Shivaji

Shivaji I (Shivaji Shahaji Bhonsale, Marathi pronunciation: [ʃiˈʋaːdʑiː ˈbʱos(ə)le];

c. 19 February 1630 – 3 April 1680)[6] was an Indian ruler and a member of the
Shivaji I
Bhonsle dynasty.[7] Shivaji carved out his own independent kingdom from the Maharaj
Adilshahi Sultanate of Bijapur that formed the genesis of the Maratha Shakakarta[1]
Confederacy. In 1674, he was formally crowned the Chhatrapati of his realm at Haindava Dharmoddharak[2]
Raigad Fort.[8] Kshatriya Kulavantas[3]

Over the course of his life, Shivaji engaged in both alliances and hostilities
with the Mughal Empire, the Sultanate of Golkonda, the Sultanate of Bijapur
and the European colonial powers. Shivaji's military forces expanded the
Maratha sphere of influence, capturing and building forts, and forming a
Maratha navy. Shivaji established a competent and progressive civil
administration with well-structured administrative institutions. He revived
ancient Hindu political traditions, court conventions and promoted the use of
the Marathi and Sanskrit languages, replacing Persian at court and in
administration.[8][9] Praised for his chivalrous treatment of women,[10] Shivaji
employed people of all castes and religions, including Muslims[11] and
Europeans, in his administration and armed forces.[12]

Shivaji's legacy was to vary by observer and time, but nearly two centuries
after his death he began to take on increased importance with the emergence of
the Indian independence movement, as many Indian nationalists elevated him Portrait of Shivaji (c. 1680s), British Museum
as a proto-nationalist, founder of the Swaraj movement, and hero of the Chhatrapati of the Marathas
Hindus.[13][14][15] Reign 6 June 1674 – 3 April 1680
Coronation 6 June 1674 (first)

Early life 24 September 1674 (second)

Predecessor Position established
Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of Shivneri, near Junnar, which is now in Pune
Successor Sambhaji
district. Scholars disagree on his date of birth; the Government of Maharashtra
lists 19 February as a holiday commemorating Shivaji's birth (Shivaji Peshwa Moropant Trimbak Pingle
Jayanti).[a][22][23] Shivaji was named after a local deity, the Goddess Shivai
Born 19 February 1630
Devi.[24][25]
Shivneri Fort, Ahmadnagar
Sultanate (present-day Maharashtra,
Shivaji belonged to a Maratha family of the Bhonsle clan.[26] Shivaji's father,
Shahaji Bhonsle, was a Maratha general who served the Deccan Sultanates.[27] India)

His mother was Jijabai, the daughter of Lakhuji Jadhavrao of Sindhkhed, a Died 3 April 1680 (aged 50)
Mughal-aligned sardar claiming descent from a Yadav royal family of Raigad Fort, Mahad, Maratha
Devagiri.[28][29] His paternal grandfather Maloji (1552–1597) was an Kingdom (present-day Maharashtra,
influential general of Ahmadnagar Sultanate, and was awarded the epithet of India)
"Raja". He was given deshmukhi rights of Pune, Supe, Chakan, and Indapur to Spouse Sai Bhonsale
provide for military expenses. He was also given Fort Shivneri for his family's ​
​(m. 1640; died 1659)​
residence (c. 1590).[30][31]
Soyarabai ​(m. 1650)​
At the time of Shivaji's birth, power in the Deccan was shared by three Islamic Putalabai ​(m. 1653)​
sultanates: Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda, and the Mughal Empire. Shahaji Sakvarbai ​(m. 1656)​
often changed his loyalty between the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar, the Kashibai Jadhav[4]
Adilshahi of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his jagir (fiefdom) at
Issue 8,[5] including Sambhaji and
Pune and his small army.[27]
Rajaram I
House Bhonsale
Father Shahaji
 Mother Jijabai
Ancestry Religion Hinduism
Signature

