CRRS 105
World Civilization II
Lecture 5
Empires, Conquest of the Americas
Reading: Robert B. Marks. The Origins of the Modern World, pp. 67-83
© Dr. Francis Chan
The World 1500-1750
• After 1500 – the whole world linked: a) New World linked via
Atlantic to Europe & Africa after the 1492 voyage of Columbus; b)
New World linked via Pacific to China after 1571 Spanish
conquest of Philippines → exchange of commodities, ideas,
people, foods, diseases => first globalization
• Continued growth & vitality of empires in Eurasia – the most
successful political & economic form
• Growth of sovereign states in Europe – a process linked to war:
late 1700s - Britain emerged as top of the European state system.
• ‘Global Crisis’ of 17th century: ‘Little Ice Age’ interacted with wars
& civil wars → population decrease
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Empire
• Empire = ‘major political unit in which the metropolis, or single
sovereign authority, exercises control over territory of great extent
or a number of territories or peoples through formal annexations
or various forms of informal domination.’
(https://www.britannica.com/topic/empire-political-science)
• Dramatic expansion of empires from 1500 => end of role of
nomadic warriors
• By 1775 – all of Eurasia except far west of Europe was under
empires.
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Eurasian Empires
• Russia: 1550-1800 -- quadrupled in size, with military conquests
of Ivan IV (the Terrible, r. 1533-1584), Peter the Great (r. 1682-
1725), Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
• China: longest tradition of empire – from 221BCE to 1912CE,
despite periods of disintegration & foreign rule.
– From 1600s: political decay of Míng allowed Manchus to invade
and establish Qīng dynasty (1644–1912)
– Qīng defeated surrounding non-Chinese peoples – Mongols,
Muslim Uighurs, Tibetans – doubling territory (though mostly
mountains & desserts)
– Tribute trade system → direct & indirect influence over East Asia
& SEA
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Expansion of Russia, formation of the
Soviet Union (USSR)
Soviet Union: 1922-1991
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Mughal, Safavid, Ottoman empires
Similarities:
• All 3 shared Turkic roots. Turkic people = originally nomadic – then
gathered military strength & technology and conquered densely
populated agricultural areas: Mughal dynasty (1526-1857) in northern
India, Safavid dynasty (1501-1736) in Persia, Ottomans (1299-1922) in
Anatolia, then conquered Mediterranean, Balkans & Middle East—
Constantinople taken in 1453, becoming Istanbul.
• All 3 dynasties embraced Islam: Ottomans = Sunni, Safavids = Shite,
Mughals = tolerant of all, including Hindus. Ottomans & Safavids
clashed.
• Political & economic structures:
- dynasties carried on by sons & supported by bureaucracy posted
throughout empire (similar to China)
- Agricultural surplus – tax peasants & landowners
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Dynamics of Empire
• Despite ups & downs, Asian empires were expansive & successful
in organizing political economies 1500-1750: mobilize resources in
their control to extend power of ruling dynasty to new areas
Austria-Hungary empire
• All empires except Russia were
established by conquerors from the
steppes (nomads) => threat from
nomads diminished (though there
could still be revolts)
• Effective in ruling large areas with
different languages & cultures
under one person (emperor)—but
with local officials ruling regions
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Empires in the Americas
• Americas first settled around 20,000 years ago via Bering Land Bridge
during the last Ice Age→ thousands of ethnic groups & languages
Main empires around 1500 (just before
Spanish conquest):
• Aztec (present-day Mexico): ruled over
25 million people; capital at
Tenochtitlán – ruled neighboring tribes
through terror: extracted tributes &
performed human sacrifice
• Inca (present-day Peru): mountain
empire with common language –
Quechua; ruled over 16 million people
but no written language & no use of
money
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Aztec conquest by Spanish
• Aztec empire conquered by 600 Spanish warriors led by Hernán Cortés
- Arrived in 1519 hearing stories of vast amounts of gold → made allies
with groups opposed to Aztecs
- Aztec emperor Moctezuma II believed Cortes was a returning god →
sent him gold
- Smallpox killed half the population of Tenochtitlán by 1520 →
demoralized Aztecs
