Steam Distillation: Principle

and Applications for the Extraction

of Essential Oils from Plants

Alankar Shrivastava

1 Introduction

There are more than 250 known essential oils. Various nations produce different
types of essential oils. India positions second on the planet for trading essential oils
[1]. The essential oil is volatile, and concentrated lipophilic liquid compounds with
characteristic fragrance are obtained from the various plants. These are also known
as fragrant oils, aromatic oils, volatile oils, or ethereal oils. They are also named on
the name of plant through which they are extracted, e.g., clove oil obtained cloves
[2]. Essential oil products cannot be replaced by synthetic materials. Most of these
are quite stable in normal atmospheric conditions. The fresh extractives are usually
colorless but may darken upon aging due to oxidation. This may be the reason why
they are kept in amber-colored glass bottles in dry place in properly closed contain-
ers. The industrial production of essential oil industry involves plant cultivation and
distillation to obtain oil [3]. It creates jobs for rural people for supply of raw materi-
als and workers involved in processing of oils. Essential oils are extensively used
globally for fragrances, food flavoring, pharmaceuticals, and aromatherapy [4].
The concentrated natural plant components containing volatile fragrant com-
pounds are essential oils (EOs), otherwise called volatile oils. Most EOs are inferred
by steam distillation and have remarkable properties, which bring about different
opportunities for application, likewise in the present medical context [5]. Essential
oils are secondary metabolites organic molecules and of relatively low molecular
weight rarely including sulfur, nitrogen, bromine, and chlorine in their structure [6].
The global essential oil market size was valued at USD 18.6 billion in 2020 and is
expected to expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.4% in terms of
revenue from 2021 to 2028 [7]. By and large, medicinal oils are included in a few
significant parts in generally high concentration (20–95%) and other parts present

A. Shrivastava (*)
Shri Rawatpura Sarkar Institute of Pharmacy, Kumhari, Durg, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 893

Switzerland AG 2023
K. Arunachalam et al. (eds.), Bioprospecting of Tropical Medicinal Plants,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28780-0_36
894 A. Shrivastava

in trace levels, e.g., Origanum compactum oil contains carvacrol (30%) and thymol
(27%), and citrus peel oil contains d-limonene (>80%). They are obtained from
various parts of the aromatic plants, including flowers, leaves, fruits, buds, seeds,
rhizomes, barks, and roots. Essential oils have recently begun to receive much atten-
tion as possible sources of safe and natural alternative medicines [8]. Essential oils
are known to possess anticancer, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effects. They may
act as an alternative for synthetic preservatives in food items. Gram-negative organ-
isms are believed to be slightly less sensitive to essential oils than Gram-positive
bacteria [9]. The components such as carvacrol and isoeugenol in some essential
oils have proven anti-inflammatory activity [10]. Essential oils in air-spray form can
be used for purifying indoor air and are often safe to allergic and asthmatic patients
[11]. Some essential oils, e.g., clove, lavender, and eucalyptus oils were also found
effective against many fungal species isolated from environmental air samples [12].

2 Distillation

Techniques for the purification of chemicals have a place within the domain of parti-
tion science. Every method for separation of one component from others can be
used for purifying components. The significant general thought for the improve-
ment of purity of any component is the selection of materials for the construction of
apparatus in which purification tasks are to be performed. Distillation is one of the
well-known techniques usually performed in the initial stages of purification. This
can be combined with other processes, e.g., chromatography, if high-grade purifica-
tion is required [13].
Distillation is a commonly used process for separation of liquid mixtures into
pure components and is an important unit operation for running chemical, petro-
chemical, and related industries. The normal perception is that it will remain an
important operation in these industries in the future as well. Advances in distillation
procedures have been basic to expanding the way of life for mankind in the course
of the past few thousand years [14]. Distillation is the most established separation
process and the most broadly involved unit operation in industry. The technique can
be utilized for many different purposes (Also refer Fig. 1) [15].
Innovations in the field of distillation processes can promote sustained growth in
food and chemical industries [16]. The term distillation alludes to an overall class of
strategies used to isolate parts from a blend dependent on a distinction in their vola-
tilities [17, 18]. By and large, a distillation process involves heating the liquid mix-
ture to the vapor state so as to enable the selective condensation and partition of
desired component(s) [19, 20]. The thermodynamic equilibrium governs the degree
of partition while the pace of division is controlled by the mass exchange [21, 22].
The basic principle of separation is presented in Fig. 2.
Steam Distillation: Principle and Applications for the Extraction of Essential Oils… 895

