Chemistry HandBook

PECIFIC REACTION OF ACIDIC RADICAL

Anion Reaction Name Reagent Product Ob
/with
S2– Sodium Nitro Na2[Fe(CN)5NO] Na4[(Fe(CN)5NOS] Pur
Prusside
Me
NH2

+
FeCl 3
+ N(Me) N(Me)2
S2– + Conc.
Methylene blue (Me) N2 HCl
(y)
Test +Fe + Cl+2 –

NO2– Gries Illosavay Re

Test (i) Sulphanilic acid
(ii)1, napthyl
Amine
NO2– Brown Ring FeSO4+dil.H2SO4 [Fe(H2O)5NO]SO4 Br
Test
Cacodyl Test H Nau
C3

CH3COO– As2O3 O CH3

H C3 CH3
CH3COO– FeCl3 Sol n
FeCl3+H2O boil
[Fe3(OH)2 (CH3OO)6]+ Blo
boil
Fe(OH)2(CH3COO) Red

NO3– Brown Ring test FeSO4+Conc.H2SO4 [Fe(H2O)5NO]SO4 Bro

C2O42– Mn+2 + NaOH NaOH + Mn+2 ¾¾®airD [Mn(C2O4)3]3– Red

Br– Layer Test Cl2 Water + CCl4 Br2+ CCl4 Red

I– Layer Test Cl2 Water + CCl4 I2 + CCl4 Vio

I– HgCl2 HgCl2 HgI2 Red

Cl– Chromyl CrO2Cl2 Re

(i) K2Cr2O7(s) + conc.H2SO4
Chloride Test ¯

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(ii) NaOH CrO42– Yellow Solution

(iii) Pb(CH3COO)2 ¯ ¯

+ CH3COOH PbCrO4 Yellow PPt.

BO33– Green Flame Conc. H2SO4 + R OH B(OR)3 Green edge flame

Test + D(Flame)

BO33– Modified CaF2 + Conc. H2SO4 + D BF3­ + Ca(HSO4)2 Green flame

Green
Flame Test

PO43– Ammonium (NH4)2MoO4 + dill HNO3 (NH4)3PO4.12MoO3 Canary yellow ppt.

molybdate + 30 – 40° C

CrO5 Blue Solution

CrO42– Acidic Solution of
H2O2 + H+ +
/Cr2O7 H2O2 + pyridine

BASIC RADICAL ANALYSIS

Dry test of cation :
Flame test : used for s-block cation (except Be+2, Mg+2)
Cation : Li+ Na+ K+ Ca+2 Sr+2 Ba+2 Cu+2
Observation : Caramine Golden Lilac Brick Crimson Apple Green flame
(Naked eye) red yellow Red Red green

Cobalt glass : flame crimson Light Purple Bluish Green flame

disappear red Green green

Borax bead test : Charcol cavity test :

Þ Used for coloured cation (d-block cation) Mn Violet Amethyst Colourless Colourless
Þ Given salt heated on borax bead than metal metaborate Cr Yellow Green Green Green
are form. Fe Yellowish Yellow Green Green
Þ Metal metaborate on heating show characteristic bead brown
colour. Co Blue Blue Blue Blue
Oxidizing flame Reducing flame Ni Violet Brown Grey Grey
Hot Cold Hot Cold Cu Green Blue Colourless Opaque red

Heat salt with Na2CO3 in charcoal cavity Zn+2 In hot

yellow and in cold white residue. Pb+2 Yellow residue
in hot and grey metal in cold.
As+3 White residue with garlic odour. Cd+2
Brown residue.

If white residue is obtain then add. Co(NO3)2 and heat.

Zn+2 ZnO.CoO Rinmann's Green

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Al+3 Al2.O3 Thenard Blue Sn+2 SnO.CoO Bluish residue

+2
Mg MgO.CoO Pink residue
Classification of Basic
Radical
Group Basic Radical Reagent used Precipitate form

AgCl PbCl 2 Hg Cl2 2

Group-I Pb+2, Hg2+2 dil HCl white
ppt.

Group-II Cu+2, Pb+2, Hg+2, Cd+2, Bi+3 H2S+dil. HCl Cu S, PbS, HgS, CdS, Bi S2 2 3
yellow black
Black
Sn+2,Sn+4,As+3,As+5,Sb+3,Sb+5 SnS SnS 2 32 As S As S Sb S 2
5
2

Sb S2
3 5 brown

yellow orange
Cr+3, Al+3, Fe+3 brown
Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3, Cr(OH)3
NH4OH + NH4Cl
Group-III gelatinous reddish green
white brown ZnS MnS
Zn+2, Mn+2, Ni+2, Co+2
NiS CoS whitebuff black

Group-IV H2S + NH4OH

Ca+2, Sr+2, Ba+2 CaCO , SrCO , BaCO3 3 3

white
Group-V (NH4)2CO3 + NH4OH

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Other important reaction of basic radical
Basic radical Reagent Product Observation

Fe+3 SCN-- [Fe(H2O)5(SCN)]2+ Blood red colouration

Ni+2 dmg / NH4+ [Ni(dmg)2] Rosy red complex

Co+2 KNO2 K3[Co(NO2)6] Yellow ppt
Hg+2 SnCl2(ex) Hg Grey / black
K+ HClO4 KClO4 White ppt

yellowNH4+ KOH/NaOHNH3

NH HC H O4 4 4 6Colourless white crystal

Test of NH4+
Gas

IMPORTANT NOTES

H [PtCl ]2 6
(NH ) [PtCl4 2
] yellow (NH ) [Co(NO4 3
6 26 )]
IMPORTANT NOTES

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Functional group Structure Prefix Suffix

O Carboxy - oic acid
Carboxylic acid
–C–OH
Sulphonic acid –SO H3 Sulpho sulphonic acid

Anhydride × oic-anhydride

O Alkoxy carbonyl
Ester –C–OR alkyl....oate
or Carbalkoxy
O Chloroformyl or
Acid chloride Chlorocarbonyl - oyl chloride
–C–Cl
O Carbamoyl/
Acid amide - amide
–C–NH2 Amido
Carbonitrile/Cyanide Cyano nitrile
– C Nº
Aldehyde O Formyl or Oxo
- al
–C–H
Ketone O
Keto or oxo - one
–C–
Alcohol –OH Hydroxy - ol
Thio alcohol –SH Mercapto thiol
Amine –NH2 Amino amine

Ether –O–R Alkoxy –

Oxirane –C – C–
Epoxy –
O
Nitro derivative –NO2 Nitro –

Nitroso derivative –NO Nitroso –

Halide –X Halo –

Double bond C=C – ene

Triple bond C Cº – yne

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IMPORTANT NOTES

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ISOMERISM
DEFINITION
Compounds having same molecular formula but differ in atleast one physical or chemical or biological properties
are called isomers and this phenomena is known as isomerism.

