PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

functions nucleus contains thegeneticmaterial andcontrolsthe

cell activities
cell wall protects and supportsthe cell that surrounds
iyfjidsmme.MS
7otthecell's organelles arefound and's
foundimplant the site ofchemicalreactions
cellsonly vacuole a fluid filled with sac that containscellsap

iemiti.in tiaitie9Setieteen'indeintideandoutside of
the cell controlling what entersandexitsthe cell
ribosomes responsible for proteinsynthesiswithinthecell
chloroplasts containchlorophyll whichallowsplantsto carr
outphotosynthesis
chlorophyll absorbslightenergy
mitochondria energyis createdin thecell byrespiration

ANIMALCELL PLANTCELL
 SPECIALISED CELLS
functions root hair cells foundonsurfaceof plant roots absorb
water and nutrients from the soil
long hair like extension which increase surface area
forabsorbtion
redbloodcells responsiblefor carryingoxygenfrom our
lungstothe rest of the body
do nothavea nucleus
biconcavediscshaped thathavea largersurface area
haemoglobinfoundinsideRBCs responsible forbindingoxyge
spermcells reproductivecellsthat areproducedinthemale
reproductiveorgans specifically in thetestes
head contains DNAthat will bepassedonto theoffspring
midpiece containsmitochondria providesenergyto move
tail allows it to swimtowardstheegg
palisadecells photosynthesis occur
containlots ofchloroplasts
ciliatedcells movement ofmuscus in thetracheaandbrunch
foundin thelungsandnasalcavities
transportforeginparticles outoftherespiratorytracts
 DIFFUSION
The rate of diffusiondepends ontemperature surface
area distanceand concentration gradient
diffusion net movementofparticlesfroma regionofhigh
concentrationto lowconcentration

temperature4
rate of diffusion
surface area 4
adf.es fndieffusion4

rate of diffusion
concentrationgradient4
rate of diffusion

osmosis netmovementof watermoleculesfroma region

of higher water potential to lower water potential
from dilute to concentratedsolution
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

iiiiiiiaiai.is
iii f
Feins EHON
smallermoleculesmake largermolecules
starch and oxygen
simplesugars
fattyacidsandglycogen fats andoils
aminoacids proteins
tests
iodinesolution for starch
orangebrown blueblack
benedict's solution for reducingsugars
light blue brickred
biurretsolution for proteins
blue lilac purple
ethanol emulusiontest for fats andoils
colourless cloudyemulsion will form
 ENZYMES
definitions enzymes proteinsthatspeedupchemicalreactionsinthebody
Crucialfor digestionandmetabolism
substrate the molecule that binds to in order to performits
function Enzymesbindonlyto onespecificsubstrateor a
limitedrangeofsubstrates
temperature Temperatureaffectsthe rate of anenzymaticreactionbycausing
theenzymetodenature orunfold athightemperatures which
prevents it frombindingto its substrateandcatalysingthe
reaction
PH EnzymeshaveanoptimalpHlevelatwhichtheyfunctionbest If the
pHistoo high or too low theenzyme'sshapecan change
which can affecttheabilitytobindto itssubstrate
cosy the rate of anenzyme catalysedreactionincreasesas the
on substrateconcentrationincreases
upto acertainpoint There
are moresubstratemoleculesavaliablefor theenzymeto bindto
enzyme Therate of anenzyme catalysedreactionincreases as the
concentration enzymeconcentrationincreases upto a certainpoint There
are moreenzymemoleculesavailablefortheenzymetobindto

lockandkeytheory
y
 PLANT NUTRITION
photosynthesis process by whichplantsmanufacture
no
carbohydrates from raw materialsusingenergyfrom lig
lighttest underlight blueblack
coveredparts yellowbrown
carbondioxide test with carbondioxide black
withoutcarbondioxide yellowbrown
starch test withphotosynthesis purpleblack
withoutphotosynthesis iodinebrown
chlorophylltest with chlorophyll blue black
without chlorophyll yellowbrown

