Ancient Philosophy Medieval Philosophy

Socrates and Plato St. Augustine of Hippo

• Pre-Socratics (e.g., Thales, Pythagoras, • Combined Plato’s dualism with Christian
Parmenides, Heraclitus, Empedocles) doctrine.
o Focused on explaining the nature • Believed that man has a bifurcated
of change, permanence, and unity nature:
in the world.
o Body – imperfect, mortal, belongs
o Sought rational explanations to the physical world.
beyond mythology.
o Soul – capable of immortality and
• Socrates communion with God.
o Considered the first philosopher to • The goal of human life is to achieve
systematically question the nature divine communion through virtuous living.
of the self.
St. Thomas Aquinas
o Believed that the true task of a
• Integrated Aristotle’s philosophy into
philosopher is to know oneself.
Christian thought.
o Advocated for the examined life,
• Proposed that man is composed of:
asserting that an unexamined life
is not worth living. o Matter (hyle) – physical substance
shared with animals.
o Proposed dualism, stating that
every person is composed of body o Form (morphe) – essence that
(imperfect, impermanent) and makes a human uniquely human.
soul (perfect, permanent).
• Defined the soul as the principle that
• Plato animates the body.
o Built on Socrates’ ideas,
reinforcing dualism (body and
soul).
o Introduced the three components
of the soul:
1. Rational soul – governed
by reason and intellect.
2. Spirited soul – associated
with emotions.
3. Appetitive soul –
responsible for base
desires (e.g., eating,
drinking, sleeping, sexual
activities).
o Argued that a just and virtuous
life is attained when the rational
soul governs, keeping the other
two in check.
Modern Philosophy Contemporary Philosophy
René Descartes Gilbert Ryle
• Father of Modern Philosophy. • Rejected Cartesian Dualism.
• Emphasized doubt as a method of • Asserted that the self is not an inner,
inquiry. separate entity.
• Argued that self-existence is • Argued that the self is best understood
undeniable: through behavior.
o Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, • Used the "University Analogy":
therefore I am").
o Searching for the "self" is like
• Defined the self as a combination of: looking for the "university" beyond
its physical components.
1. Cogito (mind) – the thinking entity.
o The self is just the sum of
2. Extenza (body) – an extension of the
behaviors and actions.
mind, a mere machine.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
• Asserted that the essence of a human is
the mind, not the body. • A phenomenologist who dismissed mind-
body dualism.
David Hume
• Argued that:
• A radical empiricist who rejected
traditional notions of the self. o The mind and body are
intertwined.
• Argued that the self is not a single
entity, but a bundle of impressions. o All experiences are embodied –
there is no purely mental or purely
o Impressions – direct, vivid
physical experience.
experiences.
o The living body, thoughts,
o Ideas – less vivid copies of
emotions, and experiences form
impressions.
a single, unified existence.
• Proposed that the self is an illusion, a
collection of changing perceptions.
Immanuel Kant
• Agreed with Hume that knowledge begins
with perception.
• However, argued that the mind organizes
experiences through innate structures.
• The self is:
o An organizing principle that
synthesizes experiences.
o The seat of knowledge
acquisition.
Self as a Social Construct o Structures interactions and
maintains order.
• The self is a social construct because
society itself is a social construction. • The self develops through sociological
imagination, where:
• Through social interaction, individuals
actively understand and shape their o Society creates opportunities for
reality. individuals to think and act.

• People are not passive participants; o Society also limits thoughts and
they engage in meaning-making through actions.
language and symbols.
Sociological Theories of the Self
• Language allows individuals to privately
A. The Looking Glass Self – Charles Cooley
and publicly share meanings, shaping
thoughts, behaviors, and identities. • Charles Cooley introduced the Looking
Glass Self theory.
The Self and Society
• Individuals develop self-concept by
• Steven (1996), cited by Alata et al.
perceiving how others see them.
(2018), described the self with the
following characteristics: • The process involves three steps:
o Separate 1. The individual imagines how they
appear to others.
o Self-contained
2. The individual imagines how
o Independent
others judge that appearance.
o Consistent
3. The individual develops feelings
o Unitary (pride or shame) based on
perceived judgments.
o Private
• Cooley’s theory suggests that:
• These characteristics suggest that the self
is distinct from others. o Feedback plays a crucial role in
self-development.
• The self is self-contained and
independent, meaning it exists on its own o Not all feedback carries the same
and is centered on its thoughts, weight (e.g., feedback from
characteristics, and volition. trusted individuals is more
influential).
• The self has a personality that endures
over time and is isolated from the o Misinterpretations of feedback may
external world. occur.