Types of Isomerism : (A) Structural isomerism (B) Stereo isomerism

(A) STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
Structural isomerism is a form of isomerism in which molecules with the same molecular formula
have atoms bonded together in different orders.
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
CHAIN ISOMERISM Key point : Parent carbon chain remain same and
This type of isomerism is due to difference in the substituent, multiple bond and functional group changes its
arrangement of carbon atoms constituting the chain. position.
Key points :
CH3
Parent carbon chain or side chain should be different.
CH3 CH3
e.g. C5H12 : CH – CH – CH – CH – CH3 2 2 CH3
2 3

n-pentane e.g. C6H4(CH3)2 : , CH3, CH3 o-xylene m-

CH3
xylene p-xylene
H C – CH – CH – CH , 3 23 H C – C – CH3
3
FUNCTIONAL ISOMERISM
It occurs when compounds have the same molecular
CH3 CH3 formula but different functional groups.
iso-pentane neo-pentane
e.g. C3H9N : CH3– CH2 – CH2 – NH2,
POSITIONAL ISOMERISM 1-propanamine

It occurs when functional groups or multiple bonds or CH – CH – NH – CH ,3 2 3

substituents are in different positions on the same carbon N-methylethanamine

chain. CH3
CH – N – CH ,3 3

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N, N-

dimethylmethanamine
METAMERISM
This type of isomerism occurs when the isomers differ with
respect to the nature of alkyl groups around the same
polyvalent functional group. e.g. C4H10O :
CH3 – O – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 n-propyl
methylether
CH3 – CH2 – O – CH2 – CH3
diethyl ether

RING-CHAIN ISOMERISM
In this type of isomerism, one isomer is open chain but
another is cyclic.
CH2
e.g. C3H6 : CH – CH = CH3 2 H C–CH2 2

propene cyclopropane

• For chain, positional and metamerism, functional group

must be same.
• Metamerism may also show chain and position
isomerism but priority is given to metamerism.

TAUTOMERISM
This type of isomerism is due to spontaneous
interconversion of two isomeric forms into each other with
different functional groups in dynamic equilibrium.
Conditions :
O O
(i) Presence of – –C or – N ® O
(ii) Presence of at least one a-H atom which is attached
to a saturated C-atom.
e.g. Acetoacetic ester.
O OH
CH –C–CH COOC H3 2 2 5 CH –
C=CHCOOC H3 2 5 keto form enol form

ENOL CONTENT ENHANCE BY:

* Acidity of a-H of keto form
* Intra molecular H-Bonding in enol form
* Resonance in enol form
* Aromatisation in enol form

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(B)STEREOISOMERISM
Compounds with the same molecular formula and structural formula but having difference in the spatial arrangement of
atoms or groups in 3D space are called stereoisomers and the phenomenon is called stereoisomerism.
TYPES OF STEREOISOMERISM
GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM n +1
m= (If n is odd)
It is due to restricted rotation and is observed in following
2
systems

a a a * Where n = number of sites where GI is possible.

aa OPTICAL ISOMERISM

b C=C b , b C=N–OH , a N=N b , Compounds having similar molecular and structural formula
bb but differing in the stereo chemical formula and behaviour
towards plane polarised light are called optical isomers and
this phenomenon is called optical isomersim. ⚫ Types of
a optical isomers
(1) Optically active (2) Optically inactive
, • dextrorotatory (d)
(member with doublebond)Ring greater than 7 Cb
• meso
• laevorotatory ()
CH3
⚫ Condition :
⚫ Cis-trans isomerism : The cis compound is the one with Molecule should be asymmetric or chiral i.e.
the same groups on the same side of the bond, and symmetry element (POS & COS) should be absent.
the trans has the same groups on the opposite sides.
⚫ The carbon atom linked to four different groups is
Both isomers have different physical and chemical
called chiral carbon.
properties.
⚫ Fischer projection : An optical isomer can be
H H H COOH represented by Fischer projection which is planar
e.g. C=C C=C representation of three dimensional structure.
HOOC COOH HOOC H Fischer projection representation of lactic acid
cis trans
maleic acid fumaric acid
(2-hydroxypropanoic acid)

COOH COOH
⚫ General physical properties of geometrical isomer of 3 2 1

but-2-ene CH – CH – COOH3 : HO H H OH

(i) Stability trans > cis OH CH3 CH3

(ii) Dipole moment cis > trans ⚫ Configuration of optical isomer :

(iii) Boiling point cis > trans (a) Absolute configuration (R/S system)
(b) Relative configuration (D/L system)
(iv) Melting point trans > cis
⚫ Determination of R/S configuration :
Calculation of number of geometrical isomer Rule-1 Assign the priority to the four groups attached
to the chiral carbon according to priority
rule.
Unsymmetrical 2n
Rule-2 If lowest priority 4 is bonded to vertical line
Symmetrical 2 + n–1 2 m–1
then moving
n
m= (If n is even) 2 Clockwise R

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1 2 3 ⚫ Non-superimposable mirror images are called

enantiomers which rotate the plane polarised light up
Anti clockwise S to same extent but in opposite direction.
⚫ Diastereomers are stereoisomers which are not
mirror images of each other. They have different
Rule-3 If lowest priority 4 is bonded to physical and chemical properties.
horizontal line then moving ⚫ Meso compounds are those compounds whose
molecules are superimposable on their mirror images
1 2 3 Clockwise S inspite of the presence of asymmetric carbon atom.
⚫ An equimolar mixture of the enantiomers (d & ) is
Anti clockwise R called racemic mixture. The process of converting d-
DETERMINATION OF D/L SYSTEM : or - form of an optically active compound into
• Reference molecule glyceraldehyde racemic form is called racemisation.
• It is used to assign configuration in carbohydrate, ⚫ The process by which d mixture is separated into d
amino acid and similar compounds and  forms with the help of chiral reagents or chiral
Rule: Arrange parent carbon chain on the vertical line catalyst is known as resolution.
• Placed most oxidised carbon on the top or nearest to ⚫ Compound containing chiral carbon may or may not
top. be optically active but show optical isomerism.
• On highest IUPAC numbered chiral carbon ⚫ For optical isomer chiral carbon is not the necessery
If OH group on RHS ® D If condition.
OH group on LHS ® L Calculation of number of optical isomers
CHO CHO
H OH HO H Optically
The compound
HO H H OH active forms
H OH HO H
H OH HO H Unsymmetrical 2n Zero
CH –OH2 CH –OH2
D–Glucose L–Glucose
⚫ CIP SEQUENCE RULE : Symmetrical
SymmetricalIf n = even 2(n–1) 2 n2 –1 If n = odd (n–1) –
The following rules are followed for deciding the
precedence order of the atoms or groups :-
(i) Highest priority is assigned to the atoms of
higher atomic number attached to 2(n–1)/2 2(n–1)/2
asymmetric carbon atom.
(ii) In case of isotopes, isotopes having higher
atomic mass is given priority.
2
(iii) If the first atom of a group attached to
* Where n = no. of chiral carbon
asymmetric carbon atom is same then we
consider the atomic number of 2nd atom or The different arrangement of atoms in space that results
subsequent atoms in group. from the carbon-carbon single bond free rotation by 0360°
(iv) If there is a double bond or triple bond, both are called conformations or conformational isomers or
atoms are considered to be duplicated or rotational isomers and this phenomenon is called
triplicated. conformational isomerism.
CONFORMATIONAL ISOMERISM