cuticle waxy layer that prevents water loss fromtop

of the leaf
epidermis transparent cell that allowssunlightto pass
throughto the palisadecell
palisade found at thetopofthecellandcontainsmany
chloroplastswhich absorbssunlight
spongymesophylllayer irregularlyshapedcells which
creates air spacesto allow gaseousexchangeto take place
vascularbundle made up ofxylemandphloem
xylem vessel whichtransports water anddissolved
minerals and has lignifiedwalls of cellulosefor support
phloem vessel whichtransportsnutrients
stomata little holes that opens and closes to allow
gaseousexchange to takeplace I close prevent
water loss open to let gases come in and out

leaf
structure
ALIMENTARY CANAL
ingestion takingofsubstances
digestion breakdownoflargeinsolublefoodmolecules into
small watersolublemoleculesusingmechanicalandchemical
processes
mechanical breakdownoffoodinto smallerpieceswithout
chemicalchangeto thefoodmolecules
chemical breakdown oflarge insolublemoleculesinto

absorption m vemm t
digestedfoodmoleculesthroughthe
wallofthe intestineintotheblood
assimilation movementofdigestedfoodmoleculesintothecells
ofthebodywheretheyare usedbecomingpartofthe cells
egestion passingoutoffoodthat hasnotbeendigested as
faecesthroughtheanus
stomach mixes andchurnsfoodwithgastricjuices
pancreas producesdigestiveenzymesandbicarbonateto break
downfood
large intestine responsiblefor absorbing water andstoring
waste
oesophagus transportfoodfromthepharynxtothestomach
salivaryglands producesaliva helpsbreakdownfoodinmouth
liver producesbile storesglucose processesabsorbednutrients
gallbladder storesbileandreleases it intothesmallintestinetobreal
downfats
mouth breaksupfoodparticles
small intestine completesdigestion
 DIGESTION
types of teeth incisors locatedinfrontofthemouththatareusedforbiting
andcuttingfood
2incisors canine molars flat surfacedteethwithmultiplecuspsdesignedfor
4premolars 6 molarsper grindingfood
quadrant
premolars havetwocuspsontheir chewingsurfacesandare
32teethin total
positionedbetweencaninesandmolars
canines havesharppointsontheirtipsitear.no dandbite

teethstructure dentineprovidessupportto the enamel

enamel coversthe crown hardest substanceinthebody
pulp containsbloodvessels nervesandconnectivetissue
cement coverstheroot anchorsthetoothintothejawbone

amylasebreaksdownstarchto simplersugars
protease breaksdownproteinto amino acids
lipase breaksdownfats tofattyacidsandglycerol
 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
xylem transport water from therootsto theleaves
phloem transportsugarsupanddowntheplant
locationinroot xylem in the centresurrounded byphloemforsupport
location in stem em andphloemfound near the outsidetoreducebending
location in leave xylem and phloem make upa network of veins thatsupport
thinleaves
roothaircells absorbwater andmineralsfromthesoil
root hair cell cortexcells xylem mesophyllcells
largesurface area will increase rate ofabsorptionof
traits'piadti.in lossofwatervapourbyevaporation
factorsaffecting light temperature humidity windspeed
humidity rate oftranspiration concentrationof water
vapour is toohighoutsidethe leaf so it can'tdiffuseout
translocation transportsucroseandaminoacidsthroughthe
phloem
sucrose is from photosynthesis
amino acid is fromchloroplasts
 TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS

B oa m in The
e's
venacavaandflowsinto therightatrium
into therightventriclethroughthevalvethenleavesthroughthe
dd pulmonaryarteryto thelungs Oxygenatedbloodreturnsvia the
fflffffpff.ph
pulmonaryveinintothe left atriumthroughthevalveand into the

war 0 0
left ventriclethenoutto thebody
valvespreventthebackflowofblood
theadvantage of adoublecirculation is that it's able to
deliveroxygenandcarrywasteawayfaster
arteries largestthickestbloodvesselsthatcarryoxygenatedblood
to thebodyfromthe heart
thicker tocopewithhighpressurebloodflow
capillaries small numerousbloodvesselsthattransportblood
betweenarteriesandveins
thintoallowgasexchange
veins thinwalledbloodvesselswhichcarry deoxygenated
bloodfromthe organsandtissues to the heart
contain valuesto preventbackflowofblood
composition ofblood
redbloodcells transportoxygen withhaemoglobin
biconcavediscscontainingnonucleusbutplentyofhaemoglobin
whitebloodcells antibodyproduction
largecells with abignucleus
platelets clotting
fragmentsofcells
plasma transportofbloodcells ions solublenutrients
hormonesand CO2
yellowcolouredliquid
 GAS EXCHANGE
featuresofgasexchangesurfaces largesurfacearea thin
surface goodbloodsupplyandgood ventilation with air
compositionofinspired air inhaled moreoxygenlessCO2
pulmonary
compositionofexpiredair exhaled lessoxygen moreCO2
pulmonary
watervapourcomesfromthemoisturecontainedin the air
inspiredgas isthegas wetake in duringbreathing which
mostlycontainsoxygenin adequate amount whereas
expiredgas isthegaswebreathe outwhichismostly602
limewater test forcarbondioxideinvestigatethedifference
in compositionbetweeninspiredandexpired air
limewater turnsmilkywhen co is bubbled shaken
Physical activities affect the rate anddepthofbreathing
as thebodyuses moreoxygenandproduces more CO2
a rise in carbondioxide declineinoxygenlevelsin the blood
stimulates an increase in respiratory rate and dept
gobletcellssecretemucuswhichhelpsprotecttheliningof
role of thebronchusandtrapmicroorganisms
ciliated cellsprovidestheforcetoclearwasteandtransport
muscusalongtheairways
Tobacosmoking will lead to lungcancer and CHD as the
majortoxiccomponents like carbonmonoxide nicotineand
tar will affectone'sbody
 RESPIRATION
usesofenergy musclecontraction proteinsynthesis cell

m Ént division growthandthe maintenanceof a constantbodytemp

aerobicrespiration thechemicalreactionincellsthatuseoxygen
to breakdownnutrientmoleculesto releaseenergy
glucose oxygen carbondioxide water
641206 602 6002 61420
anaerobicrespiration thechemicalreactionsincellsthatbreak
downnutrient molecules toreleaseenergywithoutusingoxygen
duringvigorousexercise glucose lactic acid
lactic acid buildsup in musclesandbloodduringvigorous
exercise causing an oxygendebt
inmicroogranismyeast glucose alcohol carbondioxide
role ofanaerobicrespiration in yeastduringbreadmaking
thecarbondioxideproducedmakebreaddough rise
anaerobicrespirationreleasesmuchlessenergyper
glucosemoleculethan aerobicrespiration
NERVOUS CONTROL
a nerveimpulse is an electrical signal that passesalong
nervecellscalledneurons
CNS centralnervoussystem maincomponentsbrainspinalcor
PNS peripheralnervoussystem allthenervesin the body
It allowsustomakesenseof oursurroundingsandrespondto
themandtocoordinateandregulatebodyfunctions
voluntaryaction whereyoumakeaconsciousdecisionto
carry out a particularaction starts with thebrain
involuntary action doesn'tinvolvethebrain as the
coordinatorofthereaction occur withoutconsciouscontrol
reflex arc stimulus receptorcells sensoryneurons
relayneurons motor neurons effector reactio
Receptor in the skindetects a stimulus
Sensoryneuronesendselectricalimpulses to a relayneuron
Motorneuronesendselectricalimpulsesto an effector
Effectorproduces a response
areflexaction
ameansofautomaticallyandrapidlyintergratingand
coordinatingstimuli withtheresponses ofeffectors
 SENSE ORGANS
cornea refracts light
iris controlshowmuchlightenterspupil
lens focuseslightonto retina
retina containslightreceptors
opticnerve carries impulsestothebrain
and radial muscles controlthe contraction and
pupilreflexintermsoflight circular
intensityandantagonistic relaxation ofthepupilto changehowmuchlightenterstheeye

