Right up to 1947, the Britishers direct administration remained
confined to about 45% area and 40% population. The entire Malakand region
remained as tribal areas or princely states. Similarly, parts of Kohistan,
Battagram and Mansehra districts remained as tribal areas. There are defacto
tribal areas bordering tribal agencies right from Charsadda to Tank district in
the South. Educational institutions in districts like Dir and Chitral were mostly
established after 1970. Districts like Battagram and Kohistan witnessed some
change as late as 1980. Except ex-princely state of Swat, the educational
institutions in the districts like Chitral, Dir, Kohistan, Bunair, Shangla,
Battagram and parts of Mansehra distircts were only few and far between.
Similary in defacto tribal areas of Charsadda, Peshawar, Kohat, Hangu, Karak,
Bannu, Lakki, DI Khan and Tank districts, bordering Federally Administered
Tribal Areas, lack of educational institutions may be attributed to poor law and
order situation, lack of communication facilities and resistance offered by the
locals against the establishment of such institutions. Due to weak
administrative control of government in these areas, the female institutions were
either not established or remained non-functional due to non-availability of local
teacher or absenteeism of non-local teacher. Thus a major portion of NWFP has
a backlog of almost 100 years, starting with the advent of British rule, as far as
literacy is concerned. Therfore, while making a comparison with other provinces,
these factors are to be kept in mind. Inspite of all these hurdles the
acheivements in male literacy are not that bad. This also provides us ray of hope

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that with right approach, and strategy, we can make up these deficiencies to
achieve the desired goals by the year 2015.

2.3. HISTORICAL
During the last decades of 18th century and early 19th century the
areas constituting NWFP were beset with internal strife and international
intrigues. Both the Russian and British Empires were struggling hard to bring
this area under their sphere of influence. With the arrival of Sikhs the
indigeneous system of education had already collapsed. The muslims were
driven out of power and business. Britishers could only consolidate their
position in NWFP as late as 1895. Even with the beginning of 20th Century the
Britisher’s direct administrative control was confined to 45% area of NWFP. The
local population, at large, was either opposed or at least reluctant to join the
educational institutions established by the Britishers. With the beginning of 20th
century while the world was making major strides towards literacy and
industrialisation, the locals of NWFP were engaged in a long-drawn war against
the Britishers. In the process, they not only sustained economic losses but also
deprived themselves of the benefits of development of educational institutions
which were being established in the rest of the India. This thinking somehow
persisted even after the creation of Pakistan. It is mainly due to this historical
background that the locals are suspicious of any donor–assisted programme
specially being executed by the NGOs. It is considered as on invasion of their
freedom and threat to culture for which they have offered great sacrifices. Thus
over-sensitivity of locals to guard and preserve their traditions has its roots in
the history of this province.

2.4. SOCIO-POLITICAL

Century-old struggle against the Britishers has resulted in deep-

rooted resentment and resistance in the psyche of locals. Governement-
sponsored programme, having even slight departure from the social norms, is
viewed with suspicion. Some of the NGOs, in their enthusiasm to transform the
society overnightly, have caused more damage than benefical intervention.

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Keeping in view the historical and social perspectives any programme, specially
literacy, involving all the segments of society must conform to the social norms.
The society of NWFP reacts adversely to all the “social-transplants”. Thus social
compatibility is the essence for success of any community-dependent
programme. Managing small scale projects here and there do not vouch for the
fact that such model, which is an externality to the social institutions of the
society, can be replicated with success and that too at macro level. The local
population of NWFP, since centuries, is notorious for self-inflicting injuries in
case some idea is thrust upon them. They have their own novel ways of
circumventing all such efforts noble intentions of framers of such policies
notwithstanding. It would be an exercise in futility to count and recount the
benefits of such programmes which, in most of the cases, are known to them;
but their inflated ego and obduracy acts as a stumbling block. In the absence of
a strategy which must conform to the social norms the use of commonly used
cliches such as “motivation’ and “awareness” would be counter-productive.

Quite a few institutions can cite few examples of departure from

social norms. Such experiences, at micro level, cannot be genralised even under
sceintific methods of statistical research. These are insignificant. There is ample
historical evidences to prove that generalistion of such concepts is risky
specially while dealing with an un-predictable local population. It is a dangerous
path which is to be treaded with great care. The locals do not like to be
represented by proxy. It is an egalatarian society. No body can claim a life-time
mandate to represent and speak for the entire community. Social organisers
should be aware of the fact that in a tribal society there is a concept of collective
leadership. Mandate to represent the community over certain issue of temporary
nature can be withdrawn leaving every body to speak in his personal and
individual capacity.
Participation through representation is otherwise also against the
true spirit of participation. The locals of NWFP oppose such representation for
the sake of opposition. It is one of the negative traits of local society that, while

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13
opposing a wrongly presented programme, they just ignore the benefits which
might accrue to them.

Local socio-political issues, having roots in the colonial rule, are also
worth mentioning. The rulers, even after independence, have been promoting
and protecting the elite class. While their scions were benefitting from Western
educational institutions, both inside the country and abroad, they hardly made
solid efforts to promote literacy among the lower strata of society. During short
periodic intervals of democracy the same elite class has been representing the
masses in the elected instituions. Landlordism, though much weakened now,
has been a major cause of illiteracy in the districts like Charsadda, Mardan,
Tank, Lakki, D.I.Khan and Battagram. Social conservancy and tribal traditions
are one of the major, causes of female illiteracy.

2.5. INSENSITIVITY
Literacy data also indicates that lack of infrastructure and poverty
are not the sole reasons for illiteracy. Had it been so the rain-fed areas like
Kohat and Karak would have been at the bottom. While Abbottabad district is on
the top with 57% over all literacy, Kohat, Karak and Chitral are at number 3,5
and 7, respectively. (District-wise literacy rate of districts of NWFP, in decending
order is at Annexure-I). Chitral, apart from widespread poverty, is a unique case
of a sensitised community. It was a princely state right upto 1969 when it was
merged with, and declared a district of NWFP. Contrary to this, D.I.Khan and
Mardan are more than century-old districts but having low literacy rate than
Chitral district.

Again gender bias is another vital phenomenon. Apart from lack of

infrastructure and poverty, gender bias of local community is a regressive factor
in promotion of female literacy. District-wise female literacy rate of NWFP, in
descending order, at Annexure-II, indicates existence of such gender bias with
varying intensity. Again, while Chitral is at No.8 in descending order,
Charsadda district is far below at serial number 13 in female literacy. While

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Karak is at serial number 05 in overall literacy, its position in case of female
literacy, is dismally low at serial number 16. It is evident that apart from other
factors, both favourable and adverse, lack of sensitivity of the community
towards literacy is an important factor as is observed in case of Charasdda,
Bannu and Hangu districts. Similarly low female literacy can only be attributed
to gender bias in case of districts like Swat, Hangu and Lakki Marwat.
Unfortunately in some areas religious leadership still equate female literacy with
‘modernisation’ and ‘Westernisation’. Instances are not uncommon when we
confront community members who put forward the argument against the female
literacy. They argue that, as per local traditions, females are not required or
allowed to engage in formal jobs therefore literacy is not a requirment for the
female. It is yet another mis-placed perception but we have to drive home the
point that acquiring literacy is in itself a noble job. A literate mother can prove
more productive individual of society as the education of the entire family is
dependent upon a literate mother. District-wise male literacy rate of NWFP, in
descending order, is at annexure III.

2.6 INTER AND INTRA TRIBAL FEUDS

Instances are not un-common when we see that social evils such as
tribal and family feuds, and the resultant litigation has destroyed the entire local
community. All their energies and financial resources are exhausted by this evil.
Female, being weaker section of the society, are the first victim as far as literacy
is concerned. Such tribal conflicts also create hinderances in developing
infrastructure. Due to such feuds construction of school buildings, even after
approval of contract, remain suspended for decades due to land dispute over a
barren hillock. Similarly construction of a school is stopped due to land dispute.
The unfortunate aspect is that the locals do not allow the shifting of such school
to some un-disputed site. Such negative cultural traits have been causing
inordinate delays in developing educational facilities.
Defecto tribal areas, bordering tribal areas, have longstanding
property disputes with the adjacent tribal areas. Quite often armed clashes
occurred. The locals have had to divert major portion of their resources and

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15
energies to defend themselves against the armed tribals. Over a period of time
such areas became safe sanctuaries for the outlaws. The entire belt, bordering
tribal areas, somehow criminalized. Lack of literacy has been the major cause of
such simmering tribal feuds and vice versa.

2.7 ECONOMIC
Poverty is also an important factor as we see in case of Lakki
Marwat, Bunair, Shangla, Battagram and Hangu districts. Change of cropping
pattern (Tobbaco cultivation in Bunair) and income from abroad (the entire
NWFP particularly Bunair and Hangu) has greatly helped in promotion of
literacy. Apart from government schools, mushroom growth of private schools in
the districts having sizable segment of community serving abroad is an
indicator of this phenomenon. Increase in income has resulted in an enhanced
paying capacity of locals. Awareness is there what is required is sensitization.
Increase in income can also act as an important catalyst to promote literacy. As
the data indicates incidence of poverty in NWFP is the highest in Pakistan and
so is the per square kilometer population density. Availability of land is a
limiting factor as only 15% more area can be brought under cultivation. Highest
population growth rate is exerting further pressure on the availability of scarce
resources. The rest of 44 % area, mainly comprising of mountains, is unfit for
cultivation. Severe winter is also an inhibiting factor for promotion of
agriculture. Rising population pressures, less availability of land, harsh climatic
environment, lack of infrastructure and the jobs are some of the factors
constantly forcing the local population to supplement their income by seeking
jobs in other provinces and abroad. Poverty has been one of the major reasons
for low literacy.

2.8 RELIGIOUS
The locals of NWFP, particulary in backward districts of Battagram,
Bunair, Shangla, Bannu, Lakki Marwat, Tank, Kohistan, Mansehra and Dir-
upper are still reluctant to allow female to attend schools. Observance of
“Purdah” is mainly attributed to this social custom. In fact observance of social

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16
norms is more due to local customs and traditions rather than having any real
connection with the Islamic injunctions. Islam has clearly made it obligatory,
both, for male and female to acquire knowledge. Religious elments also put
forward the argument that actual place for female is to remain confined to the
four walls of home. Since women are not required, or not allowed for out-of-
home jobs therefore they are not ‘entitled’ to acquire literacy. Such religious
elements ignore the fact that millions of women even in most conservative
socities work in the open fields of agriculture. Literacy is equally important for a
housewife. A literate housewife shall ensure a literate family and thus a literate
generation. Religious leadership remained in the forefront in waging war against
the colonial masters. Thus the local population remained under societal
pressures due to the role of Ulema who opposed establishment of educational
institutions by the colonial masters. While few male joined these educational
instituions, the female participation remained a remote possibility. Ulema have
always been playing dominant role in shaping and reshaping the events in our
society.
Commonly-held belief of equating female literacy with “Moderenisation”
and “ Westernisation” persisted even after independence. It is because of these
reasons that we see gender disparity between male and female literacy in the
districts having more religious influence.

2.9 APPRAISAL OF AFOREMENTIONED FACTORS

While carrying out situational analysis, proper assessment of cited
factors is required. Proper identification would greatly facilitate initiation of
remedial measures. Some of the factors such as vagaries of weather and other
geographic factors are of permenant nature. Development of infrastucture,
however, can lessen these difficulties. The managers should critically analyse
the relevance of aforementioned factor (s) in a given situation. Sociology is a
complex science and the social factors can not be addressed with mathematical
precision. The assessment of a given social situation is mostly qualitative.
Scientific observations and data collection, its analysis by applying statistical
tools, is relevant in studying certain social aspects of society but no statistical

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17
formula can be prescribed to deal with a situation. For example it can be
examined whether low female literacy is due to lack of facilities or gender bias.
There are scores of examples when female learners attributed their deprivation
towards nonavailability of female schools. Geographic and climatic factors,
specially in the context of lack of infrastructure facilites, are to be examined and
given due weightage. Clustering of Literacy Centres should be done to ensure
effective monitoring. Factors ancillary to establishment of L.Cs such as
availability of teachers and logistic support are equally important. These factors
have close nexus with the geographic factors. While we have less control over the
economic situation or alleviation of poverty, the other issues like insensitivity or
gender bias can be adressed with active cooperation and participation of
community. Similarly opposition to female literacy can be neutralised through
active support of community elders and religious leaders; provided correct
approach is adopted.

The crux of the matter is that situation analysis for literacy should not be
confined to headcount of literates and illiterates only.

In need assessment we identify the problems and propose remedial

measures to tackle these problems. Proper identification of problem is cruical for
taking effective remedial measures. The planners and managers must develop a
clear vision of the situation and should be able to differentiate between the
symptoms and the root causes. Remedial measures with regard to symptoms
would only provide a temporary solution. To develop a viable and sustainable
strategy the real causes of a problem are to be identified.

Literacy is a socio-economic and political issue. In the contemporary

world it has assumed added importance. While carrying out need assessment,
for promotion of literacy, the causes of illiteracy have to be clearly identified.
Proper identification of causes of illiteracy would be helpful in enlisting the
possible hurdles in promotion of literacy. Once the bottlenecks are properly
identified the attention can be focused on possible solutions.

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 UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

3.1. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS, SOCIAL CONTROL AND SOCIAL

ORGANIZATION

Thorough understanding of community and tribe is essential

specially while working in a tribal society like NWFP. Every individual in a
society has important role to play. Depending upon the social status such role
may be ascribed or achieved. Social institutions, being informal bodies, emerge
as a result of centuries of social processes. In a tribal society like NWFP some of
the social institutions are family, community, tribes, religious and political
leadership, elders, artisan economic institutions and others. When we talk of
social control it does not mean that these social institutions have some formal
control over its members. The social institutions, through social norms, shape
the behaviour of its members.

When we talk of social organization, it should not be viewed as

creating new formal institutions, or giving a formal and regimented shape to the
existing social institutions. Whenever the term, “Social Institution” is used, it
invariably means an ‘informal’ social institution. Such social institution has the
force and strength of the society behind its functions.

3.1.1 While analyzing the tribes, communities and social institutions, the
social organizers, managers and workers might have certain misconceptions.
Few are mentioned as under:-
• The local Community is non-participative.
• There is lack of awareness.
• The community is totally disorganized.
• Objectives of project or an activity can only be achieved through creation of
a new formal organization.
• Community is ignorant.
• Community should just imbibe the ‘wisdom’ being radiated by the social
organizers and the motivators.

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 • Any one posing questions is against the development and promotion of
literacy.
Under such misconceived nations whenever an effort is made to
create a formal organisation and transplant an ‘external’ organ on the ‘body’ of
local society, the ‘antibodies’ react and the local society refuses to accept such
an external institution.

A viable literacy programme should take care of these social

sensitivities.

3.1.1 SWOT analysis (Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats)

in case of literacy is mainly concerned with the social analysis. The economic,
technical and organizational feasibility solely depends upon correct social
assessment and an approach akin to the prevailing social environment.

The purpose of sensitizing the literacy workers about the intricacies

of social norms is to caution and educate them. It does not mean that every
thing is bad in our society.

Our society has many merits. We can build upon such strengths.
Weaknesses such as lack of sensitization, motivation and organization can be
reduced. Opportunities such as positive response of female towards literacy and
the support of community can be availed. Threats such as opposition towards
female literacy by the religious elements can be avoided or circumvented.

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3.2 EXTENSION AND EXTERNALITIES1

3.2.1 To achieve any task we must determine the responsibilities and

objectives of an organization. Why we raise a new institution? What are its
needs?
Is it an extension of existing social and political institution or an
externality (a new institution) to the local society?

The word ‘extension’ was coined in the last century. Extension

means to build and develop further on the basis of existing institutions. While
externality means planting a new institution upon the prevailing social
institutions. If it is an externality to our political, social, economic and religious
institutions, then a different approach will be adopted. Even the semantic would
be different.
While implanting an external institution, the approach and the
concept is self-declared and self-assumed role of creating ‘awareness’. Whenever
such workers use a word like “awareness”, (noble intentions notwithstanding) it
presupposes that there is no awareness in the community which they have to
create.
The social and psychological implications of using such words are
carelessly ignored. It means that we are working with sub-human; a paralyzed
society or the people who have no conscious; they have no energy to activate or
re-activate themselves. Working and approaching a community with such a
mindset is fraught with all sort of dangers.