Newmann projection : atoms forming the s bond are represented oneHere two carbon ⚫ Conformations of butane : CH –

CH – CH – CH4 3 32 22 13

by circle and other by centre of the circle. Circle CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

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represents rear side C and its centre represents CH H CH H H H front side carbon. The C–H bonds of front
3 3

carbon are depicted from the centre of the circle 60° 60° 60°

H H
while C–H bond of the back carbon are drawnfrom the circumference of the circle. H H RotationH H H Rotation HH

CHH 3RotationH CH3 H

Fully eclipsed (less stable) Gauche (more stable) Partially Eclipsed form Anti Staggered-form

Ha Ha (most stable)

Ha Hb 60° Hc

⚫ The order of stability of conformations of n-butane.

Hc Anti staggered>Gauche>Partially eclipsed>Fully eclipsed.

Hc Hb Hb Hc Hb Ha ⚫ Relative stability of various conformation of
cyclohexane is
Eclipsed form (least stable) Staggered form (most stable)

Chair > twist boat > boat > half chair

IMPORTANT NOTES

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REACTION
MECHANISM
Electrophiles are electron deficient species. eg. H Relative electron withdrawing order (–I order)
Å Å Å
ÅÅ ÅÅ
, R , NO , X , PCl , PCl 2 35
-NF > NR >3- 3 -NH3 > –NO2 > –CN > –COOH > –X

> –OR > –OH > –CºCH > –NH2 > –C6H5 > –CH = CH2 Relative
(NHÅ 4 and H O3 Å are not electrophile)
Nucleophiles are electron rich species. electron releasing order (+I order)

e.g. Cl, CH , OH, RO, CN, NH , ROH, CH =CH , CH CH3 –NH > –O > –COO > 3° alkyl > 2° alkyl > 1° alkyl > –CH3
3

2 2 º
RELATIVE STABILITY ORDER • Reactivity order towards acyl nucleophilic
(A) Stability of carbocation substitution reaction
Å Å Å Å Acid chloride > anhydride > ester > amide
(i) > (Ph) C3 > (Ph) CH2 > -Ph CH2 > CH2 = CH CH- 2 • Order of electronic effect
Å Å Å Å Å Å
Mesomeric > Hyperconjugation > Inductive effect
(ii)(CH ) C3 3 > (CH ) CH3 2 > CH CH3 2> CH3 > CH2 = CH> CH º C • Stability of alkene µ no. of a-hydrogen
(B) Stability of free radical R C=CR > R C=CHR > R C=CH >RCH=CHR > RCH=CHR2 2 2 2 2 trans
form cis form
   
(Ph) C3 > (Ph) CH2 > PhCH 2> CH2 = CH -CH 2>
RCH=CH2 > CH2=CH2
(CH ) C3 3 > (CH ) CH3 2 > CH CH3 2 > CH3 1

(C) Stability of Carbanion • Heat of hydrogenation µ Stability of alkene

Q Q Q Q ACIDIC STRENGTH µ Stability of conjugate base
(Ph) C3 > (Ph) CH2 > -Ph CH2 > CH2 = CH - CH2 > 1µ
Q Q Q Q Ka µ pKa
CH3 > CH CH3 2 >(CH ) CH3 2 > (CH ) C3 3
(i) H2O > CH º CH > NH3
1 (ii) CH º CH > CH2 = CH2 > CH3–CH3
OH
BASIC STRENGTH µ Kb µ pK b
(iii) R–SO3H > R–COOH > > R–OH
• Basic strength of amine :In aqueous medium
R Þ –CH3 2° > 1° > 3° > NH3 R Þ –CH2CH3 (iv) HCOOH > CH3COOH > CH3CH2COOH
2° > 3° > 1° > NH3 OH
In gaseous medium
NO2 NO2
(v) > HCOOH > C H COOH > CH COOH6 5
R Þ –CH3 3° > 2° > 1° > NH3
3
R Þ –CH2CH3 3° > 2° > 1° > NH3
• Reactivity towards nucleophile (NAR) NO2
(1) HCHO > CH3CHO > (CH3)2CO (vi) CCl3COOH > CHCl2COOH > CH2ClCOOH
(2) CCl3CHO > CHCl2CHO > CH2ClCHO (vii)

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OH
(viii) CH6 4
COOH
Phenol > m > p > o
(xi) C H6 4 o > p > m > benzoic acid
CH3 NO2
OH COOH
(ix) C H6 4 p > o > m > Phenol
(xii) C H6 4 o > benzoic acid > m > p CH3
NO2
COOH
OH OH OH OH
(xiii) CH6 4 o > m > benzoic acid > p
(x) NO2 NO2 > NO2 > NO2 > OCH3
COOH
(xiv) C H6 4 o > m > p > benzoic acid
NO2 NO2
Cl
IMPORTANT NOTES

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PRACTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

PURIFICATION METHODS LASSAIGNE'S METHOD
DISTILLATION TECHNIQUES (detection of elements)
Type : Sodium Confirmed test
Element
(A) SIMPLE DISTILLATION (B) FRACTIONAL extract
Conditions
DISTILLATION Nitrogen Na + C + N (NaCN+FeSO +NaOH) 4
(i) When liquid sample has non When b.p. D boil and cool volatile impurities difference is 10K +FeCl +conc. HCl 3 ® Fe [Fe(CN)

] 463

(ii) When boiling point differenceis 30 K or more. Examples NaCN Prussian blue colour

Examples (i) Crude oil in

petroleum
(i) Mixture of chloroform

industry
(BP = 334K) and Aniline

(BP = 457K) (ii) Acetone (329 K)

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and Methyl
(ii) Mixture of Ether Sulphur 2Na + S (i) Na S + Na [Fe(CN) NO nitrosopruside2 sodium 2 5