• However, Sociology argues against this o Individuals strive for consistency

view, emphasizing that humans cannot between internal and external
be understood apart from their social realities.
context.
B. Theory of Self-Development – George
• Society and individuals are inherently Herbert Mead
connected.
• Mead emphasized the role of social
• Society: interaction in self-development.

o Comprises large social groups • Self-awareness is developed by viewing

sharing the same geographical oneself from the perspective of others.
space.
• Without social interaction, the self
o Creates common cultures and cannot develop.
institutions to provide physical,
•
social, and psychological needs.
Stages of Self-Development • Personne is adaptable and changes
according to social contexts.
1. Preparatory Stage:
Cultural Examples
o Children imitate others.
• Filipino Personne:
o No ability to understand
perspectives yet. o Filipinos consider their
surroundings as part of their
2. Play Stage:
identity (e.g., “Tapat ko, linis ko”).
o Children role-play and take on the
o Language influences self-
roles of adults.
perception:
o They pretend to be parents,
▪ “Mahal kita” (love and
teachers, etc..
value).
3. Game Stage:
▪ “Siya” (gender-neutral
o Children learn to understand pronoun).
multiple roles and their
o Language impacts cultural self-
interactions.
concept.
o Example: A child understands
different restaurant workers’
"I" and "Me" – George Herbert Mead
responsibilities. • Self has two components:
4. Generalized Other: 1. "I" – The response to societal
attitudes.
o Children learn societal
expectations and understand how 2. "Me" – The social self, shaped by
they are viewed by society. societal expectations.
o This is where the self is fully • The "I" learns from the "Me", meaning:
developed.
o "I" is the knower.
The Self and Culture
o "Me" is the known.
• The self is dynamic, constantly adapting
• Self is shaped by role-playing and
to external influences.
language acquisition.
• Interaction with society continuously
shapes and reshapes the self. Lev Vygotsky – The Role of Language
• The self is multi-faceted, evolving over • Language and social interaction are
time. crucial for self-development.
• Internal dialogue allows individuals to
Moi and Personne – Marcel Mauss
internalize:
• Marcel Mauss (Anthropologist and
o Norms, values, and beliefs.
Sociologist) asserted that self adapts to
social conditions. • Children role-play to develop self-
concept.
• Daily life involves continuous actions
and exchanges that shape identity. • Self is formed by internalizing real-life
dialogues.
• Self has two faces:
1. Moi – Basic identity (biological
givenness).
2. Personne – Social identity
(influenced by culture, family,
religion, nationality).
Self in Families • The family's history and culture are the
most influential factors in shaping self-
• Family is the first social institution that concept.
influences self-development.
• Erdman (2006) Study:
• Family provides:
o Compared American and
o Basic needs (social, economic, Chinese students.
emotional).
o Found that early childhood
o Manners, values, and behaviors. memories play a significant role in
o A foundation for societal self-concept.
integration. o Cultural memories persist into
• Gender identity is influenced by family adulthood, shaped by:
socialization. ▪ Extended cultural context
o Boys are encouraged to be (societal values).
providers. ▪ Immediate family
o Girls are encouraged to be environment.
caregivers. Culture
o Toys (dolls for girls, guns for
• Culture consists of unwritten norms that
boys) reinforce gender roles.
guide behavior.
Anthropology and the Self • Edward Taylor's Definition:
• Anthropology is the study of human o Culture is a complex whole that
societies and cultures and their includes:
development.
▪ Knowledge
• It examines how cultural and biological
processes shape human experiences. ▪ Belief

• Self is understood as a process: ▪ Art

o It orchestrates personal ▪ Morals

experiences.
▪ Law
o It leads to self-awareness and
▪ Customs
self-reflection about an
individual's place in society. ▪ Other capabilities and
habits acquired by
o It develops through socialization,
humans.
language, and cultural
experiences. Material and Non-Material Culture
Self as Embedded in Culture • Material Culture:
• Self-concept refers to one's o Physical objects, resources, and
understanding and knowledge of oneself. spaces used to define culture.
• Components of self-concept: o Examples:
o Psychological aspects ▪ Homes, neighborhoods,
schools, churches, offices,
o Physical attributes factories.
o Social attitudes, ideas, and ▪ Tools, products, technology.
beliefs
o Example in the Philippines:
 ▪ Technology is a vital part of o There is no intrinsic self with
urban Filipino society. enduring qualities.
▪ Students must learn o Self is defined by social
computers to succeed in relationships and cultural
education and business. context.
▪ In ethnic societies, young Three-Phased Rite of Passage – Arnold
adults must learn hunting Van Gennep
and survival skills.
1. Separation Phase:
• Non-Material Culture:
o Individuals detach from their
o Non-physical ideas related to former identity.
culture, including:
2. Liminality Phase:
▪ Beliefs
o Individuals transition from one
▪ Values identity to another.
▪ Rules 3. Incorporation Phase:
▪ Norms o The change in status is officially
recognized by society.
▪ Morals
▪ Language Identity Struggles – Anthony Wallace &
Raymond Fogelson
▪ Organizations
• "Identity Struggles":
▪ Institutions
o Occur when there is a
o Example: discrepancy between:
▪ Religion consists of: 1. The identity a person
▪ Ideas and beliefs claims to have.
about God, 2. The identity that others
worship, and attribute to them.
ethics.
• Self-Identification:
▪ Determines how a
culture responds to o Individuals must overcome
religious topics. obstacles to achieve a stable self-
identity.
• Four Key Processes That Shape
Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviors: Illusion of Wholeness – Katherine Ewing

1. Symbols • "Illusion of Wholeness":

2. Language o The idea that self-cohesiveness

and continuity are an illusion.
3. Values
o People believe they have a
4. Norms consistent self, but in reality, self
Two Anthropological Perspectives of the Self changes.