9 I 95919m theyareantagonistic as onecontracts the other relaxes

 HORMONES
hormone a chemical substanceproducedby agland carried

SEEDA HE by thebloodwhichalterstheactivityof one or morespecific

targetorgans
adrenaline thehormonesecreted in fightorflight situations
increasingpulserateandbreathing rate soglucoseandoxygen
canbedeliveredtomusclecells andcarbondioxidetaken
away frommusclecellsmorequickly
dilatingpupilsto allow asmuchlightas possibleto reach
the retinasomoreinformation can be sentto the brain
role ofadrenaline
helpsuscopewithdangerbyincreasing the heart rate
increasingmetabolicactivitywillgivemoreenergytofight
or to runaway
causesthelivertoreleaseglucoseintothebloodwhichincrease
thebloodglucoseconcentration
 HOMEOSTASIS
homeostasis themaintenanceof aconstantinternalenvironmen
internal conditionswithinyourbodyneedto bekeptwithinset
limits inordertoensurethat reactionsinbodycellscanfunctionwell
homeostasismakessure thebodytemperatureisbeingmaintain
at about37 Cevenwhen itfluctuates
negativefeedback when a fluctuation in particular
parameter suchasbodytemperature isreducedso that
it returns to its normalrangeoffunctioning
eg thermoregulation bloodglucoseconcentration osmoregulatio
anychangesin anyoftheseparameterresultsin thebody
actingso that thechangeisminimisedandisbroughtbackto its
normalrange
control ofglucosecontentoftheblood
insulin producedwhenbloodglucoserises stimulatesliver and
musclecellstoconvertexcessglucoseintoglycogento bestored
glucagon producedwhenbloodglucosefalls stimulates liver
andmusclecellstoconvertstoredglycogen intoglucoseto be
releasedintotheblood
maintenance of a constantinternalbodytemperature
hypothalamusregulatebodytemperature
fattytissuepreventheatloss
sweat issecretedby sweatglands coolsskin by evaporation
skeletalmusclescontractrapidlyand we shiver heatwill be
released
cold bloodflow slowsdown and skincapillariesget narrower
this is known as vasoconstriction
 TROPIC RESPONSES
gravitropism a response in whichpartsof a plant grow
towards or awayfromgravity
planthormonegathers onthelowerside of theplant In
theshoot chemicalstimulatesgrowth so the stemcurves
upwardsandawayfromgravity
phototropism a response inwhich a plantgrowstowards
or awayfromthe directionfrom which lightis coming
chemicalsmove to the part of theplantreceivingless ligh
makingtheplantbendtowards the light
investigation ofgravitropism inshootsandroots
1 freshlygerminateseedlingsinside a glass jar theseed is
held by a roll of moistclottingpaper
2 seedlingsareallowedtogrow for afurtherfivedays with
thejars placedtherightwayup upsidedown on its side
results therootswill godownwards theshootgrowupwards
investigationof phototropism insnootsandroots
experiment threegroups hasitstipsremovedtipsarecovered untreate
I thecoleoptiles areputin lightproofboxeswithonegapwhich
onlyallow light toenter laterally
2 theyare measured2 3days later newlengthsrecorded
results untreatedcoleoptiles willgrowthemost asthey
wouldbendtowardsthelight
auxinsareproducedin theshoottipsofgrowingplants
theyspreadthroughplantsfromtheshoottip
distributionthroughouttheplantis unequal diff responseto
lightandgravity
auxinsintheshootstimulatecellelongationbystimulating th
absorption ofwater forcecellstoexpand
auxins in the root canslowdowncellgrowth
ASEXUAL SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
asexual reproduction a process resulting in the
production ofgeneticallyidenticaloffspringfrom oneparen
disadvantages of asexualreproduction
limitedgeneticvariation in population
onlysuitablefor one habitat
advantages of asexualreproduction
populationcan be increasedeasily
lesstimeandenergyneeded
eg fungi
sexual reproduction aprocessinvolvingthe fusion of the
nuclei oftwogametes to form a zygoteand the production
ofoffspringthat are geneticallydifferentfrom each other
nuclei ofgametes haploid i nucleiofzygote diploid
disadvantagesof sexualreproduction
takes more time andenergyto findmates forreproductio
advantagesofsexualreproduction
increases geneticvariation
abilityto adaptto new environments
diseaselesslikelytoaffectpopulation
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
sepals protectsthe flower when it is a bud
petals attract insectsforpollination
stamens malereproductiveorgan
filaments holds anther inplace
anther transports the male sex cell
stigmas receivespollengrains
m'ites
a
insectpollinatedpollengrains bigger heavier sticky
windpollinatedpollengrains smaller lighter
pollination the transfer ofpollengrainsfrom the anther
to thestigma
agents of pollination air water animals insects
fertilisation occurswhena pollennucleusfuseswith a
nucleus in anovule
adaptativefeatures
insectpollination brightcolouredpetals scentedflowers
stickystigma smallamountofpollen
windpollination smalldullpetals no scent longfilament
forpollentobeblownawayfeatherystigmatocatchpollen
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
testes productionofmalegametes
scrotum sac thatholdsthe testesoutsidethebody
spermducts transferspermto the urethra
prostategland secretefluids forspermtoswim in
formingsemen
urethra carries urineandsemenoutofthebody
penis transferssementovaginaduringsexualintercourse
ovaries releaseoffemalegametes
oviducts transferseggstouterusandthesiteoffertilisation
uterus wherethefetusdevelops
cervix ringofmuscle at theopeningoftheuterus
vagina receivespenisduringsexualintercourse
fertilisation thefusionofthenucleifroma malegamete sperm
and a femalegamete egg
adaptations