]
(b.p. = 308K) & alcohol (338K)
Toluene (b.p. = 384K) D Na [Fe(CN) NOS]® 4
5

(iii) Hexane (342K) and Na S2 a deep violet colour

Toulene(384K)
A black ppt. (PbS ¯)
(C) DISTILLATION UNDER REDUCED PRESSURE
(Vacuum distillation)
When liquid boils at higher temperature and it may
decompose before b.p. is attained. Halogen Na + X NaX + HNO + AgNO3 3 Example (i) Concentration of sugar juice (i) White ppt.
soluble in aq. (ii) Recovery of glycerol from spent lye. D NH confirms Cl.3
(iii) Glycerol NaX (ii) Yellow ppt. partially soluble
in aq. NH confirms Br.3
(D) STEAM DISTILLATION (iii) Yellow ppt. insoluble in aq. When the substance is P = P1 + P2 NH confirms I.3 immiscible with
water and Vapour Vapour Vapour steam volatile. pressure pressure pressure

Example : Organicof of water Nitrogen Na+C+N+S As in test for nitrogen; instead of

(i) Aniline is separated liquid green or blue colour, blood red from water and D colouration confirms presence

(ii) Turpentine oil (iii) Nitro Benzene sulphur

(iv) Bromo Benzene (v) Naphthalene together NaCNS of N and S both (vi) o-Nitrophenol Sodium thiocyanate (Blood

red colour)

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Estimation of carbon and hydrogen - Duma's method : Kjeldahl's method :
Leebig's method The nitrogen containing organic In this method nitrogen containing compound yields
nitrogen gas on compound is heated with conc. H2SO4 in heating it with copper
CxHy + O2 ¾¾® xCO2 + y/2 H2O (II) oxide in presence of copper sulphate to convert the presence of CO2 gas. The
excess
nitrogen into ammonium sulphate which is mixture of gases is collected over
decomposed with excess of alkali to liberate potassium hydroxide solution in
% of C= 1244´ wt. of org. compdwt. of ammonia. The ammonia evolved is which CO2 is absorbed and volume
CO2 ´100 of nitrogen gas is determined. 1.4 ×volume of acid (ml) æ Vol. of N2 ö % of N =
×normality of acid
ç collected ÷ wt of organic compound
2 wt. of H O2 ´100
% of H = ´
% of N= 2240028 ´ççWt. of at N.T.P. ÷÷÷´100 Note : and is mainly used for finding out the
18 wt. of org compd Note : percentage ofThis method is simpler and more convenient
This method is suitable for estimation if
organic compound contains C and H only. In
case if other elements e.g., N, S, halogens ççorganic ÷ nitrogen in food stuffs, soil, fertilizers and various
are also present the organic compound will ècompoundø
also give their oxides which is being Note : This method can be used to agricultural products. This method cannot be used for estimate
absorbed in KOH and will increase the nitrogen in all types of organic compound having nitro groups, azo group (–N = N–) and nitrogen in the
ring (pyridine, quinole etc.) Since
percentage of carbon and therefore
compounds nitrogen in these compounds is not quantitatively
following modification should be made.
converted in to ammonium sulphate.
ESTIMATION OF NITROGEN

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IMPORTANT NOTES

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DISTINCTION BETWEEN PAIRS OF

COMPOUNDS
UNSATURATION TEST NH Cl +H O+R–C C–Cu4 2 º Cu Cl +
NH OH2 2 4

Red ppt.
(a) Double/Triple bonded Compounds (C = C)/(C º C)+ Br2 in
NATURE OF X-GROUP IN C–X BOND
CCl4 (Brown colour) ® Colourless compound
Br Br
R–X + aqueous KOH R–OH+KX AgNOHNO 3
3 AgX
CCl4
• R – CH = CH – R + Br2 R – CH – CH – R Precipitate
(Alkene) (Brown) (Colourless) If X is Cl, precipitate will be white and for Br yellow
precipitate will be obtained.
Br Br DISTINCTION BETWEEN 1°, 2° AND 3° ALCOHOLS
R – C C – R + Brº 2
CCl4 R–C–C–R
RR
• (Alkyne) (Brown) Br Br
• R – C – OH Room temperatureLucas reagent R – C – Cl
(Colourless)
RR
(b) Double/Triple bonded Compounds + Baeyer's reagent Tertiary alcohol Cloudiness appears
(Pink colour) ¾® Brown precipitate immediately

RR
• R – CH = CH – R + KMnO(Cold, dilute) 4 R – CH – CH – R + MnOBrown
ppt2 • R – CH – OH Room temperatureLucas reagent R – CH
(Alkene) OH OH – Cl
(Colourless)
Secondary alcohol Cloudiness appears
within five minutes
• R–C C–R' +KMnOº 4 MnO +RCOOH+R'COOH2
(Hot, dilute) Brown ppt.
• R – CH – OH2 Lucas reagentHeat R – CH – Cl2
• R–C C–H+KMnOº 4 MnO + RCOOH+CO +H O2 2 Primary alcohol Cloudiness appears
2 after 30 minute
(Alkyne) (Hot, dilute) Brown ppt. (Colourless) Baeyer's reagent is
Lucas reagent is anhydrous ZnCl2 + conc. HCl.
cold, dilute KMnO4 solution having pink colour.
OH
Note : The above test are not given by Benzene.
Although it has unsaturation. • H C – CH – R3 type of alcohols give iodoform
test.
TEST FOR TERMINAL ALKYNE
OH
Terminal alkyne • H C – CH – R + I3 2 Iodoform testNaOH CHI +
Ammonical silver Ammonical cuprous nitrate
RCOONa3
chloride
Iodoform
(Yellow ppt.)
White ppt. Red ppt.
PHENOL

Phenol + ferric chloride ¾¾®Violet colouration

NH NO +H O+R–C C–Ag4 3 2 º (neutral)
AgNO + N H OH3 4
White ppt.
R – C CHº 6 OH + FeCl3 3H + [Fe(OC H ) ] + 3HCl+ 6
Terminal alkyne 56
3–

Violet colouration

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CARBONYL GROUP
• Carbonyl compound + 2, 4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine ®
Yellow/orange crystal (Brady's reagent)

NO2 O N2

H 2NO

C=O+ N–NH NO C=N–NH2

H

• All aldehydes and only aliphatic methyl ketones+

NaHSO3 ® White crystalline bisulphite.
OH
R– +

C= O + NaHSO3 3

H
Aldehyde

OH RR – C –

SO Na–3 +

C = O + NaHSO
H C3 Methyl ketone CH3

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ALDEHYDE GROUP

• Aldehyde + Tollen's reagent ¾¾® Silver mirror

O

R–C–H+3OH +2[Ag(NH)]Q 32
+
RCOO +2HO+4NH+2AgQ 2
)
3

(silver mirror

• Aldehyde+Fehling's solution ® Reddish brown

precipitate
O

R–C–H+2Cu +5OH2+ — RCOO +3H O+Cu OQ 2

2

(Reddish brown ppt)

O
• H C – C – group3 also give iodoform test
O

H C–C–R+I +NaOH3 2 Iodoform test CHI +

RCOONa3
Iodoform (Yellow
ppt.)