While arguing against such an approach, we are, by no means,

against ideas from outside. Our culture is eclectic. We should take what is good
and leave out whatever is bad. We must leave out the bad even if it is our own.

1
Condensed from speech of Mr. Abdullah (Former Chief Secretary, NWFP and
Chairman Public Service Commission, NWFP). The lecture was delivered in
Sector Directors conference Peshawar, 23 r d June, 2005.

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21
 A logical mind works and analyzes things critically and does not act
like robots.

3.2.2 Reverting back to need assessment one should not, at any stage of
work, presume that the target group is not aware of its needs. While pursuing
the cause of literacy an impression should not be given that the people are
uncivilized and by creating awareness and social change we intend to ‘civilize’
them. Our approach should not be disguised version of, “The White Man’s
Burden”. Inspite of many misplaced pre-conceived notions, the reality is that we
are not dealing with a paralyzed society__ a society which has no sense of
direction, no sense to decide between right and wrong and no power to make
decisions.

Awareness is present. All we need is to channelise it towards desired

direction. There is a need to study the social institutions. The questions raised
by the communities have to be answered in a satisfactory manner otherwise we
would be just delaying the solutions and perpetuating the status quo.

3.2.3 Another commonly used, or more appropriate to say misused word

is “Community participation”. Community is generally considered and presumed
to be a non-participative entity. By doing so, we deny the presence of social
institutions in that society. If there are institutions, they must be participative.
In the process, we also suggest that a particular community is not organized.
The logical conclusion of such an approach is creation of new institutions and
asking the locals to participate in it. Our society has its own social institutions.
Every village has a system of living together. Mosque has been a place of
participation since centuries. The moment we say the word, “community” it
presupposes that it is organized and participative though with varying degree of
organization and participation.

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3.2.4.1 Collectivity and Relationship

Community is based on collectivity and relationship.

The community acts and reacts in a collective manner. In literacy, we deal with
collectivity. Collective action and reaction of community may depend upon the
level of organisation, motivation and social prioritisation of an issue. A
conservative and religious community may promptly and positively respond to a
religious issue. Examples of such action and reaction by the community are
quite common in our community.

3.2.4.1 Relationship

The members of community have a common relationship For

example businessmen, teachers and farmers community. Thus using the word
“Participative Community” is contradictory in terms. Whenever we try to create
an ‘externality, we do not consider mosque and ‘Hujra’ as social institutions.
These institutions already exist and an externality would not work. So instead of
wasting resources, time and energy on creating and implanting external
institutions, there is need to utilize the strength of existing institutions. If we
utilize the strength of existing institutions then there will be sense of ownership
which is the essence of real community participation.

Yet another commonly used word is “capacity building”. Metaphors

are important. Words have to be correctly understood and digested. There is no
harm in borrowing words and ideas, provided we are cognizant of our identity
and conscious. If we are raising an organization which is an extension then the
strength of all the social institutions, both formal and informal, shall be at our
disposal.

How to link all these with the literacy? Once we understand these
identities of religion and culture we can use them for promotion of our cause.

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 Capacity building, at times, is achieved over-nightly. Journey of
hundred years is performed within minutes. A leader just electrifies the entire
nation with one sentence or a slogan. Quaid-e-Azam never used the words lack
of facilities etc. He always talked about separate and distinct Muslim identity as
a nation and the capacity building developed against all odds and that too
within a short span of time.

It is vital to understand the phenomenon of social change. Change

is either through revolution or reforms. In a revolution, there is shift in centre of
power through use of force. If it is without use of force and there is shifting of
centre of power it is reform. Change through reform is slow but sustainable. The
only historical example is the struggle of Muhammad (PBUH).

During 13 years of struggle some 1200/1300 people died from both

sides. But the change was phenomenal. For the first time in the world history
common man was empowered.

Empowerment of man is possible only through literacy. In the battle

of ‘Badar’, the prisoners of war, inspite of intense enmity, were freed after
making certain number of illiterates as literate.

Literacy is not a fundamental right. It is a fundamental obligation. Right

can be delegated to someone or suspended, obligation has to be performed by
every one. It can not be delegated or suspended. The Islamic injunctions in this
regard are very much clear. These injunctions are a step ahead of currently used
slogan of “Literacy as a right”.

3.3 COMMUNITY AND TRIBE

The word “Community” and “Tribe” are interchangeably used by the
managers and the community workers. It is important that these social entities
are understood in its proper perspective. Both the community and tribe are
important social institutions.

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3.3.1 COMMUNITY
Community is a group of people living together, dependent upon
each other and have common interest. They share a common identity and have
mutual interaction.

Text books do not define the size of a community. A ‘Community’

may comprise of few people. It is not necessary that they must be living together.
Physical contiguity, in some cases, is not necessary. However it is essential that
they have a common interest. They must be interacting with each other. It is in
fact the common interest which brings the members of a ‘Community’ together.
The interest is binding force. Interaction among the members of community may
be through personal contacts or institutional interaction. It depends upon the
size of community, level of interest, interdependence, level and intensity of
interaction.

Communities organize themselves around some common interest.

Every member of community pursues the common cause. A community can not
exist without interdependence and common interest.

3.3.2 Community is not necessarily a “regimented body” despite the

common cause which the members of a community might be persuing. They can
do so with out having a formal organizational setup. Communities may be large
and loosely held conglomerates. Biology also explains relationship of various
species, both animals and plants, as a community. These species interact with,
and act upon each other. It is a complex relationship. That is why there is
always emphasis on motivation and organization of communities. The issue is
how to formalize this informal organization, channelise the motivation and
awareness which already exists or might exist with varying degree of intensity?
Communities and tribes are important social institutions. Both these
exercise various social controls over its members.

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3.4 TRIBE

A tribe is a ‘regimented body’. Every member of a tribe has an

‘ascribed role’ to play. A tribe has a common descendent, culture, ideology and
usually the language. A tribe may constitute a community but a community can
not assume the status of a tribe. A community may comprise of more than one
tribe. Similarly a tribe may have various communities. In case of tribe
commonality of descendence and blood relation is the most conspicuous aspect
which is lacking in case of community. The tribal relationship is of permanent
nature.

3.4.1. In a static or closed society, tribalization and tribal polarization is of

higher intensity. Ascribed role is given priority over the achieved role. The
change in achieved role is facilitated through social change. A tribe is clannish
in nature. Again there is common interest around which a tribe is organized.
Such common interest may be economic and social. Economic such as
preservation and advancement of business interests, monopoly over certain
businesses and protection of individual or common property. Social interest may
vary from preservation of tribal pride, identity, history and culture. Quran also
recognize the Tribes to the extent and for the purpose of identity only.

3.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TRIBE AND COMMUNITY

Tribal identity is a permanent phenomenon. Tribes in a society like

NWFP go on dividing into sub tribes after a certain period. Similarly a big
community may have sub communities.

Being member of a community is an achieved role. The members of

a community may live together or at isolated places but they have a common
interest such as advancement of their economic, social and political interests so
as to achieve the objectives for which they interact with each other.
Members of various tribes may join such community. It is evident
that a community may comprise of one or more than one tribes. Similarly a tribe
may have various communities. In some cases the same tribe constitutes a

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community. For example, Memon Tribe. Almost all the members of this tribe are
engaged in business therefore they are all members of business community as
well. Normally members of a tribe may be members of various communities. For
example a member of X tribe may be a member of teachers, or growers
community. It may occur that while being member of a particular tribe he might
be pursuing a cause which is in conformity with the tribal interests, but as
member of a particular community he may go against the interests of his co-
tribesmen and vice versa. Such a person may find himself in a position of
conflict. A person may be member of two different communities and thus
pursuing two different agendas or interests. For example, Mr. A is a member of
tribe X, and at the same time as a teacher member of “Teaching Community”
and being a cultivator member of “Growers Community”. Thus such person
might be advancing and pursuing different causes. Such interests, at times,
might be at variance with each other. It may be kept in mind that, usually, a
community is a loose social organization.

3.6 WORKING WITH THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Literacy workers must critically analyze a particular society. Each
segment of society such as religious leaders, tribal elders, political leaders,
elected representatives, landlords, tenants, workers, government employees and
locals engaged in various businesses are to be clearly identified. Irrespective of
their social status every one is a stakeholder in a social system. With regard to
literacy the response of all these stakeholders may vary but each and every
stakeholder is equally important for us.

3.6.1 Knowledge of tribes and communities is essential. While a particular

tribe or community may be helpful in promotion of literacy, certain segments of
society might be against the promotion of literacy, specially the female literacy.

Such opposition, resentment, suspicion or reluctance with regard to

promotion of literacy might be due to economic interests (landlord), social

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27
(customs, traditions) or religious (Ulema), who usually view and equate the
female literacy with ‘Westernization’ of women.

Tribe and community are important social institutions. It is a rich social

capital which can be effectively utilized by adopting right approach.

We have to capitalize on the strength of social institutions.

Meanwhile strategy should also be devised for the elements who are either
opposing the literacy programme out-rightly or they do not support it.
Neutralizing the opponents is also a major step towards success. But in no case
an environment of confrontation be developed vis-à-vis segment of society.

Community Social Organization (CSO), learners, teachers and other

project staff, with the passage of time, may constitute and assume role of a
distinct community. We may call such community as “Literacy Community”.

Study of social behaviours, employment pattern, businesses etc of a

particular area are vital not only for motivation, mobilization and organization of
communities for identification of learners but equally important for establishing
and running the LCs.

Attendance of learners, location and timings of LCs greatly depend

upon the local community. While in urban areas LCs may operate during late
evening hours but the same timing might not be suitable for rural areas. Thus
the seasons, working season and life pattern of a local community are some of
the relevant factors for consideration while establishing and operationalising
LCs. Our goal is to mobilize and organize the various tribes, sub-tribes, and
communities around the single goal of promotion of literacy. This goal must
transcend all ethnic, sectarian and community barriers.

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3.6.2 Tribes and communities are complex informal social institutions.
Both these social institutions exercise varying degree of informal social control
over its members. Social study and critical analysis is essential to develop an
understanding of social pattern. It would be naive to generalize the things.
Social surveys, and the resultant conclusions, can prove helpful as guiding
principles, but can not be exactly replicated as no two communities or tribes are
exactly identical.

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 PECULIARITIES OF LITERACY PROGRAMME
Few peculiarities must be kept in mind while formulating a literacy
programme. Our past experience indicates that, at times, government policies
and programmes are pushed forward with undue haste. Mostly it is either to
gain immediate political advantage or to fulfil the strings attached to the donors
assistance. It happened that the literacy programmes were devised, as a political
agenda, without taking into consideration the ground realities. In case of donor
assistance even more mistakes are committed. The recipient governments are
normally interested in the prompt release of aid, grants or loans. Such grants or
loans are required as part of their political agenda. Literacy being a non-vote-
generating activity hardly gets top priority. Therefore without taking into
account the ground realities, favourable literacy projects are cobbled up.
Constraints and bottlenecks are not clearly highlighted. Politicians, planners
and finance managers are not favourably inclined to allocate resources for
literacy projects mainly due to scarce financial resources and other priorities.
Literacy programmes, being non-vote-generating activity, are hardly a top
priority for the politicians.

Let there be no illusion in the minds of managers that as soon as

literacy programme, and that too with out integrated approach and financial
incentives, is launched the local illiterates would not only storm the literacy
centers but would also stay for 4 to 5 months to acquire the bare minimum
literacy. Notwithstanding the fact that in a conservative Province like NWFP
there has been positive response to adult and adolescent literacy but even such
response offers no panacea for long-term success. To ensure success and
sustainability of literacy programme such positive response is to be
institutionalized.

4.1 NON-FORMAL LITERACY THROUGH A FORMAL INSTITUTION

At every forum, we hear endless benefits of non-formal mode of

imparting adolescent and adult literacy. No one can deny the benefits of

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30
non-formal education because it is cost-effective, prompt and much easier to
arrange at larger scale. In the context of Sub-Continent, non-formal education is
very much relevant. Since centuries Islamic education has been spread through
non-formal system. So is the Hindu philosophy under which strong non-formal
relationship exists between the student (Chela) and the teacher (Guru). In an
ideal situation the non-formal education should be propagated through the non-
formal institutions.

Contrary to this for non-formal adult and adolescent literacy we

organize formal institutions. Even the NGOs have been formalized under the
statutes and fastly emerging as distinct ‘bureaucracy’. This is one of the
peculiarities of non-formal literacy programme which the planners should
always keep in mind. Prima facie the whole approach and the very words used is
contradiction in terms. Once we are clear about these limitations, the remedial
measures and the methodology can be developed to tackle this issue. Why a
formal and institutionalized interference is required? How to “transplant” or fuse
this ‘formal’ institution with the ‘informal’ institutions of society or the
communities while adopting non-formal approach for promotion of literacy?

Why intervention is required? One of the reasons for this

intervention is to accelerate the pace of promotion of literacy so as to clear the
backlog of centuries in the shortest possible time. The second aspect is that the
communities, due to multiple socio-economic problems and lack of sensitization,
are not in a position to carry on this huge task at the required pace. Thus efforts
are required to bridge the gap between the required and felt-needs of the society.

Precisely, due to these reasons, there is a need to focus on

historical, socio-political and economic aspects so as to devise and develop
working relationship with the communities as well as the learners.

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4.2 PROJECT NETWORK
Sequence of activities and events is essential for assessing the
performance of project with regard to its objectives. It also helps in making
timely decisions and taking corrective measures. In literacy projects, the project
network assumes added importance due to spread, multiplicity,
interconnectivity and continuity of activities. There are thousands of small
activities in the form of literacy centers located all over the districts.

The activities leading to establishing Literacy Centers and multiple

activities during the currency of Literacy Centers are to be performed in a
sequential manner.

The sub-activities are closely interconnected and interdependent

with hardly any time lag. No single activity can be by-passed or delayed as each
and every activity is equally important.

Non-achievement, or deferment, of previous activity means non-

start of subsequent activity thus triggering a chain reaction of non-performance.

Project network developed at macro level is a broad guideline only.

While following the schedule of activities, as prescribed in the plan, the districts
must develop their own project network describing and highlighting even the
minute activities.

Prior to launching a literacy project ‘SWOT’ Analysis (Strength,

Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) must give a clear picture of the society.
Use of clichés is to be avoided. Instead of painting a rosy picture the ground
realities must be explained objectively.

Promotion of literacy is an arduous task in a society like ours. The

planners should not expect smooth sailing. It is not like sailing along the flow of
the stream but across, and at times, against the flow of the thinking process of

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certain segments of society. Absence of constraints and threats alone does not
ensure success of the project. To gain success, clear understanding and critical
analysis of society is required. Besides realistic planning, effective monitoring, a
workable organizational set up, capacity building, logical sequence of activities,
within a given time frame, and a primer suitable to the community are some of
the pre-requisites. The reality that Literacy Project does not carry tangible
benefits and immediate ‘returns’ for the communities, like other projects, is not
to be ignored. In tangible terms we do not have any thing to offer but a bright
distant future.

4.3 SEQUENCE OF ACTIVITIES

4.3.1 While minor adjustments and re-adjustments can be made the

logical sequence of activities should be as under:-

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 PROJECT PLANNING

APPROVAL OF PROJECT

RECRUITMENT OF PMU STAFF

CAPACITY BUILDING OF STAFF

PURCHASE OF TRANSPORT AND EQUIPMENT

RECRUITMENT OF SUPPORTING STAFF AND TECHNICAL STAFF

COMPUTER OPERATORS ETC

RECRUITMENT OF FIELD STAFF

Training of field staff

HIRING OF OFFICES

PURCHASE OF TRANSPORT AND EQUIPMENT

RECRUITMENT OF SUPPORTING STAFF FOR FIELD STAFF

NEED ASSESSMENT OF LCs AS PER PLAN

LOGISTIC SUPPORT SOCIAL MOBILIZATION IDENTIFICATION OF SELECTION OF

POTENTIAL
TEACHERS
LEARNERS/TEACHERS.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

TRAINING OF TEACHERS

IDENTIFICATION OF LCs LOCATION

IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS

ENLISTMENTS OF LEARNERS

OPERATIONALIZATION OF LCs

MONITORING REPORTS

REVIEW

EVALUATION AND SO ON.