Ancestors of Shivaji
8.Babaji
4. Maloji

2.Shahaji

5.Uma Bai

1. Shivaji I
12.Vithoji
6.Lakhuji Jadhav

13.Thakrai
3. Jijabai

7. Mahalsabai Jadhav

Conflict with Bijapur Sultanate

Background and context

In 1636, the Sultanate of Bijapur invaded the kingdoms to its south.[7] The sultanate had
recently become a tributary state of the Mughal Empire.[7][32] It was being helped by
Shivneri Fort
Shahaji, who at the time was a chieftain in the Maratha uplands of western India. Shahaji
was looking for opportunities of rewards of jagir land in the conquered territories, the
taxes on which he could collect as an annuity.[7]

Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service. Shahaji's campaigns against the Mughals, supported by the Bijapur government,
were generally unsuccessful. He was constantly pursued by the Mughal army, and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move
from fort to fort.[33]

In 1636, Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained Poona as a grant. Shahaji,
being deployed in Bangalore by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah, appointed Dadoji Kondadeo
as Poona's administrator. Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona.[34] Kondadeo died in 1647
and Shivaji took over its administration. One of his first acts directly challenged the
Bijapuri government.[35]

Independent generalship
In 1646, 16-year-old Shivaji captured the Torna Fort through stratagem or bribery,[36]: 61
taking advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the illness of
Sultan Mohammed Adil Shah, and seized the large treasure he found there.[37][38] In the
following two years, Shivaji took several important forts near Pune, including Purandar,
Kondhana, and Chakan. He also brought areas east of Pune around Supa, Baramati, and
Indapur under his direct control. He used the treasure found at Torna to build a new fort
named Rajgad. That fort served as the seat of his government for over a decade.[37] After
Young Shivaji (right) meets his
this, Shivaji turned west to the Konkan and took possession of the important town of
father Shahaji. (left)
Kalyan. The Bijapur government took note of these happenings and sought to take action.
On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was imprisoned by a fellow Maratha sardar called Baji
Ghorpade, under the orders of the Bijapur government, in a bid to contain Shivaji.[39]
Shahaji was released in 1649, after the capture of Jinji secured Adilshah's position in
Karnataka. During 1649–1655, Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated
his gains.[40] Following his father's release, Shivaji resumed raiding, and in 1656, under
controversial circumstances, killed Chandrarao More, a fellow Maratha feudatory of
Bijapur, and seized the valley of Javali, near the present-day hill station of
Mahabaleshwar.[41] The conquest of Javali allowed Shivaji to extend his raids into south
and southwest Maharashtra. In addition to the Bhonsle and the More families, many others
—including Sawant of Sawantwadi, Ghorpade of Mudhol, Nimbalkar of Phaltan, Shirke,
Gharge of Nimsod, Mane, and Mohite—also served Adilshahi of Bijapur, many with Map of Southern India c. 1605
Deshmukhi rights. Shivaji adopted different strategies to subdue these powerful families,
such as forming marital alliances, dealing directly with village Patils to bypass the
Deshmukhs, or subduing them by force.[42] Shahaji in his later years had an ambivalent attitude toward his son, and disavowed
his rebellious activities.[43] He told the Bijapuris to do whatever they wanted with Shivaji.[43] Shahaji died around 1664–1665 in a
hunting accident.[44]

Combat with Afzal Khan

The Bijapur Sultanate was displeased with their losses to Shivaji's forces, with their vassal
Shahaji disavowing his son's actions. After a peace treaty with the Mughals, and the
general acceptance of the young Ali Adil Shah II as the sultan, the Bijapur government
became more stable, and turned its attention towards Shivaji.[45] In 1657, the sultan, or
more likely his mother and regent, sent Afzal Khan, a veteran general, to arrest Shivaji.
Before engaging him, the Bijapuri forces desecrated the Tulja Bhavani Temple, a holy site
for Shivaji's family, and the Vithoba temple at Pandharpur, a major pilgrimage site for
Hindus.[46][47][48]