spermcells containsenzyme
intheheadregionmitochondr
eggcells cytoplasmstore
energy jellylikecoating

menstrualcycle every28days
aneggdevelopsandis releasedfromtheovaries
g the lining of the uterusbuildsup
theuterineliningshedsduring a menstrual period
earlydevelopment thezygoteforms an embryo which is
a ball of cells that implants intothe wall of theuterus
umbilicalcord transferoxygenandnutrients frommotherto
fetus
placenta passesoxygen nutrients antibodiesto fetus
amnioticsac protectsfetus from injury filled with
amniotic fluid
functionof placentaand umbilical cord
exchange ofdissolvednutrients gasesandexcretory
productsand providing a barriertotoxins
humanimmunodeficiencyvirus HIV mayleadto aquired
immunedeficiencysyndrome AIDS
sexualintercoursewilltransmitHIV
can becontrolledbycondoms
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
inheritance thetransmissionofgeneticinformationfrom
generation to generation
chromosome threadlikestructureofDNA carryinggenetic
information in theformofgenes
gene alengthofDNAthatcodes for protein
allele aversion of gene
the
perm
receiveYchromosome XYformstestes male
haploidnucleus a nucleuscontaining asingleset ofunpaired
chromosome eg gametes
diploidnucleus a nucleus containingtwo set of chromosomes
eg bodycells
diploid cell chromosomes are arranged inpairsand in a
humandiploidcell 23pairs
CELL DIVISION
mitosis anucleardivisiongiving rise togeneticallyidentical

theexactduplicationof chromosomes occursbeforemitosis

roleofmitosis growth repairofdamagetissues replaceme
of cellsandasexual reproduction
meiosis reduction division inwhichthe chromosome numbe
ishalvedfromdiploidto haploidresultingin genetically
differentcells
meiosis involved in the production ofgametes
 MONOHYDRD INHERITANCE
genotype geneticmakeupof an organism in terms of the
allelespresent
phenotype theobservablefeature of an organism
homozygous havingtwo identical allelesof aparticular
gene
two identicalhomozygous individuals that breedtogether
willbepurebreeding
heterozygous havingtwo different alleles of a particular
gene
heterozygousindividual will not be purebreeding
dominant an allele that isexpressed if it's present
recessive an allele that is onlyexpressed whenthere is
A a
no dominant allele of thegenepresent
A AA Aa BB homozygote dominant
Bb heterozygote dominant 75 dominant25 recessive
a bb homozygoterecessive
Aa aa
3 phenotype