34
4.3.2 Keeping in view the nature of activities, and with a view to achieve
the objectives in an efficient and effective manner, the district
plans are to be devised as under.

Figure-4-A

DISTRICT PLAN
Need assessment for subsequent Batch

Need Assessment

Evaluation Planning

Preparation of
Review
Annual Work Plan

Implementation
and Monitoring

4.3.3 Need assessment

Following the guidelines of programme, sector, sub sector and
village-wise need assessment is to be made. Profiling at various levels would
provide us the true picture of existing situation.

Need assessment should not be confined to counting of illiterates.

It tantamounts to headcount. Related issues such as geographical, climatic,
infrastructural, socio-political and economic factors are to be critically
analyzed. Number of literacy centres, timings, accommodation, recruitment of
teachers, logistics and supervision etc. are dependent upon these issues. For

35
example working season and climate of the area are some of the major factors
in establishing the LCs. Temporary migration of local population is also to be
taken into account.

4.3.4 Planning is to be carried out on the basis of need assessment and

keeping in view the achievable physical targets. Financial requirements are to
be meticulously worked out. In case of literacy projects, multiplicity,
interconnectivity and interdependence of activities, with little time space,
warrants a foolproof development of project network. Time and resource
maneuverability for unforeseen must be provided. Without proper analysis of
the whole situation, the project managers become the victim of circumstances.
Due to multiplicity and spread of activities any delay in one activity may trigger
chain reaction and the resultant delay in subsequent activities. Thus at the
stage of planning nothing should be left to chance or probability or
expectations. Such wishful and positive expectations may not materialize.

4.3.5 Planning is given practical shape in the form of Annual Work Plan.
It is Action Plan of sectors or districts. Physical and financial targets are to be
identified. Events and activities should be clearly identified in the project
network. Target dates for each activity and sub-activities are to be specified.

4.3.6 As soon as Annual Work Plan is put to implementation, monitoring

of activities gets underway. Before implementation of Annual Work Plan it
should be ensured that an effective monitoring regime has been developed. All
Sector Records and Sector Returns (SRs) are to be ready before the Annual
Work Plan gets underway. Intensive training for monitoring is required. Data of
all the Literacy Centres is to be computerized before the start of Literacy
Centres with a view to facilitate monitoring.

4.3.7 Monthly review of all the activities is essential to assess whether,

both, progress and process of learning is proceeding forward in a satisfactory
manner.

36
4.3.8 At the end of each batch evaluation of entire batch is essential to
carry out need assessment for the subsequent batches.
Usually evaluation of projects is carried out as a ritual just to fulfil the
requirements of Planning and Development Department.

In fact evaluation is mostly confined to a formal look into the

achievements of physical and financial targets. Literacy programmes are to be
evaluated constantly. Final evaluation should also contain critical analysis of
related socio-political and administrative issues.

Literacy is not merely achievement of physical targets but quality

and impact of programme is of vital importance for promotion of literacy and
devising future strategy.

4.4 TRANSPARENCY IN EXECUTION OF LITERACY PROGRAMME

Transparency and observance of merit is essential for the success

and acceptability of literacy programme. Transparency in recruitment is the
foundation stone for success of the project. In a close-knitted society like ours,
even the distant communities have knowledge of malpractices in the
recruitment. Transparency and observance of merit in the recruitment gives
the project staff not only credibility but also a high moral pedestal to start with.

The overall project should be designed in a way that it is

‘politically’, non-attractive. It can be ensured only through devising strict
eligibility criteria. Other conditions such as non-selection of ‘Deputationists’
and above all instead of relying on personal honesty of one or two persons an
institutional mechanism, that ensures merit, is to be enforced and activated. It
is unfortunate but a bitter reality that a project, in the first place, is considered
a recruitment agency and that too for the incompetent ones. The selectees owe
their selection, and the resultant allegiance, to their political mentors.
Achievement of set goals in such a situation remains distant reality.

37
4.4.1 Recruitment in any government project is a difficult task. Political
pressures are exerted for selection of favourites. The bureaucratic rules are
cumbersome and observance of codal formalities consumes considerable time.

Preferably PMU staff should be in place at the very outset; to be

followed by the field and supporting staff. Due to lack of clear decisions, or
indecisiveness due to political considerations, approval of key management
staff is kept pending for weeks and months.

At times approval is given in a piecemeal manner. While such

haphazard manner of recruitment might be affordable in other multisectoral
and integrated projects as some of the project activities can be initiated. In case
of literacy projects the situation is quite different because certain set of
activities is to be followed in a sequence. Project activities are closely connected
and inter-dependent. It is to be started in a wholesome manner. Delay in
initiation and completion of small, and otherwise seemingly insignificant,
activity is vital to the whole series and sequence of activities.

4.5 CAPACITY BUILDING

Literacy project requires continuous training. Since large number

of teachers are recruited, which may run in thousands, therefore we must
expect high turnover, in quantitative terms, as the trained teachers and others
continuously opt for new jobs.

In literacy, it is not only giving lessons to the illiterates but

continuous learning for the managerial and teaching staff is required. It is a
continuous mutual learning process both for the learners and the project staff.

Availability of trained staff for adult and adolescent literacy is also

a problem. Training of education should not be misconstrued as training in
literacy. Even for the trained staff specific training as per dynamics of local
society is required.

38
4.6 TIME CONSTRAINTS

Operalisation of thousands of literacy centres, simultaneously, is a

huge task. Literacy centres are to be opened at a specific time and end at
certain time. The managers have little manoeuvrability or time space. Any delay
due to late recruitment, delay in training, weather constraints and provision of
logistic support such as shelter, blackboards, stationery and above all the
learning material would be fatal. All such arrangements must be in place
before the LCs are actually operationalised.

Project network must be developed carefully and is to be followed

meticulously.

4.7 ADMINISTRATIVE AND FINANCIAL AUTONOMY

One of the lessons learnt from the past literacy programmes is that
lack of administrative and financial autonomy has resulted in delay in
execution. The problem with literacy programme is that every activity and event
is closely interdependent. All activities are to be performed in a sequential
manner. Delay in execution of one activity results in delay in the subsequent
activity. Ideally autonomous statutory bodies should be assigned the
formulation and execution of Literacy Projects. In this way departmental
cumbersome procedures and centralization of powers and decision making can
be circumvented.

4.8 FLEXIBILITY

Administrative and financial autonomy greatly facilitates flexibility.

An inbuilt mechanism of flexibility is essential to avoid compound errors. In
formal system set procedures and pattern of activities is followed. Contrary to
this non-formal literacy programme does not proceed in a smooth manner.
Flexibility is essential to change the tactics and, at times, strategy.

39
4.9 MONITORING
An effective monitoring and ongoing evaluation is required. Under
any literacy project large number of sub-projects or activities are undertaken in
the form of literacy centres. The following aspects of literacy project warrant
devising an effective monitoring system:-

(a) Large number of sub-projects or project activities in the form of

literacy centres and related activities.

(b) Spread of literacy centres

LCs are not confined to a particular area or district. Rather the LCs
are established to promote literacy among the backward segments of society.
These LCs would, invariably, be scattered through out the inaccessible rural
areas having poor communication facilities.

(c). Multiplicity of activities

The number of literacy centers may be in thousands. All these literacy
centers are established and operationalised simultaneously.

Besides scores of other activities precede the start of literacy centers.

These are need assessment, identification of sites for the Literacy Centers,
selection and training of teachers, making logistic arrangements such as
provision of blackboards, books and stationery, identification and enlistment of
learners. With the operationalization of Literacy Centers, host of activities such
as book-wise assessment of learners, change in timings of LCs, change of site,
visits, identification of deficiencies and initiation of corrective measures,
meetings with the community organizations, recording dropout, and measures
to reduce drop out etc are set in motion.

(d). Irreparable damage due to loss of time and resources

The duration of literacy centres may vary from 4-6 months with 2-3
hours daily class. The managers are really in a fix as far as time is concerned.

40
There is little manoeuvrability with regard to time and duration. Any delay due
to internal or extraneous factors carries substantive cost. Delay of couple of
days can be accommodated through re-adjustments. Beyond this the activity at
a particular place is to be abandoned altogether as it would adversely affect
synchronization and start of subsequent batches of learners. Similarly
monitoring and ongoing evaluation is required withregard to attendance of
learners and teachers, course completion and learning process itself. Thus we
have little time space to correct a wrong. The managers must constantly keep
themselves abreast of the on-going activities so as to ensure that the project is
on the right track. Discovery of any of above mentioned fact, at a belated
stage, would mean waste of resources and time.

(e) Inter-Connectivity of activities

Most of the activities, before and after the start of literacy centres,
are inter-connected. Some of these activities like need assessment,
establishment of literacy centres, logistic support, training of teachers and
learning assessment are to be carried out in sequence. Still quite a few
activities such as need assessment for subsequent batch and training of
supervisory and managerial staff may continue simultaneously.

(f) Peculiar location of literacy centres

Literacy centres are mostly established, in houses provided by the
community. Besides, literacy centres are scattered among small hamlets and
unknown places. Contrary to this, formal schools are established at prominent
places. The location is commonly known to the locals. Such formal schools
might have long history of continuity. Such advantages are not available in
case of non-formal literacy centres. It warrants wide publicity, involvement of
community and accurate data of literacy centres so as to facilitate effective
monitoring.

41
 MACRO-LEVEL PLANNING FOR LITERACY

5.1 For most of the Literacy Programmes, statistics are reproduced

as secondary data. District-wise data is also reported. Some of the
programmes are launched in selected districts or in certain pockets of a
district. Quite a few institutions select the backward districts on the basis of
low illiteracy. Others choose the districts of their choice probably as “soft”
targets. While examining literacy programmes in such districts one cannot
draw logical conclusions so as to determine the reasons for selecting a
particular district. In case of projects at micro-level many reasons can be cited
for choosing a particular area. The aim of stressing upon this point is to draw
the attention of planners and managers towards the broadly accepted definition
of need assessment which is:-

a- Identifying a problem and

b- Proposing series of actions to deal with it.

Thus the problems and issues should be clearly identified so that

proper remedial measures could be initiated. Contrary to this, there are
common instances that a district is selected either arbitrarily or under some
other considerations such as administrative compulsions, accessibility and
cultural acceptability. It is after the selection of the district that need
assessment is carried out at micro-level. It is like a patchwork. The gravity of
illiteracy and issues of promoting literacy are quite complex. The magnitude of
problem requires long- term strategy for the entire province and the country.
The project management must be clear as to why a particular valley or union
council has been selected. If it is purely due to administrative reasons then it
must be mentioned accordingly. Social acceptability can also be a valid ground.
The management should not be apologetic about these considerations. Such
need assessment, at micro level, can be a useful tool for sharpening the skills
of project management and learning experience but due to socio-political
diversities even this can not be generalized or replicated exactly elsewhere.

42
 The intention is not to put forward argument against launching
pilot projects or execution of projects at micro level. At the same time, keeping
in view the gravity of issues regarding illiteracy, holistic approach is required
for long-term planning.

Proponents of ‘Bottom up’ approach may have sound arguments

for planning and execution at micro level. As a matter of fact the ultimate aim
is community participation at grassroot level. For ‘Bottom up’ approach,
specially in case of literacy, one must have a clear path to go up. Illiteracy is a
problem not confined to a particular area, its extent and gravity
notwithstanding. A clear vision and broader picture at macro level would
greatly facilitate micro level planning and its execution.

In case of mega projects, planning is to be carried out for the entire

province. Keeping in view the depth and gravity of illiteracy, 10 – 15 years
Vision Plan is required. It is no small issue. There are time and resource
constraints. Even if resources are made available there are no shortcuts
withregard to time and scaling of targets. Proper utilization of resources also
requires experienced and trained organizational set up. There is acute shortage
of trained personnel. Most of the NGOs are not equipped to carry forward this
huge task. Capacity building is required at every level.

The lessons learnt from literacy programmes are indicative of the

fact that the chances of misutilization of resources are much higher in case of
literacy programmes. Because of scale and spread of literacy programme plus
its non-formal mode of education makes the monitoring all the more difficult.

Some of the indicators of literacy programmes are intangible.

Tangible results are also, somewhat, difficult to measure due to scale and
spread of activities.

43
5.2 COLLECTION AND USE OF DATA

During the last decade substantial statistics, including reliable

Census Report of 1998, are available. Education Management Information
System (EMIS), especially in NWFP, has been developed on scientific lines and
is being updated constantly. Census Report 1998 is of vital utility, provided the
data is properly organized and interpreted. Literacy Management Information
System (LMIS) has not been developed. EEF has made first ever attempt to
achieve this goal. LMIS should not be construed as mere collection of statistics.
Logical analysis of historical, socio-political, economic and geographic factors
must precede the development of LMIS. The entire province is to be profiled
down to village level. Reporting of bare statistics in the absence of analysis and
qualitative assessment is of little help.

5.3. NWFP-A Case Study

NWFP constitutes 9% area and 14% population of Pakistan. It is

not merely an issue of apportionment of resources on the basis of area or
population without taking into account the historical, social, economic and
geographical perspectives. Analysis of these factors is vital for ascertaining the
gravity of the situation. The historical backlog and geographic factors demand
preferential allocation of resources to overcome this grave issue of illiteracy
and, to greater extent, the resultant poverty.

5.3.1 Administrative background

Malakand Region comprising of Dir, Swat and Chitral are ex-
princely states. Malakand region and portion of Mansehra district is
Provincially Administered Tribal Agency (PATA). It is a constitutional entity. As
per provisions of the constitution, no Federal or Provincial law extends to PATA
unless Governor NWFP, with the prior approval of the President of Pakistan,
issues a notification. Erstwhile, settled areas of NWFP consists of D.I.Khan,
Kohat, Bannu, Peshawar, Mardan and Hazara Districts. In Hazara Region,
Kohistan (Right Bank of River Indus), Battagram and parts of Mansehra district
(Black Mountain in Oghi sub-division) were tribal areas of former Hazara

44
district. Amb-Darband, in Mansehra district, was a princely state. Even in
settled districts there were defacto tribal areas. Thus the effective colonial
administration was confined to about 45% area and 40% population of present
day NWFP.

5.3.1.1 Area and Population Configuration

The total area of NWFP is 74522 square kilometers.

Following are some of the basic statistics.
Cultivated area .. 23 %
Cultivable waste .. 15 %
Non cultivatable .. 44 %
Forest .. 18%
District-wise population, land holding and land utilization statistics is at
Annexure-IV.

Table 1. Region wise land utilisation statistics1

S.No Regions Area %age of Cultivated Irrigated Non Forest Cultivable Not
Sq.km NWFP %age %age Irrigated waste available
%age %age for
cultivation
%age

1 Southern 20410 27 32 40 60 4 30 34
Region
2 Central 7176 10 58 70 30 7 14 21
Region

3 Malakand 29872 40 12 64 32 15 6 67
Region
4 Hazara 17064 23 18 32 68 43 13 26
Region
NWFP 74522 100.00 23 51 49 18 15 44

1
NWFP Bureau of Agriculture Statistics 2005, Agricultural Statistics of NWFP, Bureau of
Statistics, Government of NWFP. Pakistan

45
Table II. Region-Wise Population (2005 estimate)
Population Population Density
Region In million % of NWFP (Per Sq. KM)

(i). Southern Region 4.316 20% 211

(ii). Central Region 7.746 36% 1079

(Peshawar valley)
iii). Malakand Region 5.159 24% 172
iv). Hazara Region 4.242 20% 248

5.4 Configuration of NWFP Population (2005 estimates)

Age group wise population of NWFP is at annexure-V.

While district wise population is at annexure-VI.
Analysis of area and population indicates that NWFP is
comparatively younger as 81 % Population falls between 9-39 years of age.
Annual population growth rate of about 3 % is the highest in Pakistan.
Comparative literacy rate and poverty rate is reproduced below1.
S.No. Title Pakistan NWFP
1 Literacy Rate 56 % 46 %
2 Poverty Rate 33 % 44 %

Analysis of above statistics provides us a glimpse of poverty and

high population density in an area having geographic and climatic problems as
permanent limiting factors.