Pursued by Bijapuri forces, Shivaji retreated to Pratapgad fort, where many of his
colleagues pressed him to surrender.[49] The two forces found themselves at a stalemate,
with Shivaji unable to break the siege, while Afzal Khan, having a powerful cavalry but
lacking siege equipment, was unable to take the fort. After two months, Afzal Khan sent an
envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two leaders meet in private, outside the fort, for
An early-20th-century painting by negotiations.[50][51]
Sawlaram Haldankar of Shivaji
fighting the Bijapuri general Afzal The two met in a hut in the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The
Khan arrangements had dictated that each come armed only with a sword, and attended by one
follower. Shivaji, suspecting Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him,[52][b] wore armour
beneath his clothes, concealed a bagh nakh (metal "tiger claw") on his left arm, and had a
dagger in his right hand.[54] What transpired is not known with historical certainty, mainly
Maratha legends tell the tale; however, it is agreed that the two wound up in a physical
struggle that proved fatal for Khan.[c] Khan's dagger failed to pierce Shivaji's armour, but
Shivaji disembowelled him; Shivaji then fired a cannon to signal his hidden troops to
Pratapgad fort attack the Bijapuri army.[56]

In the ensuing Battle of Pratapgarh, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the Bijapur
Sultanate's forces. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed; and one sardar of high rank, two sons of Afzal Khan,
and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner.[57] After the victory, a grand review was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh. The
captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and sent back to their homes with money, food, and other gifts. Marathas
were rewarded accordingly.[57]

Siege of Panhala
Having defeated the Bijapuri forces sent against him, Shivaji and his army marched towards the Konkan coast and Kolhapur,
seizing Panhala fort, and defeating Bijapuri forces sent against them, under Rustam Zaman and Fazl Khan, in 1659.[58] In 1660,
Adilshah sent his general Siddi Jauhar to attack Shivaji's southern border, in alliance with the Mughals who planned to attack
from the north. At that time, Shivaji was encamped at Panhala fort with his forces. Siddi Jauhar's army besieged Panhala in mid-
1660, cutting off supply routes to the fort. During the bombardment of Panhala, Siddi Jauhar purchased grenades from the English
at Rajapur, and also hired some English artillerymen to assist in his bombardment of the fort, conspicuously flying a flag used by
the English. This perceived betrayal angered Shivaji, who in December would retaliate by plundering the English factory at
Rajapur and capturing four of the owners, imprisoning them until mid-1663.[59]

After months of siege, Shivaji negotiated with Siddi Jauhar and handed over the fort on 22 September 1660, withdrawing to
Vishalgad;[60] Shivaji would retake Panhala in 1673.[61]

Battle of Pavan Khind

Shivaji escaped from Panhala by cover of night, and as he was pursued by the enemy cavalry, his Maratha sardar Baji Prabhu
Deshpande of Bandal Deshmukh, along with 300 soldiers, volunteered to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind
("horse ravine") to give Shivaji and the rest of the army a chance to reach the safety of the Vishalgad fort.[62]

In the ensuing battle of Pavan Khind, the smaller Maratha force held back the larger enemy to buy time for Shivaji to escape. Baji
Prabhu Deshpande was wounded but continued to fight until he heard the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad,[26] signalling
Shivaji had safely reached the fort, on the evening of 13 July 1660.[63] Ghod Khind (khind meaning "a narrow mountain pass")
was later renamed Paavan Khind ("sacred pass") in honour of Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Shibosingh Jadhav, Fuloji, and all other
soldiers who fought there.[63]

Conflict with the Mughals

Until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered
his assistance to Aurangzeb, the son of the Mughal Emperor and viceroy of the Deccan, in
conquering Bijapur, in return for formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and
villages in his possession. Dissatisfied with the Mughal response, and receiving a better
offer from Bijapur, he launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan.[64] Shivaji's confrontations
with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two of Shivaji's officers raided the Mughal
territory near Ahmednagar.[65] This was followed by raids in Junnar, with Shivaji carrying
off 300,000 hun in cash and 200 horses.[66] Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending
Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, Aurangzeb's
countermeasures against Shivaji were interrupted by the rainy season and his battles with
his brothers over the succession to the Mughal throne, following the illness of the emperor
Shah Jahan.[67]

Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat

Shivaji with his personal guards by
At the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb, now the Mughal emperor, sent his
Mir Muhammad c. 1672
maternal uncle Shaista Khan, with an army numbering over 150,000, along with a
powerful artillery division, in January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's
army led by Siddi Jauhar. Shaista Khan, with his better equipped and well provisioned
army of 80,000 seized Pune. He also took the nearby fort of Chakan, besieging it for a
month and a half before breaching the walls.[68] He established his residence at Shivaji's
palace of Lal Mahal.[69]