1. Egocentric Self: Cultural Differences

o The self is seen as autonomous • Different groups assign different
and distinct from others. meanings to life events and objects.

o Individual identity is independent • Cultural perceptions shape self-identity

and unique. and personal experiences.

2. Sociocentric Self:
Key Terms and Concepts I. The Self as a Cognitive Construction
1. Social Identities: William James’ Theory of the Self
o Self-identity is constructed based • William James (1842–1910) introduced a
on similarities and differences theory of the self in The Principles of
with others. Psychology.
o Example: • He proposed two aspects of the self:
▪ A person identifies as a 1. I Self – The active self; reflects
student and adopts the what people perceive themselves
norms, behaviors, and doing in the physical world (e.g.,
attitudes of that role. walking, eating, writing).
2. Family Membership: 2. Me Self – The subjective and
psychological self; represents
o Family plays a significant role in
individuals' reflections on
shaping social identity.
themselves (e.g., being athletic,
o Example: intelligent, or cooperative).

▪ A person’s identity may be • Other terms related to the Me Self:

influenced by family
o Self-view
history, status, traits, and
resources. o Self-image
3. Language: o Self-schema
o Language is essential for o Self-concept
maintaining group identity.
• Three Components of the Me Self:
o Example:
1. Material Self – Tangible
▪ Individuals must adapt to possessions that form part of
the language of their identity.
social group to fully
2. Social Self – How individuals
integrate.
present themselves in different
4. Religious Affiliation: social contexts.
o Religious identity is a key marker 3. Spiritual Self – Internal
of social belonging. dispositions, values, and personal
beliefs.
o Example:
▪ In a predominantly
Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic
Catholic country, most Theory of Personality
Filipinos identify as Roman • Human personality is complex,
Catholic. composed of three interacting elements:
5. Name: 1. Id – Operates on the pleasure
o A person’s name is a principle, seeking immediate
fundamental aspect of individual gratification of desires.
and group identity. 2. Ego – Operates on the reality
o Example: principle, balancing id’s desires
with social appropriateness.
▪ A person’s birth certificate
legitimizes their identity 3. Superego – Represents
within society. internalized moral standards,
acquired from parents and society.
Freud’s Three Levels of Awareness
 1. Conscious Mind – Current thoughts and III. Ideal Self vs. Real Self (Carl Rogers)
awareness.
• Ideal Self:
o Example: Thinking about what is
being read or feeling tired while o The person one aspires to be.
reading. o Formed by life experiences,
2. Preconscious Mind – Memories and societal expectations, and role
information just below awareness. models.

o Example: Recalling one’s middle o Dynamic – Changes across life

name or a parent’s birthday. stages.

3. Unconscious Mind – Deeply buried • Real Self:

thoughts, desires, and memories that o One’s actual self-image.
influence behavior.
o Comprises thoughts, feelings,
o Example: Forgotten childhood actions, and behaviors.
trauma or deep-seated fears.
• Congruence and Incongruence:
II. True Self vs. False Self
o Congruence – When the real self
• True Self – Represents inner integrity aligns with the ideal self, leading
and authenticity. to satisfaction.
• False Self – Developed due to external o Incongruence – When there is a
pressures (e.g., societal norms, gap between the two, causing
politeness). dissatisfaction.
o Two Types of False Self: IV. Unified Self vs. Multiple Self
1. Healthy False Self – • Unified Self:
Adaptable; balances social
expectations without o Integration of various sub-selves
compromising authenticity. into a single identity.

2. Unhealthy False Self – o Achieved later in life.

Results in forced
• Multiple Self:
compliance rather than
authentic adaptation. o Different versions of self emerge in
different contexts and
• Pathological False Self:
timeframes.
o Develops from early
o Various aspects of self coexist
relationships, particularly when
simultaneously.
caregivers impose their own
defenses onto the child.
o Leads to difficulty in achieving
independence.
• Therapeutic Approach:
o Helping individuals let go of an
unhealthy false self.
o Encouraging the development of
a functional and authentic self.
V. Agentic Self and Proactive Self
• Agentic Self:
o Defined as the ability to plan,
assess, and implement actions
based on future goals.
o Impairment leads to poor
decision-making and lack of
direction.
• Proactive Self:
o Takes initiative rather than waiting
for external events.
o Proactive Attitude (PA) includes:
▪ Resourcefulness
▪ Responsibility
▪ Values
▪ Vision

VII. The Concept of Self in Confucian

Thought
• The Confucian self emphasizes
selflessness.
• "No-self" does not mean absence of
identity but rather selfless service to
others.
• True self is realized when one acts
without selfish motives.
• Example from Kyuo’s Moral Discourses
(1835):
o "To think only of parents but not of
oneself… is what I call no self."