Climate, topography, development of infrastructure and population

density are some of the factors which require proper analysis during need
assessment. Proper identification of population and geography related issues
would greatly facilitate adopting suitable remedial measures. High population
density per cultivated and irrigated hectare speaks of population pressures. In

1
PSLM Survey 2005-2006. Bureau of Statistics. Statistics Division Islamabad Pakistan, March 2007.

46
plain areas of Peshawar valley, high population concentration is a facilitative
factor for providing logistic support and monitoring. Better communication
facilities are also a contributory factor for effective monitoring. Contrary to this,
logistic support and monitoring in Southern Districts, due to scattered nature
of population is somewhat difficult.

Malakand and Hazara Regions have peculiar topographic and

climatic environment. Higher altitudes, severe winter and lack of
communication facilities are some of the limiting factors. In such areas
establishing LCs beyond 5000 feet altitude, during winter, is not a viable
option. Due to severe cold, learners cannot be provided a cozy place after
evening. In case of Peshawar and Southern Regions, severe heat in summer is
also an inhibiting factor.

District wise area of NWFP, in descending order, is at annexure-VII.

The field staff should critically analyse the population, area and
population density of all the districts. Similarly closer look is required at the
land utilization statistics. Comparison of district’s area, population density and
land utilization statistics can be a valuable yardstick to asses the economic
potential of a district. Cultivable waste means that so much more area can be
brought under cultivation. Sparse or dense population is an important
indicator for making logistic arrangements and devising monitoring regime.
Similarly percentage of area under cultivation and irrigated area are important
economic indicators. All these factors have close nexus with the literacy.

The districts data, at annexure I, II and III, regarding area,

population, area and literacy rate has been arranged in descending order. A
critical analysis of all this data in the backdrop of historic, economic, social,
administrative and geographic context would provide an interesting insight into
the causes of illiteracy. Such comparative analysis would greatly facilitate
making a comprehensive need assessment.

5.5 Status of Literacy

47
 Experts in a UN-Sponsored Conference, held in BONN (Germany),
in 1997 identified three main factors for illiteracy e.g.

a. Poverty

b. Lack of infrastructure

c. Gender bias

Analysis of literacy data of districts is indicative of the fact that in the context
of NWFP, the following are some of the factors for low literacy:-
a. Historical.
b. Socio-political.
c. Geographic and Climatic.
d. Lack of infrastructure.
e. Poverty (economic).
f. Insensitivity towards overall literacy.
g. Gender bias.
h. Administrative, law and order problems.

The aim is to highlight the historical background of districts and

prevailing climatic, economic and socio-political situation. Contrary to other
provinces, there is not only greater variation of climate in NWFP but historical
zonation also varies from region to region.
NWFP has historical backlog of almost 100 years. This area has
many distinctions. The current geo-political situation and its impact on the
region has created a new situation. One can count and recount that many
socio-political issues are because of low literacy but at the same time these
issues are also hampering the promotion of literacy specially the female
literacy. The situation can be termed as an issue of cause and effect. The
delicate socio-political situation warrants a comprehensive literacy programme
based on aformented factors.

48
 THE ILLITERATES

It may be clarified that the purpose of discussing the illiterates

under a separate chapter is to highlight the importance of our ultimate target
group. It does not mean that the illiterates are some distinct social entity or a
separate social institution. Neither they are segregated on the basis of illiteracy.
The illiterates are also not confined to a geographic locality. These illiterates,
though important segment of society, are intermixed. Some of the illiterates are
also part of religious society. Quite a few ‘Ulema’ who have memorised the
Quran and also teach verbatim translation are technically illiterate. Such
‘Ulema’ were enlisted as learners under ‘Literacy for All’ Project1.

Various countries have set benchmark to define the literacy and

the literate. The term, ‘’illiterates’’ carries somewhat negative connotation. It is
exclusive in nature. The different definitions of literacy, all over the world,
define the bare minimum benchmark to attain the status of being literate. The
current, broadly accepted, definition states that, ‘’any one who can read and
write a simple passage, in any language, and also knows basic numeracy with
understanding.’’

Now functional literacy is also the focus of attention. The illiterates

should not be viewed as a “condemned lot”. At no stage the ignorance should
be confused, and equated, with the illiteracy. The illiterates may be an
‘educated’ and a respected lot. In an egalitarian society like NWFP, such
‘illiterates’ might be farmers, skilled workers, and even tribal elders. They are
also well-versed with the cultural values and in some cases better than the
literates. In fact, illiteracy is a technical ‘disability’ and that too of temporary
nature which is to be cured. Sagacity and local wisdom of illiterates is to be
given due respect.

1
LMIS ‘Literacy for All’ Project (2004-2007), Elementary Education Foundation,
NWFP, Pakistan. Web: www.eef.org.pk

49
6.2. Illiterates are identified through need assessment and motivated to
be enrolled in literacy centers. It is to be followed by social mapping of class.
Such social mapping may include collecting and recording details such as age,
socio-economic background, marital status and types of illiterates. Such types
of illiterates may be either dropout or left out. Predominant muslim population
of NWFP is Quranic literate. Quranic literacy is a facilitating factor for
acquiring literacy skills especially in case of Urdu because of commonality of
words and similarity of script. The data collected from a sample of 168478
learners, in all the 24 districts under ‘Literacy for All’ Programme (2004-2007)
indicates that 57% of illiterate learners were Quranic literate. In case of Dir and
Mansehra the percentage of Quranic literates was more than 65%.2

6.3. Types of illiterates

While launching a literacy programme, it is not only essential to
find out the number of illiterates but finding their location, concentration,
age-group, gender, socio-economic background and causes of dropout are
equally important. Causes of illiteracy have been discussed elsewhere. Since
ultimate target group of literacy programme is the illiterates therefore it is
vital to devise and operationalize the literacy programme as per local
environment and requirements.

6.3.1 Left Out

NWFP has certain geographic, climatic and socio-economic
constraints. The regions of Malakand and Hazara are rugged mountains with
chilly winter. The Province has the highest population growth rate and
incidence of poverty. Highest per cultivated population density, unfriendly
human environment, scarcity of land coupled with harsh climate and highest
population growth rate are some of the factors adding to the miseries of
locals.
__________________________
2. LMIS: “Literacy for All project” 2004-2007,
Elementary education Foundation Web;www.eef.org.pk

50
 In case of NWFP we have a backlog of almost 100 years. Some of
the areas remained as princely states. As a whole, about 45% area and 40%
population of NWFP remained outside the ambit of direct British
administration. Infrastructure facilities could not be developed in these areas.

Even in administered areas the locals fiercely resisted the

establishment of government educational institutions. Unfortunately their
indigenous religious educational institutions had already collapsed due to
disruption and discontinuation of government patronage.

In post-independence era the locals remained either opposed or at

least reluctant to formal literacy.

Thus lack of infrastructure facilities, coupled with socio-economic

and locational constrains, are some of the major causes of large number of
illiterates as ‘left out’. After the independence in 1947 successive governments
preferred to open male educational institutions. The local population was so
conservative that they did not allow the females to be enrolled even in class-I.
Now, barring few areas, girls are allowed to be enrolled in male schools, and
continue their education, at least, up to class-5. Social and geographic
barriers proved as hindrance for promotion of female literacy. While the males
could walk for miles to reach the school, the females could not do so due to
social restraints. Low overall literacy rate specially female literacy is indicative
of the grave situation of illiteracy.

6.3.2 DROPOUT
Dropout rate in NWFP is 20% in the first two years of
schooling, which means 10% drop out every year. Only 20% reach to high
school level. Random survey of Batch-1 (4388 Literacy Centers) in all the 24
districts of NWFP indicates that in some cases dropout from grade 4 were not
technically literate to fulfil the bare minimum standard of definition of literacy
in Pakistan. It is an issue of environment and the time-lag. A grade 4 dropout
may relapse into illiteracy due to the environment. Such learners get engaged
in petty blue colour jobs or farming and remained un-touch with the literacy

51
for almost five years to more than a decade. Such learners still remember some
digits or can read few words but have no writing skills. PSLM Survey 2005-
2006 put the drop out in first two years as 22 %.3 Regressions into illiteracy
also highlight the importance of post-literacy and life-long learning.

6.4 SOCIAL MAPPING FOR LITERACY

Social mapping of learners with regard to causes of illiteracy is

helpful in devising strategy for literacy programme. While in case of lack of
infrastructure, the project might be somewhat compensating the locals through
establishing the literacy centers (LCs), but economic, locational and social
problems, some permanent others semi permanent or purely temporary, might
still be there. The community and the learners should not get an impression of
social mapping as investigation or probing into their personal affairs. Certain
cultural norms also prohibit gathering personal information particularly in
case of female learners. Social mapping for literacy should not give an
impression of investigation, causing embarrassment through straight and
personal questions or an impression of infringing upon the privacy of learners.
Such data would be useful in dealing with the learners. It can be utilized for
research purposes. Data collected should be well protected and reported or
published in a way that it does not violate the social norms. Literacy workers
can address some of the causes, avoid others and circumvent quite a few.
Some of essentials of social mapping are:-
• Age
• Gender
• Marital Status
• Socio-economic background, such as peasant, labour, rural, urban, rural
worker such as blacksmith, barber, carpenter, potter, weaver, community
activist, government servant, tribal elder and religious element such as
Imam (Prayer leader).
___________________________________________
3. PSLM survey 2005-2006, bureau of statistics, statistics Division, Islamabad. Pakistan
March, 2007

52
• Locational factors:
Climatic and geographic factors, season, working season, pattern of
employment, religious rituals such as month of Ramadan and Haj season.
Cropping pattern specially cash crops such as cotton, sugarcane, tobbaco
and vegetables.
• Segments of local society:-
Some of the important segments of local society may be community, tribal,
religious and political leaders and activists.
• Composition of local society:-
o Dominant and co-dominant groups such as tribal, religious elders or
landlords.
o Religious and tribal conservancy.
o Sensitivity towards literacy, specially female literacy.
o Presence of homogenous or heterogeneous social groups.
• Expected response of local society towards community organisation and
motivation:-
Social mapping is essential to understand the sociology and psychology
of expected learners and also to organsise the local community in the form of
Community Social Organisation (CSO).

6.4 CAUSES OF DROPOUT AND LEFTOUT

(a) Poverty

Poverty is one of the main causes of illiteracy. In case of Malakand

and Hazara Regions, urban to rural migration is on the increase. The parents
can afford to enrol a child in a school while residing and carrying on business
in rural areas. Migration to Urban areas put such families under tremendous
economic and even socio-psychological pressures and thus forcing the
parents, either, not to enrol or to pull out the children from schools and put
them to child labour. Such children perform petty jobs ranging from home
servant to working in workshops and restaurants. In rural areas they are
engaged in farming. For rural conservative population female literacy is the
least priority. Obviously male child gets preferential treatment over the
female. Spending on female literacy is not considered a viable option.

53
 (b) Insensitivity to Literacy specially to female Literacy

Poverty is not the sole cause of low enrolment or high dropout. As

the data indicates developed districts having good infrastructure facilities, are
graded with low literacy districts. Illiteracy in such areas is due to insensitivity
of parents towards literacy. Female child is the first victim of such insensitivity.
The eldest female child is pulled out of the school to take care of her younger
brothers and sisters or assist the family in farming or household work.

(c) Physical Disability

Though authentic data of such dropout does not exist yet

instances are not uncommon that physical disability such as malnutrition and
weak eyesight are also some of the causes of dropout. Parents and teachers
instead of realizing such physical disability resort to corporal punishment.
Fortunately now there is growing awareness among the parents. Teachers are
also sensitized during the training.

(d) Social Problems

Such social issues include family disputes, separation and

dissolution of marriages, enmities specially in tribal society of NWFP and
Baluchistan, temporary or permanent migration of families due to enmities,
economic constraints or natural disasters. Portion of NWFP population in
Malakand and Hazara Regions temporarily migrate to hills during the summer
season and to urban centres during winter for want of jobs.

In areas and pockets which are more religious and conservative the
female students are forced to dropout from male schools or they are not
enrolled in the first place.

In some cases, dropout of female students is also due to economic

problems and gender discrimination. Whenever a family feels economic
pressure girls become the first victim as male children are given priority over

54
the females. Social mindset is that male would become the ultimate bread-
earner for the family. There is selfish thought that the educated girls would be
ultimately married away, so the real beneficiary would be someone else. Still
there is widespread perception that since the females are not supposed to do
jobs, or not allowed to, therefore literacy is not a basic requirement for the
females.

(d) Lack of infrastructure

Lack of formal institutions, specially female schools, is one

of the main causative factor of deprivation of school going children.

Lack of roads and rough terrain, specially in mountainous

regions is a vital factor. Inclement weather is also an inhibitory
factor. Thus the mere countinsg of illiterates would just highlight the
gravity of the situation but analysis of data, in the context of cited
factors, would not only provide us a comprehensive picture but also
facilitate devising the remedial measures.

55
 ADVANCING THE CAUSE OF LITERACY

7.1 Some Pertinent Questions

7.1.1 Why male and female should go to literacy centres and acquire
literacy specially in a society faced with social and economic problems? Raising
questions is necessary to get possible answers? What role models do we have?
How the other countries have developed, and executed, literacy programmes?
Apart from other contributory factors, the single most potent and common
factor, in all such successful models, has been the role of political leadership.
Credit must be given to the Communist regimes that they strictly enforced the
literacy programmes. They had certain advantages which are not available to
democratic and even quasi-democratic regimes. Political stability and
continuity was one of the advantages available under the Communist regimes.
By raising these questions the intention is not to challenge the benefits of
literacy. It is necessary that we understand the relevancy and importance of
literacy in the context of our socio-political environment. Without engaging in
protracted debate one must be equipped with the logic and knowledge to
respond to questions which some of the members of the communities may
raise. Questions raised by the communities must be answered in a satisfactory
manner. At times admission of faults, and loosing the arguments, may win the
hearts. Counterargument, such as declaring such views as archaic and worn-
out, may result in an environment of animosity or indifferent attitude towards
the literacy.

No one can deny the importance of literacy but what arguments do

we have in favour of literacy?

It is much easier to condemn the governments for not doing

enough to promote literacy. Governments can provide infrastructure facilities
and, to some extent, enabling environment for promotion of literacy. Is it
enough to motivate the communities? Is it so that lack of educational facilities
was, or is, the sole cause of illiteracy?

56
 It is, probably, oversimplification of complicated issues. We are not
discussing an ideal situation. Sociology does not deal with the things as they
ought to be; but the way they are! Can we succeed by merely advancing a noble
cause in a bad manner or with misplaced notions.? And in the process further
confusing, both, the learners and the community. Besides the project staff
should have a clear vision of the whole situation. While a particular argument
in favour of literacy, or against it, may work well in a society but the same may
prove counterproductive in our local context. It is for the managers to decide,
after critical analysis of local situation, whether to focus more on merits of
literacy or demerits of illiteracy. For example a particular religious community
can be persuaded to acquire literacy in the light of teachings of Islam. In
religious society like NWFP such an approach would not only ensure
involvement and participation of religious leaders in the literacy programme
but also help in dispelling the negative propaganda against the promotion of
female literacy.

The factual position is that successive governments have been

plagued with corruption, and the resultant mismanagement. Highly ‘educated’
leadership failed to set a role model of good governance. The bureaucratic and
the political leadership have little moral grounds to persuade the communities
in favour of literacy by condemning the illiteracy or equating it with ignorance.

7.1.2 Promotion of literacy, or lack of it, can not be divorced of socio-

political and economic policies of a country. Not only political stability, but
certainty of political and economic stability, is essential for a sustainable
literacy programme. In case of Pakistan, we have a phenomenon of uncertain
continuity of governments. In such an environment adhocism is the rule of the
day. Formulation and execution of long-term policies hardly find any place in
the overall priorities and policy framework of such governments.
The managers should also be mindful of the fact that international
factors and conflicts also adversely affect the economy of the countries. Both
the rural and urban illiterates are the ultimate victims of such economic
pressures and conflicts.