- Cortes attacked and captured the capital Tenochtitlán in 1521
Spanish Aztecs
Steel swords & armor, crossbow Stone & wood weapons, cloth armor
Cannons & firearms --
Horses --
Fought to kill & conquer territory Fought for honor when equally matched
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Inca conquest by Spanish
• Inca empire conquered by small band led by Francisco Pizarro of > 100
Spanish fighters + 500-600 natives allies
- Inca population already decimated by smallpox
- Pizarro forged alliances with subjugated native peoples
- Exploited rival claimants to the throne
- Defeated last ruler, Emperor Atahualpa, through trickery & cruelty:
captured him and accepted huge ransom but killed him
Impact of European colonization of the Americas:
• Native Americans defeated, though resistance continued through the
centuries
• Native population largely replaced with Europeans & Africans in the
following centuries
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The Columbian Exchange & The Great Dying
Conquest of Americas → global exchange of peoples, natural
products, foodstuffs & diseases
• Spread of crops from New World to Old World: maize (corn),
potato, sweet potato, tomato, chilli → enrich diets – greater variety
of foods → increase in population
• Old World people have some immunity to diseases e.g. smallpox,
chicken pox, measles, cholera, malaria, influenza -- spread to
New World → 80-90% of native American population died within
first century of contact with Europeans
• + oppression & forced labor by European conquerors, wars among
native tribes, depression → the Great Dying, e.g: in Mexico: 25
million in 1519 → 2.7 million in 1570 → 750,000 in 1620 =>
population down to 3% within one century!
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The Great Plundering
• Europeans in search of riches (originally looking to Indian Ocean
trade) ‘discovered’ the Americas by accident.
• Found gold & silver in the Americas → plundered from Aztec &
Inca empires – brought back to Europe
• Discovery of huge silver deposits e.g. in Potosí in 1545 →
thousands of tons of silver, mined & processed by native
American workers → in 3 centuries - 8 million (70% of all workers)
native Americans died from mercury poisoning & hard labor
• 1503-1660: 32 million pounds of silver (half from Potosí) &
360,000 pounds of gold exported out of the Americas – to
where??
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Native American gold & silver crafts
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The
Columbian
Exchange
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Collapse of Spanish Empire
• With huge new-found wealth, Spanish tried to create a Catholic
empire in western Europe by defeating other European powers.
• But: British & French resisted → war after war fought between
Spain and Britain, France & Netherlands → despite huge riches
from New World, Spain went bankrupt.
• 1588: British defeated Spanish Armada of 130 ships.
• Thirty Years' War (1618–1648): a wide & devastating intra-Europe
war → Spain defeated.
• In the Americas, the Spanish were defeated by other European
powers.
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China’s demand for silver
• Portuguese in Indian Ocean & South China Sea had little to offer
for trading (→ practiced armed trading).
• Silver stumbled upon by Spanish = key to European trade in Asia.
• Silver flowed to Europe but ended up in hands of Dutch arms
merchants and English & Italian financiers → Dutch & English
used new silver wealth to finance trade missions to Asia & China.
• 1571: Spanish captured Manila (Philippines) → send loads of
silver from Mexico to China via Manila: 1500-1800 – ¾ of all silver
from Americas ended up in China – high value there but low value
in Americas.
• China = engine of early modern world economy: ‘no China – no
Potosí’
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Asia remains primary
• 1500-1800: bulk of world’s population, economic activity, trade =
Asian, though Europe increasing
• Asian proportion of world population: 1500 = 60%, 1800 = 67%
• 1775: 80% of everything produced in the world was in Asia =>
Asian economies = most productive.
• Chinese & Indian manufactured goods were more
competitive than European goods in price & quality.
E.g: - Chinese silk in New World –> China poblana
until now the national dress of Mexico
- 1700s: Indian textiles so successful in Britain &
France that local European textile producers called
for a boycott = trade restrictions
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