On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan's camp.[70]
He, along with 400 men, attacked Shaista Khan's mansion, broke into Khan's bedroom and
wounded him. Khan lost three fingers.[71] In the scuffle, Shaista Khan's son and several A 20th century depiction of Shivaji's
wives, servants, and soldiers were killed.[72] The Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces surprise attack on Mughal general
outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished him for this embarrassment with a transfer to Shaista Khan in Pune by M.V.
Bengal.[73] Dhurandhar

In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in
1664 Shivaji sacked the port city of Surat, a wealthy Mughal trading centre and decamped with plunder exceeding Rs 10
million.[74][75] On 13 February 1665, he also conducted a naval raid on Portuguese-held Basrur in present-day Karnataka, and
gained a large plunder.[76][77]
Treaty of Purandar
The attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat enraged Aurangzeb. In response, he sent the Rajput
general Jai Singh I with an army numbering around 15,000 to defeat Shivaji.[78]
Throughout 1665, Jai Singh's forces pressed Shivaji, with their cavalry razing the
countryside, and besieging Shivaji's forts. The Mughal commander succeeded in luring
away several of Shivaji's key commanders, and many of his cavalrymen, into Mughal
service. By mid-1665, with the fortress at Purandar besieged and near capture, Shivaji was
forced to come to terms with Jai Singh.[78] Shivaji is noted to have said when receiving Jai
Singh "I have come as a guilty slave to seek forgiveness, and it is for you to pardon or kill
me at your pleasure."[79]

In the Treaty of Purandar, signed by Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665, Shivaji agreed
to give up 23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation of 400,000 gold
hun to the Mughals.[80] Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire, and to
send his son Sambhaji, along with 5,000 horsemen, to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan,
as a mansabdar.[81][82]

Sambhaji was taken as a political prisoner to ensure compliance with the treaty. Shivaji
himself wished to be excused from attending the court. To this end, he wrote letters to
Aurangzeb, requesting forgiveness for his actions and security for himself along with a Shivaji submits to Jai Singh
robe of honour. He also requested Jai Singh to support him in getting his crimes pardoned
by the emperor, stating "Now you are protector and a father to me, so I beg you to fulfil the
ambition of your son."[83][84] On September 15, 1665, Aurangzeb granted his request and
sent him a letter and a firman along with a robe of honor. Shivaji responded with a letter
thanking the emperor.[79]

Arrest in Agra and escape

In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra (though some sources instead state Delhi),
along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb planned to send Shivaji to
Raja Jai Singh of Amber receiving
Kandahar, now in Afghanistan, to consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. Shivaji a day before concluding the
However, on 12 May 1666, Shivaji was made to stand at court alongside relatively low- Treaty of Purandar
ranking nobles, men he had already defeated in battle.[85] Shivaji took offence, stormed
out,[86] and was promptly placed under house arrest. Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh,
guaranteed custody of Shivaji and his son.[87] The emperor also withheld the previous
honors bestowed upon him such as his robe of honour, elephant and jewels.[88]: 211

Shivaji's position under house arrest was perilous, as Aurangzeb's court debated whether to
kill him or continue employing him. Jai Singh, having assured Shivaji of his personal
safety, tried to influence Aurangzeb's decision. While Shivaji regarded himself as a king, in
the eyes of the Mughal emperor, he was only a relatively successful rebel zamindar.[89]

By the time the order for his posting to Kabul arrived, a rumor had already spread at the 20th century depiction by M.V.
Dhurandhar of Raja Shivaji at the
court that Shivaji would be killed along the way. However, the order was canceled when
court of Mughal Badshah,
Shivaji refused to go. During the negotiations that followed, Shivaji demanded the transfer
Aurangzeb.
of his forts before becoming a mansabdar, a demand the emperor rejected. The orders to
kill him were prevented only by Jai Singh's intervention. In the end, Shivaji's request to
leave for Banaras as a sannyasi was also rejected.[89]