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 In urban areas the modern day life has increased the cost of living
while the political and economic policies are offering little job opportunities.
The rural system is collapsing due to large scale rural-to-urban migration and
other factors. While the facilities like communication and electricity have added
to the comforts of rural life but at the same time it has resulted in inflated
utility bills as an added financial burden.

7.1.3. The society does not extend much respect to the educated one. The
common perception is that the wealth can buy any status. On the other hand
the educated lot has failed to present itself as a role model. No political or
religious leader is so popular to motivate the illiterates for literacy. Charisma of
political or religious leadership can act as a catalyst for promotion of literacy.
Unfortunately none of such advantages are available to us.

Under such circumstances we do not find ourselves at a higher

moral pedestal to give sermons while counting the benefits of literacy with
regard to improvement in morals and manners.

7.1.4. The aim is not to put forward an argument, per se, against the
benefits of literacy. Argument in favour of literacy is universally relevant and
valid. The issue has to be examined in the context of Pakistan.

7.1.5. NWFP having 46% illiteracy (as for as basic literacy skills are
concerned) is predominantly ‘educated, as far as functional and social literacy
is concerned1.
Pukhtun Jirga and customs is now a worldwide known
phenomenon. Dealing with such a unique society requires a distinct approach.
Raising slogans like ‘fighting against darkness of ignorance’ and ‘civilizing the
society’ might prove counterproductive.

1
Pakistan Social and Living Standards measurement Survey 2005 – 2006, Bureau of Statistics. Statistics
Division Islamabad, March 2007.

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 More so when such an argument is pedalled by educated but
morally bankrupt segment of society. At least this is the perception which
somehow exists among the communities with-regard to educated lot of the
country.

7.1.6. The locals of NWFP, having freedom of mind and inflated ego, hate
to take lessons on civilization and morality. We should have no intention to give
lessons but to take lessons from the target group. While promoting and
facilitating literacy, we are not extending any favour to this ‘educated, but
illiterate majority. Every one should have due regard for the would-be learners
for sparing 3 hours daily for 4-5 months. Those engaged in promoting literacy
should realise that they are working in an environment which is not much
conducive for learning and literacy.

We are also not in a position to offer any tangible benefits to the

learners, at least, in the short-run. The plight of thousands of jobless
graduates is known to these illiterates. The purpose is not to paint a bleak
picture with regard to prevailing environment but to equip the literacy staff
with the knowledge of social environment. Policy makers and the managers
must have in-depth knowledge of the situation. These are not merely
impressionistic views but based on three years experience of Literacy for All
Project ‘LFA’ (2004-2008). During the execution of LFA Project intensive
interaction with all the segments of society has been made. Under LFA Project
Community Social Organisations (CSOs) were constituted. Feedback from the
field staff greatly helped to review the strategy. Launching of LFA Project has
proved that inspite of all the impediments success can be achieved through
sproper approach and strategy.

7.2 RESPONSE OF VARIOUS SEGMENTS OF SOCIETY TO LITERACY

Various segments of society exert and exercise informal social

control over its members. The behaviour and possible role of these segments of
society, withregard to literacy is crucial. Some of the issues are discussed, at
the cost of repetition, with a view to highlight the importance and drive home

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the point in a different context. In other cases, a passing reference is to be
made. Still references and back references are made to highlight a particular
and peculiar social aspect of local society. The project staff must have clear
vision of social pattern and the various segments of a society. In the context of
NWFP some of the important segments of society are briefly discussed.

7.2.1 Religious Leaders

“Khateeb or Mullah”, Religious leader and Prayer leader (Imam) of

a mosque or Head of Madrassa is an important social institution (S.I). This S.I
has played important historical role in shaping and reshaping the events in our
society. With the rising religious militancy and religiousity, this social
institution has assumed added importance. It is now affecting, both positively
and negatively, all the other institutions such as political, educational, social
and economic.

In the history of Afghans the religious institutions have always

played prominent role. NWFP society has certain paradoxes. The local
community and the elders rally behind the religious leadership whenever there
is external threat or when the ‘ulema’ resist a change or oppose the policies of
the government. It is a sort of ‘negative’ support. As soon as such threat is over
the support is withdrawn. But when the same religious institutions intend to
promote certain cause for example, re-marrying of widows, or share of female
in the inheritance, as per Islamic injunctions, the locals promptly revert back
to their age-old traditions. The role of religious institutions and response
towards literacy has remained ambivalent. No religious scholar can deny the
importance of literacy. Quranic verses and the Traditions of Holy Prophet
(P.B.U.H.) are crystal clear. Under Islamic injunctions, acquiring literacy is
obligatory for every male and female muslim. As for male literacy is concerned
the religious elements put forward no counter-argument but at the same time
have not been, wholeheartedly, exhorting their illiterate followers to acquire
literacy. May be that the religious leadership is afraid of literate listeners or
followers. Literate followers may pose threat to ‘intellectual monopoly’ of
religious leadership. So as ‘prudent’ leaders they prefer a mute and illiterate
listener over argumentative literate listeners.

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 The spiritual leaders have also not played an enviable role in
promoting literacy. Female literacy is opposed on one pretext or the other.

The aim is not to belittle the services rendered by the religious

scholars and spiritual leaders in the freedom struggle, eradication of evils and
imparting religious education and thus promoting literacy.

The rise of feudalism, aristocracy and the rule of kings set

retrogressive socio-political trends. It was deliberate attempt by the ruling elite
to exploit and use the religious leadership for their interest. Literacy has always
been considered as a direct threat to the monopoly of ruling elite.

The religious leaders have been stressing upon observance of

rituals with little emphasis on substance and true spirit of Islam.

The role of women and the promotion of female literacy has been
subjected to controversies despite the clear injunctions of Islam to the
contrary.
Even now some of the religious leaders view efforts to promote
female literacy a threat to cultural and Islamic values. It is equated with
“Westernization” and “Liberalization” of women. Nothing is far from reality. But
there is no denying the fact that perceptions, in tribal society, are usually
stronger than the reality. It is to be kept in mind that the religious leaders
would be quoting various instances in support of their arguments. We precisely
know that two wrongs do not make one right. Religious leadership cannot
quote from Islamic teachings because they know that the Islam greatly
emphasizes on acquiring literacy. Without indulging in debate or challenging
their stance, we should politely clarify the factual position. It is not justifiable
tso punish the entire women folk for wrong doings of some ‘literate’ women.
There is no denying the fact that quit a few organisations have violated the
local and Islamic traditions. Thus the fears and reservations of religious
segment are somewhat justified.

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 Frivolous objections such as violation of observance of ‘Purdah’
(Veil) are raised on literacy programmes. Literacy workers must ensure that the
local religious leaders are on board. Bypassing or confronting this segment of
society would defeat the objectives of project.

Every effort should be made and precautionary measures taken to

ensure that no opportunity, to exploit the situation and instigate the local
community against the programme, is provided to the religious leadership.
Visit to female LCs and training of female teachers be conducted in a way that
local norms are not violated. Female supervisors, community social motivators
and other volunteers should take care that, while interacting with the
community and the learners, the social norms are properly observed. They
should conduct themselves in a dignified manner. All their actions and words
are closely monitored. Utterance against the religious or community leaders are
promptly reported and even twisted. The religious elements may also object
when the female project worker is not properly dressed up as per local
requirements. The plight of local women is known to us. Female workers in
their wisdom, fired with earlier enthusiasm, start advocating and preaching
“Liberalization” of women. For literacy projects there are always lurking
dangers. There might be some people who are annoyed with the project due to
some personal interest or grudge. Still others are always in search of an
opportunity to gain cheap popularity.

The religious leaders must be part of Community Social

Organization. The religious leadership is also well adept in the art of endless,
‘Manazaras’ (debates). Efforts should be made to avoid indulging in this
practice. Such debate will only breed and promote hatred and the resultant
animosity of religious leadership towards the project. Irrespective of soundness
of our argument, the religious elements may view any counterargument as a
direct challenge and threat to their domain i.e. monopoly over the religious
affairs.
Our aim and message for the religious leadership should be that
we are not here to violate the social or religious norms or challenge the social

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status and wisdom of religious leadership. The religious leadership should get a
clear message, withregard to our intents and actions. For religious leaders, our
message should be that literacy programme will further enhance their social
status instead of marginalizing it. This can be ensured through giving central
and leading role to the religious leadership. It would also be naïve, as past
precedents indicate, to pitch the community or the tribal leadership against the
religious leadership and vice versa. Siding with one segment of society may
provide us temporary dividends but such a strategy is not useful for the
literacy programme in the long-run.

7.2.2. Community and tribal elders

7.2.2.1 NWFP is a society of ‘Gerontocracy’ which means ‘Rule of Elders’.

Rule of elders should not be viewed as dictatorship of elders. It is otherwise an
egalitarian society. The elders of family, tribe, and community are respected
and not ‘feared’ personalities. It is one of the paradoxes of local society that the
elders rally behind the religious leaders as far as they oppose some government
policies or reforms or when they feel some external threat to their religion and
traditions. When such external threat is over the elders quickly revert back to
their age-old traditions.

It is also a strong phenomenon that the tribal community elders do

not follow the ulema when they are supporting certain policies of government
or reforms. Support to government policies by the religious leadership is,
usually viewed with suspicion. It is century-old colonial legacy. At times elders
use and exploit the influence of ulema to achieve their own objectives. Such
objectives are not always noble. There might be some political, social and
economic reasons. Religious leadership is also well aware of its authority and
over a period of time has fully utilized such opportunities. In the process the
religious leadership has gained the political ascendancy as well and is now a
formidable political force to be reckoned with. Ulema are also cognizant of the
fact that they thrive on conflict and opposition.

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 Some of the community elders have lost their socio-political and
economic powers due to lake of moral leadership. The hardworkers from the
lower strata of society have assumed the leadership role due to better
education and interaction with the community. Thus the power of literacy is
known to the community and the tribal elders.

Westernized style of educated class has also led to strengthening

the belief that acquiring literacy means ‘Westernization’. We just acquired a
small portion of learning and good values from the West but adopted almost all
the major vices. Thus the elders, having their own reasons, equate the
‘Westernization’ and ‘modernization’ of women with literacy. Both religious and
tribal leadership have their justifications, specially, in case of female literacy.
The elders have still these fears lurking in their minds. Premature and
meaningless sloganeering, by some of the enthusiasts, against the role of
ulema and elders, has further strengthened these misplaced notions.
Due to aforementioned reasons some of the elders may view the
literacy as a threat to the cultural values and their social role.

7.2.3 Political Leadership

7.2.3.1 Political leadership in our country metamorphosed from

community elders, capitalists and other elites. Lately it has also emerged from
the religious leadership. There are only few examples of emergence of political
leadership from lower or middle strata of society.

Apart from considering the literacy as a threat to their monopoly,

the political leadership mostly focus on short-term ‘tangible’ political gains. In
a quasi-democratic environment, they cannot sacrifice their political career for
the betterment of next generation. Literacy is not a vote-generating activity.

It is like investing in the next generation. So the sagacity and

vision of a statesman is required to invest in promotion of literacy.

7.2.3.2 In resource-starved countries of Third World, less economic

manoeuvrability is available to the politicians. The public demands are so

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intense and conflicting that, at time, each priority becomes the top priority.
Literacy in such a socio-political and economic environment can not be the top
priority. Thus instead of merely condemning the politicians, the promoters of
literacy have to fight on many fronts to muster political support.

In the process of advocacy and communication, every segment of

society is to be contacted and sensitized so that the politicians get the required
support from the civil society.

The socio-political and economic realities warrant that we must

avail whatever opportunities are available to us. The thread of continuity
should not be allowed to break no matter how weak it might be at certain point
in time.

7.2.4 Educationists

7.2.4.1 Educationists, by virtue of their own background, mostly believe in

formal schooling. Quite a few think that literacy can only be promoted through
formal system of education. Besides the terms ‘education’ and ‘literacy’ are
used interchangeably. The resultant deduction is that illiteracy is equated with
ignorance and literacy with the wisdom. The foremost thing required by the
illiterates is respect and empathy and not sympathy with intellectual arrogance
and sense of superiority. While the importance of formal education cannot be
denied there is dire need of advocacy and communication with the
educationists. Our message for the educationists should be that promotion of
non-formal literacy is not a parallel system but in fact it is supportive of the
formal education system. Promotion of literacy among the adult would greatly
improve the enrolment and early childhood education.

7.2.5 Bureaucracy
For bureaucracy promotion of literacy is possible only through
formal school system and salaried class.
Bureaucracy thinks that the community is devoid of all wisdom.
For them the community participation is not a viable and practicable idea.
Otherwise also bureaucracy, being Colonial legacy, has not transformed and

65
tuned itself to the needs of public service. Failure or partial success of literacy
programme in the past has greatly prejudiced the thinking of planners and
finance managers. There is need to allay their concerns.

7.2.6 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

NGOs can play an important role, as agent of change in promotion

of literacy. Only few NGOs have the capacity and intentions to promote literacy.

Literacy is not considered as a ‘productive’ and economic activity.

It is also not very ‘attractive’ and high profile activity. Thus capacity building of
NGOs is required for need assessment, monitoring, and pedagogy. Most of the
NGOs have been established as a ‘reaction’ to a certain cause. So raison deter
of all such NGOs is a certain cause. Illiteracy has not attracted due attention
as a causative factor. Promotion of literacy is a cumbersome, long-drawn
process with little ‘visible’ results. The task is so huge that it constantly
requires major interventions on the part of government. NGOs can play major
contributory role. Political Governments are also not favourably poised towards
the NGOs. Executing a project through the NGOs is viewed as depriving itself of
political dividends.

7.3. PROMOTION OF LITERACY ––– WAY AHEAD

Scanning through the models adopted by the countries world-wide,
we come across two approaches.

(a) Negative enforcement

It means promotion of literacy through punitive measures and

legal action. Under the erstwhile Communist regimes literacy was promoted
through mix of positive and negative measures. The whole highly regimented
and organized cadres of Communist Party and the government machinery was
ussed for enforcement, motivation, propaganda and publicity campaign.
Substantial progress withregard to promotion of literacy was made in almost all
the countries of the Communist Block. In Pakistan Compulsory Literacy Act
was passed way back in 1985 but could not be enforced. Same is the situation

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in the Provinces. Our experience of “Each one__Teach one” has also not made
much headway. Otherwise also financial incentives to learners and the
teachers may breed corruption. At the end, the whole exercise is reduced to a
farce. Under this approach more emphasis is on reporting progress. The
exercise becomes target-oriented because release of money is tied to it. Any
meaningful literacy programme should be objective-oriented. Targets are
relevant but process of learning, and not merely the progress, is more
important.

(b). Positive Enforcement

Promotion of literacy through positive enforcement means

persuasion, motivation and mobilization of communities. It is a long-drawn and
cumbersome process but under the present circumstances there is hardly any
alternate available to us. With the right approach and strategy, success is still
possible notwithstanding the related difficulties. Still a lot depends upon the
social environment and commitment of political leadership as a driving force
for promotion of literacy. It is the political will which is to be transformed into
reality through bureaucratic and technical will. Examples of such successful
examples are China, Iran, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Indonesia. A conducive
socio-political environment and the societal respect for learning and knowledge
are some of the accelerating factors for promotion of literacy.

In such a situation we are left with few options. The only viable
strategy is to emphasize the importance of literacy specifically in the light of
teachings of Islam. The learners should be made to understand that the
educated lot has been exploiting the situation in their favour because they had
a monopoly over decision making due to the fact that illiterates are in majority.
Predominantly literate society would be more vigilant to exercise its rights. A
society not only technically literate, but more aware of its rights would be a
good check on the un-fettered powers and misuse of such powers by the ruling
elite. Above all the wisdom, sagacity, traditions and rich culture of our elders
would not die down with them. If our society becomes literate, all our cultural
values and traditions would be transformed from oral to written form for the
benefits of our future generations. Our civilization has never been a civilization

67
of illiterates. Historical evidence vouch for the fact that, apart from other
factors, illiterate civilizations became extinct with the passage of time while
literate civilization have survived through their thoughts carried forward to
their next generation.
Acquiring literacy is obligatory for all the Muslims. It includes both
male and female. It is much easy to sensitise a religious society like NWFP by
re-emphasizing the importance of literacy as per clear injunctions of Islam.
Religious leadership can play vital role in promotion of literacy. Instead of un-
necessarily condemning the religious leadership, their historical services for
promotion of literacy must be recognized and highlighted. It is a right
enshrined in the Constitution of Pakistan. It is wrong perception that first we
should strive for eradication of poverty, improvement of our economic condition
and political empowerment and when all these three important goals are
achieved, the illiterates would willingly opt for literacy. The reality is otherwise.
Achievement of all the three goals would be facilitated once we have a
predominant literate society. Odd examples of first acquiring political
empowerment, better social and economic status are not, statistically speaking,
significant enough to be generalized. Our concern is the entire society. There is
ample evidence to prove the fact that one of the major reasons of poverty is
illiteracy. The real political empowerment is possible only through literacy.