Fig. 1 Various types of distillation methods

Fig. 2 Principle of distillation process

896 A. Shrivastava

3 Brief History

Traditional extraction advances to recuperate esteem added items from plant materi-
als incorporate solvent extraction, steam distillation, and acid and alkali extraction.
In these, steam distillation method is known for recovery of high-boiling-point vola-
tile oils from complex and inert components, solid or liquid, using superheated or
saturated steam for separation [22]. Although it is unknown exactly what was dis-
tilled, the finding of clay jars from Babylonia that resemble stills may be the first
proof of distillation. The carbon dating studies show that those pots were of second
millennium BC. Albeit the principal drawings of stills date from the Hellenistic
school of chemists (second century AD), from composed and archeological proof it
was presumably the Arab chemists who idealized the craft of distillation to a degree
important to get genuinely focused alcohol from a fermented beverage. The Arabs
turned into the world’s driving researchers and were quick to involve distilled alco-
hol in medication. The soonest piece of distillation device (from Iran) that has
endured is Islamic and is dated between the tenth and twelfth hundreds of years. In
the nineteenth century, the alcohol business extended extensively, particularly in
France. The distillation of alcoholic beverages was becoming inescapable all
through Europe and Asia. The earliest stills of the eastern Asians and Arabs were
relatively small earthenware or glass pot stills of the alembic type, but did not use
flowing water as a coolant. The initial distillation assembly soju, which is an exam-
ple of Korean traditional stills, was heated by fires by charcoal or wood and recently
(in bygone eras) by boiling water or steam. Later copper replaced the material uti-
lized for making stills because of its advantages such as durability, good thermal
conductivity, and malleability. To some extent, bronze was also used for the same
purpose. Copper stills could be made to a wide scope of shapes and sizes; they could
persevere through quite a long while of utilization, didn’t break when warmed
straightforwardly, and caused a more uniform pace of distillation, with minimal
charring. The additional advantage of copper stills is improved organoleptic proper-
ties of distilled spirits due to removal of volatile organosulfur compounds [23].
Throughout the long term, the method spread broadly, and the principal book
regarding the matter, Das kleine Distillierbuch, by Brunswig, appeared in 1500
[24]. In science, the synthetic course of steam distillation was first portrayed by
Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980–1037, Persia, Afghanistan). The procedure was utilized to
deliver essential oils and alcohol; the former was basic to fragrance-based treatment
(aromatherapy). Another invention was condensing coil increases the effectiveness
of distillation of essential oils using steam distillation [25].
Before the tenth century, it was still generally accepted that most essential oils
had solid therapeutic properties. Therefore, most of the credit of improvement in
purification and recovery of essential oils using distillation technologies goes to
pharmacists [26]. Jean-Baptiste Cellier-Blumenthal invented the first continuously
working distillation column in France and patented it in 1813. The first steam distil-
lation was probably performed by Claude Dariot (1533–1594), who heated the ves-
sel part between bottom and head. The direct steam distillation, however, was
Steam Distillation: Principle and Applications for the Extraction of Essential Oils… 897

reported by the Chinese around seventh century, but the evidence is not conclu-
sive [27].

3.1 Steam Distillation

Steam distillation facilitates the separation of compounds that are steam volatile
below their normal boiling points. The water obtained in the receiver can be easily
removed from volatile portion. One of the examples is the separation of naphthalene
and nitrobenzene [28]. This method is traditionally used for the separation of essen-
tial oils from plants. The superheated or saturated steam is responsible for vaporiza-
tion or extraction of fragrant compounds from the raw material. The volatile
components absorb heat from steam and are transported along with water vapors.
The components reached to the condenser and formed organic layer above water in
the receiver. Overall, two products are obtained in this process: (1) hydrosol and (2)
volatile oil. The hydrosol consists of water and some hydrolyzed components of
plant forming the bottom layer. The volatile oil in the upper layer in the decanter can
be then easily separated [29].

3.2 Principle

As per the kind of contact between the network and the water as well as steam, there
are three variations of the steam distillation process: dry steam distillation (Fig. 3),
direct steam distillation (Fig. 4), and hydrodistillation (water distillation) (Fig. 5).