AROMATIC ALDEHYDE GROUP

• Aromatic aldehyde + Tollen's reagent ® Silver
mirror
• Aromatic aldehyde + Fehling's solution ®
Negative test

Tollen's reagent

reaction

Fehling's solution

Tollen's reagent

mirror

CARBOXYLIC GROUP

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Carboxylic acid + Sodium bicarbonate ® effervescence

RCOOH + NaHCO3 ¾® RCOONa + H2O + CO2 ­

Amines (1°, 2° & 3°) (Hinsberg's test)

AgCl White ppt.
• Primary amine + Benzenesulphonyl chloride 3

® Precipitate ¾¾¾®KOH soluble

• Secondary amine + Benzenesulphonyl chlorid
¾® Precipitate ¾¾¾®KOH insoluble • Cl + aq. KOH HNO , AgNOBoil No reaction
3 3

Chlorobenzene
• Tertiary amine + Benzenesulphonyl chloride ®
No reaction
Note : Benzenesulphonyl chloride is called Hinsberg's Ethyl chloride and vinyl chloride
reagent.
• C2H –Cl+aq.KOH5 Boil C2H –OH+KCl5
Chloroethane and chlorobenzene
(Ethyl chloride) AgCl AgNOHNO3
• C H –Cl+aq. KOH2 5 Boil CH—
(White ppt.) 3

OH+KCl2 5 AgNOHNO33 AgCl

White ppt.
Boil
• H C=CH–Cl+aq.KOH2 HNO , AgNO 3 3 No
reaction
Vinyl chloride
• Cl + aq. KOH AgNO ,Boil 3 No reaction
HNO3
n-Propyl alcohol and iso-propyl alcohol

Chlorocyclohexane and chlorobenzene • CH CH CH OH3 2 2 +HCl

¾¾¾® ZnCl2 CH CH CH Cl3 2 2
• Cl + aq. KOHOH+ KCl
No cloudiness at room temp.
AgNO
HNO
3 AgCl
3

White ppt. OHCl

• H C – CH – CH3 3 ZnClHCl H C –
• Cl + aq. KOH AgNO ,Boil 3 No reaction CH – CH3 3

HNO3
Cloudiness within 5 minutes
Ethyl alcohol and methyl alcohol (Iodoform test)
Chloroethane and bromoethane • CH3CH2OH + 4I2 + 6NaOH ¾® CHI3 + HCOONa
Boil Yellow ppt.
• C2H –Cl + aq. • CH3OH + 4I2 + 6NaOH ¾® No yellow ppt. Ethyl
KOH5C2H – alcohol and acetone (2, 4 – DNP)
OH+KCl5AgCl O N2
(Chloroethane)White ppt.
H C3 H
• C=O+ N – NH NO2
• C2H –Br + aq. KOH5C2H –OH+KBr5 AgNO
HNO
3 AgBr H C3 H
(Bromoethane) Yellow ppt.
Acetone 2, 4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine

O N2
Benzyl chloride and chlorobenzene H C3
C = N – NH NO2
Cl
H C3
(yellow orange crystals)
• CH + aq. KOH2
(Benzyl chloride)

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• C2H5OH ¾¾¾¾¾®2,4-DNP No reaction • Propanal + Tollen's reagent ¾¾® Silver mirror

O
Phenol and ethyl alcohol (Neutral FeCl3)
• Phenol + Neutral ferric chloride ¾® Violet H C–CH –CH+3OH +2[Ag(NH ) ]3 2
—

+
32
colouration
—

CH CH COO +2H O+4NH +2Ag3

6 OH + FeCl3 3H + [Fe(OC H ) ] + 3HCl+ 6

5 6 3– 2 2 3 ¯
Violet colouration (Silver mirror)

• CH3CH2OH + Neutral ferric chloride ¾® No violet

• Propanal + Fehling's solution ® Reddish brown
colouration
precipitate
Benzoic acid and phenol (NaHCO3) O
• Benzoic acid + Sodium bicarbonate ¾® H C – CH – CH + 2Cu + 5OH3 2
2+ —
effervescence
C6H5COOH + NaHCO3 ® C6H5COONa + CO2­ + H2O CH CH COO + 3H O + Cu O3 2 —
2

• Phenol + Sodium bicarbonate ® No 2

(Reddish brown ppt.)
effervescence
(Phenol is less acidic than benzoic acid) Fehling's solution Negative test

Propanone and propanol (2, 4 - DNP) • Propanone

Negative test
ON
H Pentan-2-one and pentan-3-one (Iodoform test)
H C3
• C = O + O
N – NH
• H C – CH – CH – C – CH + I +
H C3 H
NaOH3 2 2 3
2 Iodoform test
(Pentan-2-one)
H C3
CHI + CH CH CH COONa3 3 2
C = N – NH
2
H C3 Iodoform (Yellow
ppt.)
Yellow orange crystals

O
• Propanol + 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine ¾® No
crystals •H C – CH – C – CH – CH + I + NaOH 3 2 2 3

Iodoform test No yellow ppt. Pentan-3-one

2
Ethanal and propanal (Iodoform test)
O
Propanal and benzaldehyde (Fehling solution)
• H C – C – H + I + NaOH3 2
Iodoform test CHI + • Propanal + Fehling's solution ® Reddish brown
HCOONa3 precipitate
Ethanal Iodoform
O
(Yellow ppt.)
O HC–CH–C–H+2Cu+5OH 3 2
2+–

CHCHCOO+3HO+CuO3 —
• H C – CH – C – H + I + NaOH3 2 2
2

Fehling's solution
22

Iodoform test No yellow ppt.

Propanal • Benzaldehyde + Fehling's solution ® No
Propanal and propanone (Tollen's and Fehling reagent) precipitate

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CHO + 2Cu + 5OH2+ — No reaction

Methanoic acid and ethanoic acid

(Tollen's & Fehling solution)
Fehling's solution 2—

Fehling's solution

H O + CO 2 3

+ Cu O2 • HCOOH
Methanoic acid 2Ag + CO ¯ 32— + H O2

No brown ppt.
• Ethanoic acid
No silver mirror

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Ethanal and methanal (Iodoform test)

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• CH CHO+I +NaOH3 2 Iodoform test CHI • CH NH + CHCl + 3KOH 3 2 3 CH

+HCOONa3 NC + 3KCl + 3H O3 2
Methyl amine (alc.) Methyl isocyanide
Ethanal Iodoform
(Offensive smell)
(Yellow ppt.)