7.3.1 In nutshell, a successful strategy for promotion of literacy should

focus on the following aspects:-
a) Extending full respect to the illiterates instead of condemning them. The
contribution of illiterates towards the society and the economy is to be fully
recognized.
b) Honest admissions, at times, place us in a win win position instead of
unnecessarily defending our position. We must admit that the ‘educated’
class has failed to deliver and thus can not be absolved of major ills afflicting
the society.
c) Islamic injunctions with regard to importance of literacy are to be highlighted.
d) The illiterates should be made to understand that major cause for their
poverty is illiteracy.

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e) Strategy should contain both preventive and curative measures. It should also
focus on formal sector of education. Preventive measures include 100%
enrollment coupled with zero dropout. Without improving the formal sector of
education the informal adult literacy programme may not achieve its
objectives.
f) The illiterates should get a clear message that the moment they attain
majority, being literate, the governance shall improve.
g) Literacy programme should not only focus on developing basic learning
competencies but should also include functional literacy so as to ensure
life-long learning and empowerment of illiterates.
h) Due respect should be extended to the religious, tribal and political leadership.
They should not have a feeling that they are being:-
a. Confronted or
b. By-passed
Rather they should be closely associated with the literacy programme.
And above all, acquiring literacy is an issue of human dignity
which every self-respecting human-being must achieve.

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 POLITICAL WILL, ADVOCACY AND SUSTAINABILITY

8.1. Pakistan’s Political System

8.1.1 All the institutions, both Governmental and Non-governmental,

painstakingly stress for political and national will to ensure sustainability of
literacy programmes.
We have to view the whole situation in the context of our
socio-political environment.
Merely putting the words of ‘National and political will’ in the
national and international reports would not ensure existence of such will.
Presence of national and political will for literacy would be an ideal
situation but the same would not come over-nightly or cannot be ensured
unless proper strategy is in place.
In every literacy forum the whole argument, somehow, boils down
to existence of political will for success and sustainability of literacy
programmes.
In quite a few countries like Iran and Cuba such political will was
created due to wisdom of one man at the top. In other countries like Srilanka it
came into existence through collective leadership and institutional support.
Such countries were lucky enough to have such a far-sighted leadership. The
vital question is, how to devise a workable strategy for advocacy and
communication in countries having low literacy but devoid of favourable
political atmosphere, institutional support and also facing resource crunch.

Unless the issues related to political system of a country and its

ethos of political culture, coupled with economic system, are properly examined
the question of advocacy and communication would remain an ideal but
impractical idea. Somehow, the institutions engaged in promotion of literacy
avoid discussing political system of a country. There are valid reasons for not

70
doing so specially by the donor agencies because the member countries might
view it as an interference in their internal affairs and an infringement on their
sovereignty.

Promotion of literacy, or lack of it, is closely associated with the

socio-political and economic system of a country. Advocacy and
communication can only succeed when the issues and the bottlenecks of
prevailing socio-political system are properly identified. By devising right
strategy, and adopting the proper approach, a favourable environment for
promotion of literacy can be created. Identification of socio-political problems of
society is essential for our guidance. It should not be construed or equated
with, as condemnation of prevailing socio-political system of a country. Those
engaged in promotion of literacy have neither the mandate nor empowered to
change a socio-political system. The aim is to devise a proper strategy for
promotion of literacy while working within a given situation.

8.2. With the emerging globalization and conflicts the governments are
otherwise also under tremendous economic, social and administrative
pressures. Inspite of lapse of seven years, countries like Pakistan are lagging
behind in achieving goals of Dakar (2000) and Millennium Development Goals.
Dakar EFA Goal-IV envisaged achieving 50 percent improvement in adult
literacy by the Year 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic
and continuing education for all adults. Unless political leadership and all
other stakeholders evolve consensus over allocation of resources and
prioritization of promotion of literacy, achievement of Dakar Goals would
remain an elusive dream. The situation demands initiation of extra ordinary
measures with regard to advocacy and communication.

While deliberating upon the question of political will, a reference to

the existing political structure of the country is inescapable. Pakistan is a
Federation having parliamentary form of government. A Federal system has its
own intricacies. It is not an ideal system of governance but in our case it is a
necessity. Education is a Provincial subject but under the constitution of

71
Pakistan it is the responsibility of the State to provide education to every citizen
of the state.

In a parliamentary system there is overlapping of executive and

legislative functions. It has certain advantages but not without its demerits.
The government is constantly dependent upon the legislature. The emerging
pattern of voting during the elections in last two decades indicates that the
voters are not inclined to give clear majority to a particular political party.
Quite often, the governments are constituted by cobbling up alliances of
various political parties. Such governments, having thin majority in the
parliament, are heavily dependent upon its allies for political support. Under
such circumstances the Chief Executive of the Province, or the Country, is
virtually hostage to the will of the legislators. The legislators are, on the other
hand, under constant pressure due to conflicting demands of their voters.

8.3. Getting votes in Frontier Province is a difficult task. As compared

to other Provinces, the constituencies are smaller. There is greater political
awareness. An analysis of elections results indicates that members of both the
National and Provincial Assemblies have been winning the elections with thin
majority and in most of the cases with a majority of couple of hundreds of
votes. The voters are quite vocal. In a resource-deficit Province like NWFP,
MPAs (Member of Provincial Assembly) have to prioritise their developmental
plan, which is usually based on political expediency and conflicting public
demands. As a politician, any public representative will go for the
developmental schemes having more political dividends.

As compared to other ‘developmental activities’ like roads,

pavement of streets, provision of electricity, health facilities and drinking water
supply schemes, literacy is not a vote-generating activity.

8.4. WAY OUT

Under the existing socio-political environment only a statesman
can think of next generation. Literacy has no, short-term, tangible results. It is

72
like investing in the next generation. It is in this background that the Provincial
government prepares, and present, the budget to the Provincial legislature.

Chief Executive of the Province is to meet the conflicting demands

of MPAs within the scarce and meagre resources. As the financial year closes
in, the MPAs gain added importance. Without taking into account the
aforementioned factors, talking of political will would be a wishful thinking. For
effective advocacy and communication all the stakeholders are to be clearly
identified. Government alone would not be in a position to allocate scarce
resources to literacy which is, politically, not an attractive activity.

While particularly targeting the government, the overall focus of

advocacy and communication must be all the stakeholders of the society.
Members of national and provincial assembles play vital role in promotion of
literacy and thus all such members must be continuously sensitized about the
importance of literacy.

Consensus of all the stakeholders and important segments of

society is to be developed. Only such consensus can ensure ownership and
sustainability. Otherwise the word, “political will” would be a mere rhetoric.
Chief Executive of the Province must get required support of all the
stakeholders which is only possible when there is greater sensitization of
society and specially the policy makers for promotion of literacy.

In a country like ours, writers, intellectuals, bureaucracy, press,

electronic media, tribal and community elders and religious leaders should be
the focus of advocacy and communication. Only such a sensitized society
would ensure that the political leadership, and specially the legislators, do not,
at least, oppose the allocation of resources for promotion of literacy
programmes.

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 DURATION OF LEARNING PROCESS

9.1. Opinion of literacy experts with-regard to duration of learning

process varies. Duration of learning has close nexus with the benchmarks set
by a country with-regard to acquiring basic learning competencies. It varies
from country to country. Availability of learners for a longer period and
allocation of resources are also some of the related factors. In our country,
some of the institutions are running three months course (78 net days) with
two hours daily teaching.

National Guidelines for Youth and Adult Literacy, developed by

Curriculum Wing, Ministry of Education, Islamabad in collaboration with
Education Sector Reform Assistance Programme (ESRA) Islamabad (June
2005), has prescribed 250 hours of learning, as bare minimum requirement,
for literacy. Under LFA, a minimum period of 4 months (120 gross days) and
104 net days for learning has been envisaged. Duration of class is 3 hours
daily. It comes to 312 Hours of learning. Assessment of Batch I (June-
September, 2005) and Batch II (October 2005-March 2006) indicates that the
required learning was achieved within this period1. Practically it is impossible
to open and operate thousands of literacy centres on the same date. Delay of
couple of days in opening the LCs cannot be overruled. Similarly in some cases,
delay may occur in finishing the prescribed courses within the prescribed
period due to many extrinsic factors. Keeping in view, aforementioned factors a
cushion period of one month has been provided as interval between the two
batches. This period of 30 days is utilized for training of teachers (both old and
new), recruitment of new teachers for the new LCs and social mobilization. Old
LCs continue to function in case the progress or process of learning is not
completed or the LCs opening and operationalization is delayed due to some
reasons. Quite a few argue that at least six months are required to develop
basic learning skills and functional literacy. Some opine that suitable time
frame is 1 ½ to 2 years.

1
Project Management Unit. Literacy For All Project internal assessment and Third party validation Report
2005-2006. www.eef.org.pk

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9.1.1. This brings us back to the definition of literacy. Definition of
literacy varies from country to country. In case of Pakistan the consensus is
that any one who can read and write a simple passage, with understanding, in
any language and is also able to know basic numeracy. World Conference on
Education for All (Dakar 2000) declared that, “(Article1)

‘Basic learning needs’ or Competencies (BLC) comprise both

essentials learning tools (such as literacy, oral expression, numeracy and
problem solving) and the basic learning Contents (i.e. knowledge, skills, values,
and attitudes) required by human beings”.

The cited parameters set by the World Conference on, “Education

For All” amply clarify the conceptual approach towards literacy .At the same
time it also enlighten us that, while, the essential learning tools are somewhat
uniform in almost all the societies, the basic learning contents may vary from
society to society .

In case of some languages even basic learning tools are quite

difficult. For example, a Chinese learner has to learn and recognize some
15000 graphics. In case of Urdu, basic learning tools are comparatively easier
to comprehend.

9.1.2. In case of Pakistan, and particularly in North West Frontier

Province (NWFP), pre-dominantly Muslim population can recite Holy Quran
(Arabic), which is similar to Urdu script. Thus an illiterate of NWFP is much
better equipped as for as basic learning tools with regard to reading and oral
expression is concerned.

Majority of learners are acquainted with and can, fluently, read

more than three hundred thousand Arabic words of Quran. The alphabets and
the words have great similarity with Urdu, as well as, local languages of

75
Pakistan. LFA data for the year 2006 indicate that 57% enlisted learners were
Quranic literate12. (District-wise detail of Quranic literate is at annexure-VIII.

Experience of running 37000 plus literacy centers (both male and

female age 10-40) indicates that learning tools, to some extent, and learning
contents greatly depend upon the nature of society.

Though society of NWFP is tribal in nature but has never been a

close or static society.

NWFP is located between the Central Asia and the Sub-Continent

.It is gateway to Central Asia and South East Asia .Historically the areas
constituting NWFP have been the traditional trade-route between the Central
and South East Asia. It has also remained a route for invaders right from
‘Alexander The Great’ to warriors from Afghanistan and Central Asia. Both the
traders and the invaders have left behind rich heritage of knowledge, literature
and skills. In the context of literature, wisdom, skills, customs and traditions,
it has never been a ‘barren’ land, low level of literacy notwithstanding.

The local communities of Pakistan in general and of NWFP in

particular are dynamic and extrovert.

Geographic and climatic factors have never been human-friendly.

The resultant poverty, since centuries, has been forcing the locals to move,
both upward (towards Central Asia) and downward (towards the South East
Asia) for trade and livelihood.

Development of modern technology and information explosion has

opened new vistas of opportunities .Such a society keeps on enriching its
cultural values. Accelerated development and expansion of telecommunication
activities have also made great impact on the society.

2
LFA PMU data of Quranic literate. www.eef.org.pk

76
9.1.3. The locals have rich heritage of history and culture .Social values
are still followed inspite of much erosion due to modernization. Contributory
factors like reading knowledge of Quran, skills, values, oral expression and
above all interpersonal skills are some of the peculiar traits of NWFP. Since
centuries the Jirga (grand jury) has been a potent forum for conflict
management and resolution. The tradition of Jirga has enriched the oral skills
of locals. It also helps in learning logic and broader understanding of values,
customs and traditions. In nutshell the environment is quite conducive as far
as basic learning skills and learning contents are concerned. There are other
socio-economic and political factors which have been hampering the promotion
of literacy in NWFP.

Being a Third World country, having apparently stable but

uncertain dictatorial or quasi-democratic, resource-starved governments, what
options do we have? Should we keep on indulging in unending debate of setting
parameters and high benchmarks for literacy or avail whatever opportunities
are available to us?.

9.2. Various Aspects of Duration of Learning

9.2.1 Cost of Programme

Socio-economic situation of a country and the society has close
nexus with the duration of learning process.

In a resource-starved country like Pakistan, it is not only a

question of political will and priorities but availability of resources as well. An
increase of two months in duration of 4 months literacy course implies 1/3rd
increase in the cost of programme. Since lion-share goes to the LCs, therefore
an increase in duration of LCs means substantial increase in the cost of the
project. It becomes a question of political will to prioritise, and apportion, the
scarce resources accordingly.

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9.2.2 Availability of Learners for longer duration

Prolonged duration of LCs, such as 6-9 months, with 2-3 hours

daily class also entails problems of continuous interest and availability of
learners. While devising a comprehensive literacy programme, even if resources
are provided, this vital aspect should not be ignored. Social and economic
pressures keep on haunting the learners. Infact sparing 3 hours a day by the
learners is a great sacrifice. They do so at the cost of their personal time and
comfort. Rural females are subjected to 10 to 14 hours daily work. To establish
and operate thousands of literacy centres, an effective monitoring system is to
be developed as far as timings of LCs are concerned. Lessons learnt also
indicate that even four month period has to be rescheduled. Change in season,
working schedule and observance of religious rituals also affects the learners.
The month of Ramadan also warrants rescheduling of timings. Timings of LCs
are to be recorded and computerized as it is essential for effective monitoring.
Working season like sowing and harvesting of crops also affect the learners as
far as their availability is concerned. In a Province having 44% incidence of
poverty we have to deal with a fatigued and worried lot. Ensuring availability
and sustained interest of learners beyond 4-5 months and for prolonged period
of 6, 9 or 12 months is not only an issue of cost but availability of learners as
well.
These issues can not be tackled in isolation unless there is better
economy, a culture and environment of literacy besides respect and love for
acquisition of knowledge. While those engaged in literacy programmes cannot
alter the socio-economic environment, these realities cannot be ignored either.

The aim is not to question the usefulness of 6,9 or 12

months literacy programmes. No one can deny that in the world of 21st century
more time is required for functional literacy. At the same time it is better to
devise a programme with an affordable cost, so as to persuade the political
leadership to favour such programme and also ensure that bare minimum
standards of basic learning skills are attained. It is better to make a start and
strive for further betterment.

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 DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMER AND LEARNING MODULE

10.1 The purpose of discussion, in the preceding chapter, withregard to

duration of learning process, is not to give a definite time-frame for learning.
We are now equipped with worldwide feedback of various Literacy Primers.

Socio-economic environment of a particular society is an important

variable. However, for non-formal adult and adolescent literacy, the principles
with-regard to dealing with the learners can be generalized to some extent. It
would not be advisable to exactly adopt or replicate a particular learning
module due to variables such as socio-political environment and the language
barriers. It has to be adapted as per local requirements.

NWFP society has witnessed phenomenal social change during the

last 25 years. Majority of population is ‘Nazra’ literate (those who can read
Quran). Urdu, being national and media language, is widely understood. The
local population is dynamic and enterprising.