b b

b bb bb

b bb bb
VARIATION AND SELECTION
variation as differences betweenindividuals of the same
species
phenotypicvariation appearance
causedbybothgeneticandenvironmentalfactors
genotypic variation genetic
continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes
betweentwo extremesleg heightinhumans
discontinuous variation caused bygeneslegbloodtype
results in a limitednumberof phenotypes with nointermediat
mutation a change in geneor chromosome
ionisingradiation andsomechemicals increase the rate of
mutation
naturalselection geneticsbeingpassedon
variation
overproduction
struggleforsurvival
competition forresources
advantageouscharacteristicspassedontooffspring
gradualchange
evolution thechangeinadaptivefeatures of a populationover
timeasthe result ofnaturalselection
eg development of strains ofantibiotic resistantbacteria
adaptation theprocesswhenpopulationsbecomemoresuited
to their environmentovermanygenerations
selectivebreeding artificialselection
selectionbyhumans ofindividualswith desirablefeatures
crossingtheseindividualstoproducethenextgeneration
selectionofoffspringshowingthe desirablefeatures
eg farming horticultureandpetbreeding
differencesbetweennaturaland artificial selection
humansdecidewhichcharacteristicsare desirable
whilenaturalselectionis an ongoingprocess which
organismsadaptto the environment andpassing their
allelesonto their offsprings
ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
the sun is the principalsource ofenergyinputto
biologicalsystems
foodchain showingthetransferofenergyfromone organism
to the next beginningwith a producer
foodweb a networkofinterconnectedfoodchains
producer an organismthatmakes its ownorganic nutrients
usually fromsunlight through photosynthesis
consumer anorganismthatgetsitsenergybyfeeding on
other organisms
herbivore an animal that gets itsenergybyeatingplants
carnivore an animal thatgetsits energybyeatingother
animals
decomposer anorganismthatgetsits energyfromdead
or wasteorganicmatter
ecosystem a unitcontaining all the organismsand their
environmentinteractingtogetherin agivenarea eg lake
sunlight producer primaryconsumer secondaryconsumer tertiaryconsum
TP trophiclevel producer TPI 2 3 4
 HUMAN INFLUENCES ON ECOSYSTEMS

carboncycle whencarbon isconstantlyrecycledbetween

livingthingsandtheenvironment
carbonis taken out oftheatmospherebyplantsto beused
forphotosynthesisandpassedontoanimalsbyfeedingThen
returnedintheformofcarbondioxidebyplantsanimalsand
microorganismsas a result ofrespiration
Whenorganismsdie theydecompose or turn intofossilfuels
combustion
whenfossilfuelsareburnt
And whencombustionhappens carbondioxideisreleased
into the atmosphere
effectsof the combustionof fossilfuelsandcuttingdownof
forests
combustionformscarbondioxide
cuttingdowntreesreducestheamountofphotosynthesis
leadsto CO2levelsrisingandoxygenlevelsfalling
globalwarmingaccelerates
deforestation leadsto
habitatdestruction
speciesextinctasthere are fewerresourcesforanimals
andplantstosurvive
lossofsoil
soilerosionandleachingofmineralscaused
leaching when asolublechemicalormineral is washedaway
fromthe soilbyrainwater
flooding
withouttrees the topsoil will belooseandunstableso it will
beeasilywashedawaybyrain increasingthe riskoffloodsand
landslides
increaseofcarbondioxidein the atmosphere
process of eutrophicationof water
increased avaliabilityof nitrate andotherions
increasedgrowthofproducers
increaseddecomposition afterdeathofproducers
increasedaerobicrespirationbydecomposers
reduction in dissolvedoxygen
deathoforganismsrequiringdissolvedoxygenin water