CH3
• HCHO+I +NaOH2 Iodoform test No yellow ppt.
Methanal •H C–NH+CHCl +3KOH (alc.)3 3

No offensive smell
Di-methyl amine
Acetophenone and benzophenone (Iodoform test) Aniline and ethyl amine (Diazotisation)

• C – CH + I + NaOH3 2 Iodoform
test
(Acetophenone)
p-hydroxy azobenzene
CHI +3 COONa
(Yellow ppt.)
• CH CH NH3 2 2 NaNO + HCl2 CH CH

OH3 2 No Orange dye

Ethyl amine

Aniline and N-methylaniline (Isocyanide test)

• +I +NaOH2 Iodoform test No
ppt.
(Benzophenone) • NH +CHCl +3KOH23 NC+3KCl+3H
O2
(alc.)
Phenyl isocyanide
Benzoic acid and ethylbenzoate (Offensive smell)

• C6H5COOH+NaHCO3 ®C6H5COONa+CO2­+H2O
• NH – CH + CHCl + 3KOH3 3
effervescence No offensive smell
• Ethyl benzoate + Sodium bicarbonate ® No (alc.)
N-Methylaniline
effervescence

Aniline and Benzylamine (Diazotisation + phenol)

Benzaldehyde and acetophenone (Tollen's test)
• Benzaldehyde + Tollen's reagent ® Silver mirror

CHO+3OH +2[Ag(NH ) ]—3 2 +

(Tollen's reagent)

COO +2H O+4NH +2Ag— 23 ¯

• Acetophenone + Tollen's reagent ¾® No silver

mirror

Methyl amine and dimethyl amine (Isocyanide test)

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pH = 8.5 – 9.5

Glucose and fructose

• Glucose + Br2 + H2O ¾¾® Gluconic acid + 2HBr
(Brown colour) (Colourless)
• Fructose + Br2 + H2O ¾¾® Brown colour
(Brown colour) (no change in colour)

Glucose and sucrose

• Glucose + Tollen's reagent ¾¾® Silver mirror
• Sucrose + Tollen's reagent ¾¾® No silver mirror

Glucose and starch

• Glucose + Fehling's solution ¾¾® Red ppt.
• Starch + Fehling's solution ¾¾® No red ppt.
OR
• Glucose + I2 solution ¾¾® No blue colour
• Starch + I2 solution ¾¾® Blue colour

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IMPORTANT NOTES

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ALLEN

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Chemistry HandBook

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HYDROCARBON - ALKANE

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HYDROCARBON - ALKENE

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Chemistry HandBook

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HYDROCARBON - ALKYNE

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HYDROCARBON - BENZENE

IMPORTANT NOTES

E 41
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HALOALKANE

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TRI-HALO ALKANE

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GRIGNARD REAGENT

IMPORTANT NOTES

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ALCOHOL

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ALCOHOL

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PHENOL

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Comparision
of
E1and E 2

Comparision
of
S1
N and S2N

REACTIONS SN1 SN2

A Kinetics 1st order 2nd order

B Rate k[RX] k[RX][Nu:Q]

C Stereochemistry Racemisation Inversion

D Substrate 3°> 2°>1°>MeX MeX

(reactivity) >1°>2°>3°
E Nucleophile Rate Needs Strong Nu
Independent
F Solvent Good ionizing Faster in aprotic

G Leaving Group Needs Good LG Needs Good LG

H Rearrangement Possible Not Possible

Summary of SN1, SN2, E1 and E2 REACTIONS E1 E2

1st 2nd
Reactions A Kinetics order order
B Rate k[RX] k[RX][B:—]
C Stereochemistry No special Antiperiplanar
geometry
D Substrate 3° > 2°>>>1° 3° >2° >1°
E Base Strength Rate Independent Needs Strong
bases
F Solvent Good ionizing Polarity not
import
G Leaving Group Needs Good LG Needs Good LG

H Rearrangement Possible Not Possible

RX Mechanism Q Q Nu/B Solvent Temp. Strong & bulky base
E2
Better
1° SN2 Q Q Polar aprotic Low (CH3 )3 COQ
OH,C H O2 5 Q Q HO;C H O2 5
SN2
2° Pola
E2 (CH3 )3 COQ

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SN2 µ 1° >
2° > 3°
(SN1) (Solvent (Low)
Polar aprotic 1
(E1) (Solvent) (High)
SN2 µ
Steric
SN1 Solvent Protic Low
hindrance
3°
E1 Solvent Protic High
Reactivity order towards
Primary (1°) Secondary Tertiary (3°)
(2°) SN1 or SN2 and E1 or E2
SN2 + E2 R–I > R–Br > R–Cl > R–F
Strong nucleophile SN2 >>E2 (if weak base, E2
SN2 favored) With increase in number of strong
Mostly SN1 at electron withrawing group at ortho
Weak nucleophile weak base Mostly SN2 Mostly SN2/SN1 low T mostly and para position, reactivity of X
E1 at high T towards aromatic nucleophilic
Weak nucleophile strong substitution increases.
Mostly E2 Mostly E2 E2
base
Cl Cl Cl NO2
Order of reactivity of NO2
< < <
Alkyl Halide towards
NO2 NO2
SN1 µ Benzylic>Allylic>3°>2°>1° NO2 NO2 Cl

SN1 µ Stability of carbocation

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Aldol Reaction (Aldehyde or ketone with H) a

dil. NaOH D
(i) 2CH CHO3 CH –CH–CH –CHO2 –H O2 CH –CH=CH–CHO3
(Aldol condensation product)
OH
Aldol
CH3 CH3
D
(ii) 2CH COCH3 3 CH –C–CH COCH2 3 –H O2
CH –C=CH–COCH3 3

(Aldol condensation product

OH
Ketol

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ALLEN

HCHO
D

¾® ¾®

E 61
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IMPORTANT NOTES

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CARBOXYLIC ACID

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Heating effect
a b xy acid
-Hydroxy acid
O
O
D H2C
C +
CC
H
OH
H CHC 3 D H3C
O D
CH3
H3C O CH CH C OH
g & d-Hydroxy acid b-
OC
O D
/D g-Lactone

O
a C
+b O D
C
OH
O d-Lactone D
g

a + /D

g d

Å D
Ph 3 2 H

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IMPORTANT NOTES

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ANILINE
PREPARATION

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ALLEN

BENZENE DIAZONIUM
CHLORIDE

FrSR Free Radical Substitution reaction

ESR Electrophilic Substitution reaction

NSR Nucleophilic Substitution reaction

SNAE Substitution Nucleophilic (addition elimination)