The electronic media and development of other communication

facilities have exposed the people of remote areas to cultural changes. Based on
experience of six Batches, having more than 37000 Literacy Centres in all the
24 districts of NWFP (60% female and 40% male), LFA project is now equipped
with the assessment reports of about 0.7 million learners. Feedback from the
teachers, supervisors, social organizers and sector directors has proved quite
useful in devising the primer and learning programme.

Socio-economic and political ground realities are to be taken into

consideration. Language barriers and the resultant difficulties in
understanding and learning have also been examined.

10.1.1. Keeping in view the existing Primer of LFA a learning module is

suggested. It is indicative only. In case of non-formal education rigid schedule
cannot be followed due to multiple extrinsic factors and the adult psyche. Even

79
prescribing a learning module is synonymous with ‘formalising’ a non-formal
mode of learning. Again it is upto the field staff to make changes and
reschedule the activities as per local requirements. We may have learners who
might be well-versed with the Urdu alphabets, while others quite adept in
numeracy. Observance of learning module may vary keeping in view the age,
gender and socio-economic status of learners. Level of motivation, teacher’s
training and dedication play vital role in accelerating the learning process.
Depending upon age, gender and socio-economic background the adult
learners are already “visually literate”. Without formal learning the
life- experience has taught them how to decipher various alphabets and digits.
Such learners quickly learn to read and write familiar words and digits.

10.2 INDICATIVE LEARNING MODULE

10.2.1 Based on LFA experience, and good practices learned from other
similar Institutions, the following indicative module is suggested. Field staff
may make adjustments as per local requirements. Factors such as delay in
start of an activity, extrinsic factors like natural disasters, logistic problems
and above all the result of learning assessment may warrant rescheduling and
readjustment of learning schedule.

10.2.2 LEARNING SCHEDULE

LEVEL-I
Motivation, Introduction of learning
Sub Level (i) Schedule. Duration
Introduction of Urdu alphabets, 15 days
various diagrams such as square,
Circle etc, size and colours of various objects.
Sub Level (ii)
Reading and identification of simple 10 days
Words comprising of 2 and 3 alphabets.
Writing practice in the Work Book.

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Sub Level (iii)
(a). Reading of words. 15 days
(b). Writing practice of words.
(On Work Book and Black-Board.)

LEVEL-2
Sub Level (i) (a) Reading Simple sentences
(b) Writing Simple sentences. 10 days
(c) Introduction to numeracy. (One hour daily)
(d) Reading and pronouncing 1 to 100.
Sub Level (ii) (a). Writing of words and learning dictation. 10days
(b). Reading and writing digits upto 100.
Concept of unit, ten and hundred.
Sub Level (iii) (a). Reading and Writing of simple passage.

(b) Simple calculations

(Addition / Subtraction). 20 days.

LEVEL-3
(a). Learning skills and learning contents. 25 days.
(b). Numeracy; Learning of simple multiplication and
division.

NET DAYS ... 105

NET HOURS @ 3 HOURS/DAY. 315 Hours.

10.2.3 CUSHION PERIOD

The above time schedule is by no means a rigid timeframe. A
cushion period of 30 days is meant to ensure completion of progress and
process of learning. It means that the learning process can be extended upto
390 net hours.

10.2.4. Learning contents

During the entire period the learners would be given lessons in

functional and social literacy by the teachers, community social motivators,

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supervisors and other visitors. There will be more emphasis on visits by the
members of CSO and other functionaries of the government departments and
the NGOs. Under LFA Project guidelines with regard to functional literacy have
been summarized in the Urdu Manual, “Functional and Social Literacy”1. The
learners can be motivated through participation in class activities and creating
an environment of creativity and discussion. There are certain aspects of
functional literacy such as religion, ethics, health and hygiene which are
common to all the areas, gender and even to age group. Keeping in view the
diversity of local environment, social evils, and other issues the districts may
prepare specific material for functional literacy. Broad guidelines for such
exercise and sub-projects have been given in the cited Urdu Manual1. Thus
functional literacy should be integral part of learning process.

10.3 PECULIARITIES OF A PRIMER

Currently more then 12 primers, developed by various institutions,

are being used in this country for adult and adolescent literacy.

UNESCO (Pakistan) has conducted a study to ascertain usefulness

of these primers with regard to learning. Literacy For All Project has also
devised a new primer. The final assessment of 0.7 million learners in five
batches and feedback from the supervisory, managerial and teaching staff has
proved valuable asset for devising a primer under the Literacy For All (LFA)
umbrella. Care has been taken to avoid errors, both of substance and method,
which have been elaborately pointed out in the UNESCO study report.
Literacy For All(LFA) is also at an advantageous position of
running, both male and female, literacy centres in all the 24 districts of NWFP.

In this Province apart from language barriers, the social barriers have to be
taken care off. In some of the districts the locals are more conservative and
sensitive to even minute violations of social norms.

1
Social and Functional Literacy Vol - I and Vol – II by Muhammad Mushtaq Jadoon Published under
PMU. LFA, NWFP 2006.

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10.3.1 Important aspects of Literacy Primer

(a). The primer should fulfil the bare minimum requirements of

definition of literacy including literacy skills and contents.
It is to be developed in the form of Work-Book. It has also been
observed that both teachers and the learners develop Work-Book “dependency
syndrome”. The result is minimum use of black-board for sharpening reading
and writing skills. With a view to encourage use of blackboard and additional
writing skills, extra words are to be provided in the footnote on each page of
Urdu Books. The purpose is to enhance the vocabulary and writing skills of
learners. Exercises are to be provided and practised to enhance the vocabulary,
thinking process and learning skills of learners. The whole learning process
should be activity-based.

(b) Duration of learning

Time is the most limiting factor in devising a Primer. In fact it is a
race against time and resources. Extended learning period not only requires
continuous motivation of learners to spare their precious time but more
resources are also required. The primer should be designed in a way that it
ensures attainment of required literacy in the shortest possible time. At the
same time it should provide a sound foundation for developing literacy skills. It
should not subject the learners, un-necessarily, to mental stress. Its contents,
apart from other considerations, should be in conformity with the learning
schedule.

(c). Adolescent and adult psyche

In an ideal situation the learners should be segregated according to

the age group. It entails administrative and financial problems as separate L.Cs
are required for various age groups of learners.

The first priority should be 9-25 years of age group while second
priority may be 26-39 years of age group. Female learners, irrespective of age
group, are to be given first priority. A primer should be interesting and akin to
both adolescent and adults.

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 (d). Social suitability
In a conservative and highly religious society like NWFP it is the
most sensitive aspect. Minor errors, both of fact and judgment, may lead to
derailment of entire literacy programme. Since separate primers can not be
developed for male and female learners, due to cost and administrative factors,
therefore one should keep in mind the gender as well as age-wise suitability of
Primer.
Words, sentences or photographs which are against the social
norms of local society are to be avoided.

(e). Linguistic considerations

Some of the areas of NWFP are bilingual. Pashto speaker’s
comprehension of Urdu is slow as compared to Hindku speaker’s.
Certain words and alphabets of Urdu are quite strange to Pashto
speaking population. More efforts are required in correcting the pronunciation
of ‘P’ and ‘F’ as both are interchangeably pronounced by the Pashto speakers.
Similarly correct Urdu grammar for male and female gender should be focused
in case of learners for whom Urdu is an alien language.

(f). Gender-wise utility

It should also take care of life interests of both male and female
learners.
In case of literacy contents (values etc) aspects like religion,
culture and morality are common both for male and female. Other practical
aspects such as developing skills of writing petitions and business transactions
in case of male and farming, kitchen, gardening, letter writing etc, for female
are to be taken care off.

(g). Religious aspect.

A Primer should take care of religious sensitivities of all the
religions including minorities. For a religious society like NWFP inclusion of
basic learning contents relating to Islam would promote motivation and interest
of learners.

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 (h). Literacy Contents
Inspite of comprehensiveness, a primer cannot encompass all the
aspects with-regard to literacy contents and functional Literacy. However
certain social aspects such as customs and traditions can be briefly discussed.

(i). Territorial aspect

Strange ideas would only confuse the learners. Subjects such as
social, environmental and economic issues which are of interest to the learners
of a particular area would further generate the interest of learners in reading
and understanding the contents of the Primer. Local words from local
languages can be incorporated. Such words create and enhance familiarity of
learners with the primer. Teachers can translate difficult Urdu words in local
language.

The contents of primer, specially at advance stage of learning,

should be of interest to both the rural and urban learners as well as learners
having varied social background.

Keeping in view these limitations a separate manual in Urdu

language under the caption of, “Functional and Social Literacy” has been
developed under the LFA Project. Community Social Motivators (CSM) have
been trained for promoting functional literacy among the learners.

Size of primer is a limiting factor. Interaction with the learners

indicates that a primer just provides a guideline and direction towards
developing basic learning competencies. To generate interest, as per age,
gender and socio-economic background of the learners, teachers are to be
trained in developing familiar words which are of interest to the learners.

In nutshell primer is a broader guideline for learning and the

teachers are required to adopt innovative learning techniques instead of solely
relying on the contents of primer.

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 LITERACY MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (LMIS)

11.1 NEED FOR A DATABASE

11.1.1 The first stage of planning in LMIS is the diagnosis of existing

situation with particular reference to number of indicators. In relation to
planning for non-formal literacy, situation at the macro (Country / Provincial
level) and micro (District and Village) level is to be diagnosed. This is achieved
by considering both time-series (data collected at more or less regular interval
of time e.g. census data) and cross-sectional data (data which is collected at
one point of time). The data, so collected may be quantitative (data which can
be represented numerically) as well as qualitative (the data which can not be
expressed numerically) in nature. The diagnosis exercise would help us to
evolve appropriate strategy to tackle the problems and improve the existing
position. This exercise may be based on both secondary and primary sources
i.e. data generated through surveys and census. For clear understanding of the
existing situation it would be proper to develop a database which may include
information on a variety of variables both from formal and non-formal sectors
of education. The basic demographic information so collected will be used to
compute a variety of indicators, such as, sex ratio, density of population and
annual rate of growth of population which can be of help at the time of
formulation of plan at different levels of planning. Under the literacy
programme, both literates and illiterates, over a period of time in different age-
groups and educational level of literates need to be thoroughly analyzed. The
literates in various age cohort are linked to corresponding population so that
areas having more illiterate population could be identified. While collecting
information, its likely use should be decided well in advance. Collection of
information would be linked to objectives of developing database.

11.1.2 Though the specific focus of planning in the present context is

literacy, yet it is necessary to collect information on primary education because
primary schooling and literacy programmes are complementary to each other.

86
The efficiency of primary education system is directly related to the depth and
magnitude of the problem of illiteracy. Such information can be obtained from
educational surveys conducted from time to time. It is to be followed by
collection of information on availability of infrastructural facilities. Other
important information related to schools might be enrolment and attendance
pattern and pattern of dropout at different levels of schooling. While collecting
such type of information, our focus should be on diagnosing the existing
situation instead of producing status reports.

Once the diagnosis is over, the next stage of planning will be review
of past plans, programmes and policies with respect to adult literacy. This can
be done by using both qualitative as well as quantitative analysis and by
considering both government as well as non-governmental programmes at
macro and micro levels. Based on the diagnosis of the existing situation it
would be easy to identify areas where more out-of-school children and
illiterates are concentrated. Intervention through innovative programmes in
these areas are required.

For effective monitoring sound Management Information System

(MIS) is required. Implementation of literacy programme requires integration of
existing information so that it can become a decision support system at
different levels of planning.

11.2. OBJECTIVES OF LITERACY MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (LMIS)

11.2.1 Broad Objective of LMIS are:-

• To Collect data from different sources and create a system to facilitate

decision making.
• Collect, store, analyze and publish the data.
• Provide reliable and timely data and information for decision-making.
• To aggregate different database and integrate them into a system (i.e. data
collected from different sources would be consolidated into a system )
• Prepare and disseminate aggregate statistics.

87
 • Get feedback information at village, district/Sector and project level so as
to improve the quality of the programme.
• Provide information that would help project functionaries set norms and
standards for performance and achievement indicators and the criteria for
success and failure.
• Provide periodic and timely feedback to measure the progress of a
programme.
• Identify problems which require solutions.
• Facilitate record-keeping and institutional memory..
• Use LMIS for measurement and analysis.
• Facilitate reporting and recommendation.
• Facilitate evaluation and follow up actions.
• Data of children of under 10 years of age.

11.2.2 To meet the above objectives the following database (data about
given entities) need to be developed and integrated.

• Population and age-group of literates and illiterates in the Country /

Province /District /Union Council/ village and its analysis. This data will
be used for need assessment.
• Tribes and Communities in the District/Sector and Sub-sector/Union
Council/Village.
• Data with-regard to causes of low literacy. It may include existing, or
otherwise, infrastructure facilities, economic (poverty) and social factors
(insensitivity or gender bias).
• Number of literacy centres(LCs) already existing in Sector/District/Sub-
sector/cluster or village.
• Number of illiterates willing to be enlisted as learners.
• Number of learners to be enrolled.
• Number of LCs needed in difference regions.
• Logistic arrangements. Feasibility of LCs to be established in government
schools and other buildings. Arrangement of private buildings and
provision of black boards etc.
• Current strength of teachers and future requirements.

88
 • Dropout rate from formal school system.
• Dropout of LCs.
• Dropout of Learners.
• Timings of LCs (Morning / Evening). Data creation and arrangement for
monitoring.
• Change in timings of LCs.
• Data of supervisory and managerial staff.
• Staff trainings.
• Monitoring (visits reports etc.). Sector Returns (SRs) for various levels are to
be developed.
• Process and Progress of learning.
• Learners age, marital status and profession etc.
• Gender grouping.
• Teachers qualifications, age, marital status etc.
• Learners average attendance.

11.3. PECULIARITIES OF LITERACY MANAGEMENT INFORMATION

SYSTEM (LMIS)

LMIS is very vital for enhancing efficiency of a new institution.

Keeping in view the size and scope of literacy programme, LMIS has certain
peculiarities. Some of the peculiarities of LMIS are:

11.3.1 Size of Data / Information

¾ To keep track of huge data about:-

• Literates and illiterates in the area covered by the project and non-project
area for comparison and analysis.
• Formal and non formal schools including elementary to higher level. Again
it is vital to analyze functioning of schools with regards to enrolment and
drop-out at various levels.
• Existing infrastructure (schools, roads, electricity, telephones etc.)

89
 ¾ Activities and sub-activities

Data to be handled and stored is massive because of large number of

activities for each batch. The following activities are performed for each batch:-
• Need assessment.
• Identification of clusters having prospective learners.
• Identification of location and accommodation for establishing LCs.
• Creation of CSO and its composition with full details of members.
• Name and code for new LCs.
• Timing of LCs and keeping track of changes in the timings due to weather
and working season.
• Recruitment of teachers.
• Advertisements for teacher’s recruitment.
• Scrutiny of applications and short-listing for interviews.
• Interviews and selection of teachers.
• Maintaining reserve pool of teachers.
• Training schedule of teachers.
• Deletion/closing of LCs (non functional).
• Logistic support such as arrangement and provision of books, pencils,
erasers, sharpeners, blackboards, chalk, attendance register, related
Sector Return/Records (SRs), inspection book, for filing of report and
maintaining records.
• Complete and updated LCs record with timings.
• Location of LCs. Government buildings / private accommodation.
• List of learners with complete data such as gender, age, marital status,
economic status, profession etc.
• Monthly assessment and final passing out data.

¾ Activities during the currency of batch

• Monitoring reports on weekly , fortnightly and monthly basis to

assess progress and process of learning.
• Special situation reports and inquiry reports.
• Dropout of LCs.

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 • Dropout of Learners.
• Teacher’s resignation and replacement from reserve pool of teachers.
• Removal of various staff and their replacements.

¾ Publicity Campaign to
• Motivate Learners.
• Creation of mass awareness.

¾ Monthly Assessment of learners

¾ Occurrence of un-planned events and rescheduling of activities

Apart from cited planned activities certain unplanned activities may also
emerge such as;
• Changes in Questionnaire, (SRs) or other sources for input.
• Changes in the plan of supervision of LCs.
• Un-expected changes due to natural disasters, law and order situation
and the resultant rescheduling of activities.
• Rescheduling of activities due to non-completion of course, slow learning
process, changes in the timings of LCs due to weather, season, working
season or religious activities such as Ramadan.
• Changes due to dropout or induction of new learners or relocation of LCs.
• Replacement of teachers.