Fig. 3 Dry distillation method

898 A. Shrivastava

Fig. 4 Direct steam distillation

Fig. 5 Water hydrodistillation

In direct steam distillation, the matrix is upheld on a grid with perforations or

screen embedded somewhat over the lower part of the still. This plan doesn’t permit
direct contact with water, though the boiler can be inside or outside the still. The
low-pressure immersed steam streams up through the network, gathering the evapo-
rated components. In hydrodistillation, the matrix is in direct contact with the boil-
ing water either by drifting or by being totally submerged relying upon its density.
The boiler is inside the still, and fomentation might be important to forestall agglu-
tination. In dry steam refining, the matrix is upheld and steam moves through it. The
Steam Distillation: Principle and Applications for the Extraction of Essential Oils… 899

distinctions are because of the steam being created external to the still and super-
heated at moderate pressures [30]. In comparison with other extraction processes,
steam distillation presents some advantages:
• Products obtained are solvent-free
• Further separation steps are not required
• Possibility of large-scale production
• Cheap equipment and well-known technology
• Minimum loss of polar compounds by controlling the reflux
However, the problem associated with steam distillation is degradation of ther-
mally unstable components and/or hydrolysis reaction with water, long extraction
period (1–5 h), high-power requirement, polluted waste water discharge, and risk of
foam or emulsion formation [31].
The blend of immiscible liquids tends to boil when the total vapor pressure is
equivalent to the atmospheric pressure. The principle of steam distillation can be
explained by example of distillation of mixture of turpentine and water. The boiling
point of turpentine is about 160 °C, but the mixture with water boils at about
95.6 °C. The vapor pressure of combination of turpentine and water reaches to
atmospheric pressure at lower temperature. The vapor pressures of individual com-
ponents at this point are about 15.06 kPa (113 mmHg) and 101.31 kPa for water and
turpentine, respectively. Thus, using this principle, essential oils with high boiling
point may also be separated easily with less deterioration and loss [32]. Furthermore,
countercurrent stream of vapour and liquid in a distillation column expands mass
exchange effectiveness. Superheated steam is likewise frequently utilized [33, 34].

3.3 Microwave-Assisted Steam Distillation

Electromagnetic waves with frequency between 300 MHz and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. The combination of ionic conduction and dipole movement is respon-
sible for heating. The mechanism of working of microwave is out of scope of writ-
ing, readers may refer any literature (also refer Fig. 6) related to its working
mechanism. The advantages are better control, almost instantaneous heating and
less possibility of degradation of components. On the other hand, not all substances
can be heated using microwave and depends on the polarity of solvent, e.g., hexane
and chloroform (less polar) not produces heat. Overall, the efficiency of distillation
is increased by using microwave technology. There are many literatures published
based on this method. The solvent-free microwave-based distillation methods is
further extension [35].
In this process, distillation is carried out under normal pressure without solvent
by placing fresh leafy material in microwave reaction apparatus. The oil cells bursts
due to increase in inner tension when irradiated with microwaves and released oil
then distilled by moisture present in situ water from fresh leaves [36, 37]. A few
examples are extraction from Schisandra chinensis [38], Korean medicines [39],
orange peels [37], and Thymus mastichina [40].
900 A. Shrivastava

Fig. 6 Principle of working of microwave extraction

4 Future Aspects

There are few published research studies related to improvement of performance in

terms of saving energy or yield of essential oils. One of such published research is
Xio et al. [41], where it can save energy consumption and minimize loss of asarinin
and sesamin during extraction process from roots and rhizomes of Asarum het-
erotropoides var. mandshuricum (AHVM). According to the authors, microwave-­
assisted steam distillation with solvent extraction (MSDE) method was most
suitable in comparison to steam distillation (SD), conventional hydrodistillation
(HD), and microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MHD).
In another study by Lainez-Cerón et al. [42], the effect of operating conditions
for the extraction of Eucalyptus EO by hydrodistillation on different performance
indicators was evaluated and compared to those obtained for systems that use direct
steam injection, HDS, and SD. The effect of the evaluated conditions on the extrac-
tion kinetics was described in terms of the parameters of two mathematical models.
It has shown how large amounts of steam delivered at low rate improve mass trans-
fer and extraction rate.
Microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) and conventional hydrodistilla-
tion (HD) techniques were compared in the extraction of essential oils from
Amomum subulatum seeds [43]. The MAHD method gives good yield, more anti-
oxidant and antibacterial activity in EO obtained by HD method.
The studies mentioned above are just few of the reported in recent time. The
simple steam distillation methods are either solvent-free or less amount of solvent
for optimum yield of EOs. The analysis of components of EOs is generally per-
formed by using hyphenated techniques e.g., GC-MS, which is obvious due to its
capability of analysis at molecular level. The hyphenated techniques are costly and
require more skill analyst. The simple techniques such as GC-FID methods can also
be used for analysis in the case reference standards are available. The solvent-free
extraction procedures along with such methods can be performed for improved uti-
lization of green extraction procedures with economy as an advantage. Thus, the
segment needs to be explored for the researchers working in this field.
Steam Distillation: Principle and Applications for the Extraction of Essential Oils… 901

Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge the support given by KIET Group of Institution,
KIET School of Pharmacy, Ghaziabad.

Conflict of Interest None declared by author.

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