FrAR Free radical addition reaction

NAR Nucleophilic addition reaction

EAR Electrophilic addition reaction

FrER Free Radical Elimination reaction

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IMPORTANT NOTES

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Nutshell review & preview of

ORGANIC REAGENTS

E 77
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O
3

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ALLEN
OH OH

OH OH
(S yn )

NH2 NH2

Br
2 ,4,6 -tribrom oaniline 14. CO + OH (high temp. + Pressure)

CH 3
H C=C2
CH 3

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18. Fe+ Br2/FeBr3 28. H2(Ni) can reduce

(i) R C R R2CHOH

Br
RCH OH2
19. Fehling solutionused to identify – CH=O group.
PhCHO gives –ve test O
Observation: red ppt of Cu2O formed (iii) RCN ® RCH2NH2; –CºC– ® –CH2–CH2–,
–HC=CH– ® –CH2—CH2– 29. H (P
20. Grignard Reagent
Follows (i) Acid base reaction (ii) NAR (iii) NSR d/BaSO )2 4

21. H2(Pd/CaCO3) Quinoline (Lindlar catalyst) R—CºC— Quinoline

R® R—CH=CH—R (cis)
R RCH=O
22. H3PO2 O (Rosenmund reduction)

30. Jones Reagent (CrO3 + dil. H2SO4+ acetone)

(i) RCH2OH ® RCH=O; (ii) R2CHOH ® R2C=O

23. HN3 + H2SO4 31. KHSO4 Dehydrating Reagent

R C RNH2 CH2 CH CH2 OH CH2 CH CH O

O
OH OH
(Schmidt Reaction)
32. K2Cr2O7/H+
24. H3PO4/D
(i) RCH2OH ® RCO2H; (ii) R2CHOH ® R2C = O
H3PO4 Þ Same as H2SO4/D
33. MnO2
25. H2SO4/D (i) CH3—CH=CH—CH2—OH®CH3—CH=CH—CH=O (ii)
PhCH2OH ® PhCH=O
RC HCH 2
To oxidise allylic / benzylic hydroxyl group into
OH corresponding carbonyl.
Saytzeff product; C+ mechanism;
Rearranged alkene can be formed 34. NaHCO3
14 14
26. HNO2 (NaNO2 + HCl)
RCO H ¾¾¾¾¾®NaHCO3RCO Na- + + CO ­
(i) RNH2 ® R—OH; 2 2 2

(ii) PhNH2 ® PhN (0 – 5°C) (iii) PhNH2 ® PhOH

2
+

(high temperature) 35. NaHSO3 OH

OH OH OH
SONa3 +
O
(iv) [White crystals, soluble in water used to separate
NO
carbonyl from noncarbonyl compound]
27. HIO4 (Periodic acid)
36. NaOH(aq)
RCH CH RCH=O + R'CH=O OH OH
(i) R—X ® R—OH
Oxidative cleavage of diol

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(ii) RCOR' N(HaO2O)H R CO + R'OH Non-terminal Alkyne ®Terminal Alkyne

O O Basic hydrolysis (2–Butyne ® 1–butyne)
of ester
45. Na/EtOH
(iii) HCHO¾¾¾®OH —
HCO2- + CH OH (cannizaro)3 Reduce all except c/c double & triple bond

(iv) H C3 -CH = O ¾¾¾®OHD —

H C3 -CH = CH -CH = O
(Aldol condensation) 46. Zn(Hg) + HCl [Clemmensen's reduction]
37. Ninhydrin
R
Detection of amino acid
O
Observation : Purple coloured ion
NH –NH
47. 2 /OH– [Wolf Kishner reduction]
2
38. NaOR
Strong base : R–CO–R ® R–CH2–R
48. Na in Liq. NH3 [Birch reduction]

(i) RC H CH2 R R H
X R C CR CC
(Saytzeff Product : E2 elimination)
H R
(trans alkene)
(ii) H3C C C
OEt 49. OsO4 + H2O
O O O
(claisen condensation) (b keto ester)

39. NaOH + X2 or NaOX

(i) RC
- 51. Oxirane followed by H+
(Haloform
reaction) RMgX ® RCH2—CH2—OH
O
52. PCC
(ii) (Hoffman Degradation) O (i) RCH2OH ® RCHO,
(ii) R2CHOH ® R2C=O
40. NaOH + CaORCO2H ® RH (iii) R3COH ® no reaction
(Mild oxidizing reagent)
41. MnO / 300°C
used for –CO2 & –H2O in carboxylic acid. 53. P(red) + Br2

(i) CH3CO2H ® H2CCO2H (HVZ reaction) Br

42. NBS
Br (ii) ROH ® R —Br

54. P (red) + HICH3CO2H ® CH3—CH3

(i) ; (ii) PhCH3 ® PhCH2—Br CH3CH=O ® CH3—CH3
CH3CH2OH ® CH3—CH3
43. NaNO2 + HCl (strong reducing agent can reduce any oxygen or
halogen containing compound to alkane)
RNH2 ® R—OH

55. Perbenzoic acid [Baeyer Villiger Oxidation]

44. NaNH2 in paraffin

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R C R' R C OR' RCOCl + AlCl

57. 3 [Friedel craft acylation]
O O
CR
R' having more migrating tendency than R O

RCl+AlCl
56. 3 [Friedel craft alkylation]

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H SO2

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IMPORTANT NOTES

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Nutshell review & preview of ORGANIC

NAME REACTIONS
O
CC
• Aldol Condensation H
D
H 2 3 2 3 HH 3

• Claisen Condensation
• Perkin Condensation
Å

H
H H

C+
O H O O H
C in n am ic acid

O
2Benzoin

• Benzoin Condensation
OH H3C CH OC
O
R1 NaOI O
H3C C R1 NIa2OH CHI3 +R1 Na Å
• Haloform Reaction

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H
Å ÅN
H Cl CHCl
R N C Cl Isocyanide
R N C KOH3 H Cl C
H
• Carbylamine Test Cl

H
C O
H
(Salicylald ehyde)
OH
• Reimer Tiemman Reaction (Salicylic acid)
O

C
OH OH (
• Kolbe's Schimdt Reaction m ajor Salicylic acid)
O
B r
• Hoffmann Bromamide RCNH 2 K O H
2
R NH 2+ K 2C O 3

Degradation

O
NaN
R C Cl 3
+ R NH 2
• Curtius Reaction D,H O3

O HN3 H3OÅ R C OH H2SO4 R N C O

• Schimdt Reaction R NH2
O OO

• Cannizzaro reaction HC H NaOH50% H3CCHCH + slow OH

RDS 3
HO H
H

O
• Bayer villiger oxidation C H3C

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O–O–H

• Cumene O
+ CH –C–CH3 3

Cumene
hydroperoxide

Pinacol-Pincolone
rearrangement

C
OOH

• Birch Reduction

• Gabriel Synthesis

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NAME REACTIONS
Reactant Reagent Product