LMIS should be designed in a way that it easily accepts new changes

in the structure of an organization.

11.3.2. Developing LMIS

In developing LMIS, System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) has to
be followed.
Generally there are two different scenarios in developing MIS.
a. A system exists, bad or good, manual or computerized and the
management wishes to reform it.
b. There is no system, a new organization is created and system is to be
developed.

91
 In the first case it is somewhat easy to create a new MIS because
the problems in the old system are already known to us. The Programmer
(System Analyst) can identify the requirements and problems using different
tools. But in case of creating a new institution no previous working system
exists, or at least the System Analyst can not follow the flow of data to analyze
the system.

11.3.2.1 Designing (planning using different tools) of the LMIS will be

performed keeping in view the following:

¾ Reporting indicators , Parameters , level of Reporting and frequency

Prior to designing LMIS, objectives should be clearly spelt-out. In

the light of objectives, requirement analysis, parameters and indicators
(progress, process, and impact) reports are to be designed.

11.3.2.2. Indicators and Parameters

The indicators or parameters to adjudge the overall process in

LMIS are:-
• Literates and illiterates in the Country / Province /District /Union
council or village level.
• LCs requirements for different regions.
• Number of LCs in Sector/District/Sub-sector/Cluster or village.
• Gender requirements.
• Requirement of teachers with bare minimum qualifications.
• Dropout of LCs.
• Dropout of Learners.

¾ Monitoring
• Progress and Process of Learning.
• Timings and attendance of teachers.
• Final assessment.
• Need assessment for new batch.

92
 • Learner’s age wise groups.
• Gender analysis.
• Marital and social status of learners.
• Related information ( location, timings of LC )

11.3.3. LEVELS OF REPORTS

Different reports will be generated at different levels of project for

various levels of management.

The top management needs concise but broader view of the

organization. The reports must indicate whether the overall objectives are being
achieved and with what cost, efficiency and impact. The LMIS is to be
developed in such a way that the top management is kept informed about the
progress and process of the objectives. In literacy projects less space, with
regard to time, is available to the management.

ƒ The loss of both time and resources is irreparable. An efficient system

of MIS is an on-going evaluation. It helps the management not only to
devise strategy for the subsequent batches but also initiate prompt
corrective measures.

ƒ Supervisors and managers are hard pressed as they have to monitor

the activities on weekly, fortnightly and monthly basis. The managers,
have to give continuous guidance to the executing staff on almost daily
basis. Short duration, spread and multiplicity of activities warrants not
only effective monitoring but prompt remedial measures.
ƒ In literacy programmes each activity is interlinked and dependent upon
the other. There are many sub-activities within a particular activity. For
example in teachers training routine reports are collected from teachers. On
the basis of continuous feedback, training module is reshaped, assessment of
logistic support, and relocation of LC and change in timings of LCs are made
on the basis of feed-back from the teachers.

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11.3.3.1. Data Collection
Two types of data is to be collected:

11.3.3.1.1 Data from External Sources or Secondary Data

This type of data is collected from an another MIS external to the

organization i.e.
ƒ Governmental organizations.
ƒ Non-Government organizations.
ƒ International organizations.
ƒ Research papers, reports and publications.

11.3.3.2 Primary Data

It is the data created or collected by the organization. This type of

data is collected in literacy programmes in short intervals.

Primary data include household survey, gender survey, Third Party

Validation, identification of learners, teachers and identification of locations for
Literacy Centers. Related information such as composition of community, tribe,
professions, socio-political environment and availability of infrastructure
facilities can also be collected as primary data.

¾ Frequency of Reporting

Frequency of reports depends upon the level of report and

objectives of the report. Such reports may be monthly, fortnightly, weekly or on
daily basis.

11.3.3.3. Training for Data Collection

Collection of data is not an end in itself. It is not a mechanical

process. The aims and objectives should be clear. Training is to be conducted
with regard to tools and techniques of data collection on regular intervals.

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11.3.3.4. Use of Database

The database so generated can be used to convert information into

a variety of indicators, which would help the planners and project managers to
take prompt decisions.

As the database, grows, the same can be used to judge the

progress of programme with particular reference to:-
• Literacy/literates/illiterates.
• Out-of-school children population.
• Number of literacy centers.
• Number of learners and enrolment.
• Drop-out rate over a period of time.
• Capacity building of teachers.
• Learning progress and process.
• Average monthly attendance.
• Number of districts/sub-sectors according to literacy levels.
• Information on teaching-learning material.

Such data is not only useful for the organization as an effective

management tool but other related institutions can also benefit from it. Proper
documentation is not only essential for evaluation of programmes but also vital
for launching future programmes.

95
 LIST OF ANNEXURES

Annex Page
Annexure Title
No. No.
I District-wise Literacy in NWFP 108

II District-wise Female Literacy Rate of Distt. of NWFP 109

III District-wise Male Literacy Rate of Districts of NWFP 110

District-wise Population, Land holding and Land Utilization

IV 111
Statistics in NWFP.

V Age Group wise Population of NWFP. 112

VI 113
District-wise Population of NWFP.

VII Districtwise area of NWFP (In Descending Order). 114

VIII Districtwise Details of Quranic Literates. 115

96
 Annexure-I
District-wise Literacy in NWFP
(in descending order)

Literacy
District
S.No Rate 10+
NWFP 35%
1 Abbottabad 57
2 Haripur 54
3 Kohat 44
4 Nowshera 43
5 Karak 42
6 Peshawar 42
7 Chitral 40
8 Malakand 40
9 Mardan 36
10 Mansehra 36
11 Swabi 36
12 Bannu 32
13 D.I.Khan 31
14 Charsadda 31
15 Hangu 31
16 Dir-Lower 30
17 Lakki Marwat 30
18 Swat 29
19 Tank 26
20 Bunair 23
21 Dir-Upper 21
22 Battagram 18
23 Shangla 15
24 Kohistan 11

97
 Annexure-II
District-wise Female Literacy Rate of Distt. of NWFP
(in descending order)

Literacy
District
S.No (%)
NWFP 19
1 Abbottabad 39
2 Haripur 37
3 Peshawar 26
4 Kohat 24
5 Malakand 23
6 Mansehra 23
7 Nowshahra 23
8 Chitral 22
9 Mardan 19
10 Swabi 18
11 Bannu 18
12 D.I Khan 18
13 Charsadda 14
14 Swat 14
15 Dir-Lower 12
16 Karak 12
17 Hangu 10
18 Lakki Marwat 9
19 Tank 9
20 Bunair 8
21 Battagram 7
22 Dir-Upper 6
23 Shangla 4
24 Kohistan 3
Source:

98
 Annexure-III

District Wise Male Literacy Rate Of NWFP

(In descending order)
Literacy
S.No District
Male
(%)
IV NWFP 51.39
1 Abbottabad 74.52
2 Haripur 70.45
3 Karak 68.15
4 Kohat 65.00
5 Nowshera 60.55
6 Chitral 58.02
7 Peshawar 55.94
8 Malakand 55.21
9 Swabi 53.99
10 Mardan 53.50
11 Hangu 53.48
12 Mansehra 50.90
13 Bannu 50.79
14 Lakki Marwat 50.32
15 Dir-Lower 48.76
16 Charsadda 46.92
17 D.I. Khan 43.19
18 Swat 43.16
19 Tank 42.44
20 Bunair 38.18
21 Dir-Upper 36.10
22 Battagram 29.40
23 Shangla 25.16
24 Kohistan 17.23

Source:
* Population Census 1998. Population Census Organization, Statistics Division

99
 Annexure-IV

Districtwise Poulation, Land Holding and Land Utilization Statistics

Irrigated
Fellow % age of Density of
Total Fellow Irrigated %age of Culturable
Name of Population Area in %age of Unirrgated unarrigated Population
S.No. Cultivated %Age Area Area in Total Waste in
District in Million Sq. Km cultivated Area area of per
in Sq. Km in Sq.Km Sq. Km Cultivated Sq. Km
area Total Cul. Sq. Km
Area

1 D.I.khan 1.054 7326 380.42 5.2 212.22 55.78 229.95 60.45 150.47 39.55 575.86 144
2 Tank 0.294 1679 79.93 4.8 62.60 78.32 14.03 17.56 65.89 82.44 101.99 175
3 Bannu 0.837 1227 119.30 9.7 16.24 13.61 77.22 64.73 42.08 35.27 25.96 682
4 L.Marwat 0.606 3164 188.17 5.9 89.86 47.75 58.41 31.04 129.76 68.96 138.28 192
5 Karak 0.533 3372 121.40 3.6 55.93 46.07 2.98 2.45 118.42 97.55 22.42 158
6 Kohat 0.696 2545 114.59 4.5 72.49 63.26 26.93 23.50 87.65 76.50 53.11 273
7 Hangu 0.389 1097 44.14 4.0 30.64 69.41 8.63 19.55 35.51 80.45 19.31 355
8 Peshawer 2.495 1257 127.02 10.1 2.63 2.07 124.19 97.77 2.83 2.23 31.62 1985
9 Charsada 1.263 996 136.95 13.7 21.11 15.41 117.49 85.79 19.46 14.21 1.75 1268
10 Nowshera 1.080 1748 84.56 4.8 35.29 41.73 40.16 47.49 44.41 52.51 73.52 618
11 Mardan 1.805 1632 181.67 11.1 60.81 33.47 128.00 70.46 53.67 29.54 5.16 1106
12 Swabi 1.269 1543 140.09 9.1 29.39 20.98 57.00 40.69 83.10 59.31 42.86 822
14 Dir(U) 0.712 3699 67.20 1.8 10.20 15.17 35.83 53.32 31.37 46.68 1.05 192
15 Dir(L) 1.080 1583 71.52 4.5 9.73 13.60 65.98 92.25 5.54 7.75 1.09 682
16 Chitral 0.394 14850 36.30 0.2 2.03 5.60 33.69 92.83 2.60 7.17 5.94 27
17 Swat 1.555 5337 157.82 3.0 11.24 7.12 139.73 88.53 18.10 11.47 129.18 291
18 Shangla 0.538 1586 66.81 4.2 2.94 4.40 4.94 7.40 61.87 92.60 79.78 339
19 Bunair 0.625 1865 89.21 4.8 2.92 3.27 25.54 28.63 63.67 71.37 8.98 335
20 Abbottabad 1.089 1967 88.91 4.5 9.73 10.94 11.33 12.74 77.58 87.26 33.34 554
21 Haripur 0.855 1725 123.93 7.2 5.13 4.14 52.83 42.63 71.11 57.37 46.15 496
22 Mansehra 1.425 4579 129.96 2.8 16.56 12.74 32.82 25.26 97.13 74.74 28.49 311
23 Battagram 0.379 1301 38.90 3.0 3.16 8.12 7.94 20.41 30.97 79.59 43.05 291
24 Kohistan 0.585 7492 59.14 0.8 12.62 21.34 42.37 71.64 16.77 28.36 188.70 78
Total 21.56 74522 2647.96 0.0 775.45 1337.98 1309.97 1657.60

100
 Age group-wise Population Projection upto 2015, by Pop. Projection formula
TOTAL
YEAR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
POPULATION
0--4 5--9 10--14 15--19 20--24 25--29 30--34 35--39 40+
1998 2.89 3.02 2.47 1.87 1.46 1.19 0.98 0.74 3.12 17.75
1999 2.97 3.10 2.54 1.92 1.50 1.22 1.01 0.76 3.21 18.24
2000 3.05 3.19 2.61 1.98 1.54 1.26 1.04 0.78 3.30 18.75
2001 3.14 3.28 2.68 2.03 1.59 1.29 1.06 0.80 3.39 19.27
2002 3.23 3.37 2.76 2.09 1.63 1.33 1.09 0.83 3.48 19.81
2003 3.32 3.47 2.84 2.15 1.68 1.37 1.13 0.85 3.58 20.37
2004 3.41 3.56 2.92 2.21 1.72 1.40 1.16 0.87 3.68 20.94
2005 3.51 3.66 3.00 2.27 1.77 1.44 1.19 0.90 3.79 21.52
2006 3.60 3.77 3.08 2.33 1.82 1.48 1.22 0.92 3.89 22.13
2007 3.71 3.87 3.17 2.40 1.87 1.53 1.26 0.95 4.00 22.75
2008 3.81 3.98 3.26 2.46 1.92 1.57 1.29 0.98 4.11 23.38
2009 3.92 4.09 3.35 2.53 1.98 1.61 1.33 1.00 4.23 24.04
2010 4.03 4.21 3.44 2.60 2.03 1.66 1.37 1.03 4.35 24.71
2011 4.14 4.32 3.54 2.68 2.09 1.70 1.40 1.06 4.47 25.40
2012 4.25 4.45 3.64 2.75 2.15 1.75 1.44 1.09 4.59 26.11
2013 4.37 4.57 3.74 2.83 2.21 1.80 1.48 1.12 4.72 26.84
2014 4.50 4.70 3.84 2.91 2.27 1.85 1.52 1.15 4.85 27.60
2015 4.62 4.83 3.95 2.99 2.33 1.90 1.57 1.18 4.99 28.37

101
 Annexure-VI
District-wise Population of NWFP
(in descending order)
Population
S.No District
(In Million)
1 Peshawar 2.495
2 Mardan 1.805
3 Swat 1.555
4 Mansehra 1.425
5 Swabi 1.269
6 Charsadda 1.263
7 Abbottabad 1.089
8 Nowshahra 1.080
9 Dir-Lower 1.080
10 D.I Khan 1.054
11 Haripur 0.855
12 Bannu 0.837
13 Dir-Upper 0.712
14 Kohat 0.696
15 Bunair 0.625
16 Lakki Marwat 0.606
17 Kohistan 0.585
18 Malakand 0.559
19 Shangla 0.538
20 Karak 0.533
21 Chitral 0.394
22 Hangu 0.389
23 Battagram 0.379
24 Tank 0.294
Total 22.12
Source:
* Population Cencus 1998. Population Census
Organization Statistical Division

102
 Annexure-VII
District-wise Area of NWFP (In Sq. Km)
(in descending order)
Area
S.No District % age
(In Sq. Km)
1 Chitral 14850 20
2 Kohistan 7492 10
3 D.I Khan 7326 10
4 Swat 5337 7
5 Mansehra 4579 6
6 Dir-Upper 3699 5
7 Karak 3372 5
8 Lakki Marwat 3164 4
9 Kohat 2545 3
10 Abbottabad 1967 3
11 Bunair 1865 3
12 Nowshera 1748 2
13 Haripur 1725 2
14 Tank 1679 2
15 Mardan 1632 2
16 Shangla 1586 2
17 Dir-Lower 1583 2
18 Swabi 1543 2
19 Battagram 1301 2
20 Peshawar 1257 2
21 Bannu 1227 2
22 Hangu 1097 1
23 Charsadda 996 1
24 Malakand 952 1
Total 74522 100
* Population Cencus 1998. Population Organization, Statistics Division

103
 Annexure-VIII

Districtwise Details of Quranic Literate (Batch-4)

Total
Nazira Literate Total
No. of
S.No Sector No. of %age
Nazira
Male Female Learners
Literate

1 D I Khan/Tank 3338 4836 8174 15048 54

2 Bannu /Lakki 2279 1880 4159 6458 64

3 Karak 1547 2350 3897 6634 59

4 Kohat/Hangu 1923 375 2298 10546 22

5 Peshawar 2151 2405 4556 7714 59

6 Charsada/Nowshera 5205 8862 14067 19270 73

7 Mardan/Swabi 3726 6487 10213 12879 79

8 Malakand 648 2026 2674 6220 43

9 Dir(U/L) 3438 3763 7201 13504 53

10 Chitral 1124 2433 3557 7942 45

11 Swat/Shangla 3925 3642 7567 17226 44

12 Bunir 2315 1982 4297 7882 55

13 Abotabad/Haripur 1781 8672 10453 16675 63

14 Mansehra 2017 7605 9622 13325 72

15 Batagram/Kohistan 2155 1291 3446 7155 48

Overall 37572 58609 96181 168478 57

104