Meanwhile, Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself. He sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his
guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son. He surrendered to Mughal forces.[90][91] Shivaji then
pretended to be ill and began sending out large baskets packed with sweets to be given to the Brahmins and poor as
penance.[92][93][94] On 17 August 1666, by putting himself in one of the baskets and his son Sambhaji in another, Shivaji escaped
and left Agra.[95][96][97] Stewart Gordon opines that there is no contemporary evidence to support this story. He also states that,
despite Aurangzeb's suspicions regarding Ram Singh's involvement in Shivaji's escape, nothing was proven and Shivaji likely
bribed the guards to facilitate his escape.[98]
Peace with the Mughals
After Shivaji's escape, hostilities with the Mughals ebbed, with the Mughal sardar Jaswant Singh acting as an intermediary
between Shivaji and Aurangzeb for new peace proposals.[99] Between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb also conferred the title of Raja
on Shivaji, although he did not restore his right over forts.[100] Sambhaji was also restored as a Mughal mansabdar with 5,000
horses. Shivaji at that time sent Sambhaji, with general Prataprao Gujar, to serve with the Mughal viceroy in Aurangabad, Prince
Mu'azzam. Sambhaji was also granted territory in Berar for revenue collection.[101] Aurangzeb also permitted Shivaji to attack
Bijapur, ruled by the decaying Adil Shahi dynasty; the weakened Sultan Ali Adil Shah II sued for peace and granted the rights of
sardeshmukhi and chauthai to Shivaji.[102]

Reconquest
The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670, after which Aurangzeb
became suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu'azzam, who he thought might
usurp his throne, and may even have been receiving bribes from Shivaji.[103][104] Also at
that time, Aurangzeb, occupied in fighting the Afghans, greatly reduced his army in the
Deccan; many of the disbanded soldiers quickly joined Maratha service.[105] The Mughals
also took away the jagir of Berar from Shambhaji to recover the money lent a few years
earlier for his father's trip to Agra.[88]: 212 [106] In response, Shivaji launched an offensive
against the Mughals and in a span of four months recovered a major portion of the
territories that had been surrendered to them.[107]

Shivaji sacked Surat for a second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able
to repel his attack, but he managed to sack the city itself, including plundering the goods of
a Muslim prince from Mawara-un-Nahr, who was returning from Mecca. Angered by the
renewed attacks, the Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas, sending a force under
Daud Khan to intercept Shivaji on his return home from Surat; this force was defeated in Dutch painting depicting Shivaji
c. 1680
the Battle of Vani-Dindori near present-day Nashik.[108]

In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to harass the English at Bombay; as they had
refused to sell him war materiel, his forces blocked English woodcutting parties from leaving Bombay. In September 1671,
Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay, again seeking materiel, this time for the fight against Danda-Rajpuri. The English had
misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain from this conquest, but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving
compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur. The English sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but
negotiations failed over the issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the coming years, with
some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji was never to pay the Rajapur indemnity before his death, and the
factory there dissolved at the end of 1682.[109]

Battles of Umrani and Nesari

In 1674, Prataprao Gujar, the sarnaubat (commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces) and Anandrao, was sent to push back the
invading force led by the Bijapuri general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the
battle, after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of
Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so, Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a fresh invasion.[110]

Shivaji sent a letter to Prataprao, expressing his displeasure and refusing him an audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured.
Upset by this rebuke, Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his position with only six other horsemen, leaving his main force
behind, and was killed in combat. Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death, and arranged for the marriage of his
second son, Rajaram, to Prataprao's daughter. Prataprao was succeeded by Hambirrao Mohite, as the new sarnaubat. Raigad Fort
was newly built by Hiroji Indulkar, as a capital of the nascent Maratha kingdom.[111]

Coronation
Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and wealth through his campaigns, but lacking a formal title, he was still technically a
Mughal zamindar or the son of a Bijapuri jagirdar, with no legal basis to rule his de facto domain. A kingly title could address this
and also prevent any challenges by other Maratha leaders, who were his equals.[d] Such a title would also provide the Hindu
Marathis with a fellow Hindu sovereign in a region otherwise ruled by
Muslims.[113]