Reduction Aldehyde & Ketone Zn-Hg/conc. HCl Alkane

2

NaOH (phenol) HCl Azo Dye

tion
(Aniline) (Detection of OH or NH2 gr)

.. NaNO2 + HCl
N H2 0° – 5°C

H O
3C
CrO2Cl2/CS2
H
(Be nzalde hyde)
Halo benzene Na/Dry ether Diphenyl

+R—X
lkylation Anhydrous AlCl3 Alkyl Benzene

O
cylation C Cl or (RCO)2 O Anhydrous AlCl3 Acyl Benzene

ldehyde synthesis
C6H6 HCN+ HCl /ZnCl2/H3O+ Benzaldehyde

och reaction
C6H6 (CO + HCl) anhy AlCl3 Benzaldehyde
Zelinsky reaction carboxylic acid having a- a- halogenated
hydrogen atom Br2/ red P carboxylic acid
stard oil reaction CH3CH2—N=C=S +HgS
primary aliphatic amine + CS2 HgCl2/D
(black)
eaction Ag salt of carboxylic acid Br2/CCl4, 80°C alkyl or aryl bromide

ytic reaction alkali metal salt of

electrolysis alkane, alkene and alkyne
carboxylic acid

tion alkyl or aryl cyanide Na/C2H5OH primary amine

H2, Pd/BaSO4 boiling

eduction acid chloride xylene aldehyde

erens reaction Raney Ni/H2, 200—300°C

Unsaturated hydrocarbon Alkane

+ CuCl/HCl or CuBr/HBr or
action CuCN/KCN, heat Halo or cyanobenzene
C H6 5 N 2 Cl —

eaction C6H5N2+Cl— Cu/HX(HBr/HCl) Halobenzene

benzolytated product

mann reaction (phenol or aniline or alcohol) NaOH + C6H5COCl

tion alkyl cyanide (i) SnCl2/HCl (ii) H2O Aldehyde

sodium alkoxide or
nthesis alkyl halide sodium phenoxide Ether

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eaction alkyl halide + aryl halide Na/dry ether alkyl benzene

IMPORTANT NOTES

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POLYMERS
ADDITIONPOLYMERS
Name of Polymer Starting Materials Nature of Polymer
I. Polyolefins

ene or Polyethene CH2=CH2 Low density homopolymer (branched

chain growth
ylene or Polypropene CH3CH=CH2 Homopolymer, linear, chain growth
ne C6H5CH=CH2 Homopolymer, linear, chain growth
II. Polydiences
e Cl Homopolymer, chain growth
CH =CH-C=CH2 2
Chloroprene or
2-Chloro-1,3-butadiene
tyrene-Butadiene, Rubber) SBR CH =CH-CH=CH2 1,3-butadiene 2 and CH Copolymer, chain growth
CH=CH6 5Styrene 2

III. Polyacrylates
ylmethacrylate (Flexiglass CH3 Homopolymer
rylite or Perspex PMMA H C2 C COOCH3
acrylate H2C CH COOC2H5 Homopolymer
onitrile or Orlon PAN CH2=CH—CN Homopolymer

chloride PVC CH2=CH—Cl Homopolymer, chain growth

uoroethylene or Teflon PTFE F2C=CF2 Homopolymer
hlorotrifluoro-ethylene PCTFE ClFC=CF2 Homopolymer
CONDENSATION POLYMERS
Name of Polymer Starting Materials Nature of Polymer

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Terylene or Dacron O Copolymer, step

O
HO C growth, linear
C OH

HO CH2 CH2 OH Terephthalic acid or

Ethylene glycol or Ethane-1,2-diol And Benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid

Glyptal or Alkyl resin Copolymer, linear
HO CH2 CH2 OH and step growth
HOOC COOH
Ethylene glycol
Phthalic acid or
Benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid

Nylon-6,6 O O Copolymer, linear,

H N2 (CH2)6 NH2
HO C(CH2)4 C OH and Hexamethylenediamine step growth
Adipic acid

Nylon-6,10 H2N(CH2)6NH2 and HOOC(CH2)8COOH Copolymer, linear,

Hexamethylene diamine Sebacic acid step growth

Nylon-6 Homopolymer,
linear
NH O
Caprolactum

Formaldehyde resins

formaldehye resin or Bakelite Phenol and formaldehyde Copolymer, step growth

elamine formaldehyde resin Melamine and formaldehyde Copolymer, step growth

IMPORTANT NOTES

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CARBOHYDRATES

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(C6H10O5)n
: Starch &
• Carbodydrates are defined as optically active
cellulose.
polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the
• Mutarotation: When either form of D-glucose is
compound which produce such units on hydrolysis.
placed in aq. solution it slowly form the other via
• Monosaccharide (CnH2nOn) : single unit, can't be open chain aldehyde and gradual change in specific
hydrolysed : Glucose and fructose. rotation until specific rotation (± 52.5°) is reached.
6

• Oligosaccharides gives two to ten

monosaccharides on hydrolysis.

• Disaccharides (by glycosydic linkage) Sucrose

HC OH
¾¾¾®H O a-D. Glucose + b-D. Fructose;
3
+

4
Maltose ¾¾¾®H O 2 a-D. Glucose unit
3
+
OH
H OH H OH H OH

Lactose ¾¾¾®H O b-D. Glucose + b-D. Galactose

3
+ b-D-Glucose [a]0=52.5 a-D-Glucose

[a]D=+19° [a]D=+112°

• Polysaccharide : Contain more than ten • Anomer's : Differ in configuration at 1st carbon due
monosaccharide units to hemi (acetal or ketal) ring formation. The
TYPE OF SUGAR newasymmetric carbon is referred to as Anomeric
carbon.
Give Test Reducing Non • Epimer's : Diastereomer's which differ in
Reducing conformation at any one chiral carbon
Tollen's Reagent +ve test –ve test eg. D-Glucose & D-mannose
Fehling Reagent +ve test –ve test D-Glucose & D-Galactose
Benedict Test +ve test –ve test
Mutarotation Yes No
Functional Unit a

O H

OR
Acetal
O
R
O R
OH
Hemiketal OR
Ketal
Example All monosaccharides Disaccharide
Glucose Sucrose

Fructose Polysaccharide

Mannose Starch

Galactose cellulose
Disaccharide
Maltose
lactose

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H
4
b

a b

• Starch : (Amylose & Amylopectin)

• Amylose : (Straight Chain) :

• Amylopectin (Branch chain) : (C6H12O5)n

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REACTION OF GLUCOSE (OPEN CHAIN STRUCTURE)

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IMPORTANT NOTES

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