The preparation for a proposed coronation began in 1673. However, some

controversies delayed the coronation by almost a year.[114] One controversy
erupted amongst the Brahmins of Shivaji's court: they refused to crown Shivaji as
a king because that status was reserved for those of the kshatriya varna (warrior
class) in Hindu society.[115] Shivaji was descended from a line of headmen of
farming villages, and the Brahmins accordingly categorized him as a Maratha,
not a Kshatriya.[116][117] They noted that Shivaji had never had a sacred thread
ceremony, and did not wear the thread, such as a kshatriya would.[118] When 20th century depiction of the Coronation
Shivaji came to know about this conspiracy, he later bribed and summoned Gaga Durbar with over 100 characters depicted in
Bhatt, a pandit of Varanasi, who stated that he had found a genealogy proving attendance by M.V. Dhurandhar
that Shivaji was descended from the Sisodias, and thus indeed a kshatriya, albeit
one in need of the ceremonies befitting his rank.[119][120][121] To enforce this
status, Shivaji was given a sacred thread ceremony, and remarried his spouses under the
Vedic rites expected of a kshatriya.[122][123] However, according to historical evidence,
Shivaji's claim to Rajput, and specifically of Sisodia ancestry, may be seen as being
anything from tenuous, at best, to purely inventive.[124]

On 28 May, Shivaji did penance for his and his ancestors' not observing Kshatriya rites for
so long. Then he was invested by Gaga Bhatt with the sacred thread.[125] On the insistence
of other Brahmins, Gaga Bhatt omitted the Vedic chant and initiated Shivaji into a
modified form of the life of the twice-born, instead of putting him on a par with the
Brahmins. Next day, Shivaji made atonement for the sins, deliberate or accidental,
committed in his own lifetime.[126] He was weighed separately against seven metals
including gold, silver, and several other articles, such fine linen, camphor, salt, sugar etc.
All these articles, along with a lakh (one hundred thousand) of hun, were distributed
among the Brahmins. According to Sarkar, even this failed to satisfy the greed of the
Brahmins. Two of the learned Brahmins pointed out that Shivaji, while conducting his Portrait of Shivaji I c. 1675
raids, had killed Brahmins, cows, women, and children. He could be cleansed of these sins
for a price of Rs. 8,000, which Shivaji paid.[126] The total expenditure for feeding the
assemblage, general almsgiving, throne, and ornaments approached 1.5 million rupees.[127]

On 6 June 1674, Shivaji was crowned king of the Maratha Empire (Hindavi Swaraj) in a lavish ceremony at Raigad fort.[128][129]
In the Hindu calendar it was the 13th day (trayodashi) of the first fortnight of the month of Jyeshtha in the year 1596.[130] Gaga
Bhatt officiated, pouring water from a gold vessel filled with the waters of the seven sacred rivers—Yamuna, Indus, Ganges,
Godavari, Narmada, Krishna, and Kaveri—over Shivaji's head, and chanted the Vedic coronation mantras. After the ablution,
Shivaji bowed before his mother, Jijabai, and touched her feet. Nearly fifty thousand people gathered at Raigad for the
ceremonies.[131][132] Shivaji was entitled Shakakarta ("founder of an era")[1] and Chhatrapati ("Lord of the Umbrella"). He also
took the title of Haindava Dharmodhhaarak (protector of the Hindu faith)[2] and Kshatriya Kulavantas:[3][133][134] Kshatriya
being the varna[e] of Hinduism and kulavantas meaning the 'head of the kula, or clan'.[135]

Shivaji's mother died on 18 June 1674. The Marathas summoned Nischal Puri Goswami, a tantric priest, who declared that the
original coronation had been held under inauspicious stars, and a second coronation was needed. This second coronation, on 24
September 1674, mollified those who still believed that Shivaji was not qualified for the Vedic rites of his first coronation, by
being a less controversial ceremony.[136][137][138]

Conquest in southern India

Beginning in 1674, the Marathas undertook an aggressive campaign, raiding Khandesh (October), capturing Bijapuri Ponda
(April 1675), Karwar (mid-year), and Kolhapur (July).[139] In November, the Maratha navy skirmished with the Siddis of Janjira,
but failed to dislodge them.[140] Having recovered from an illness, and taking advantage of a civil war that had broken out
between the Deccanis and the Afghans at Bijapur, Shivaji raided Athani in April 1676.[141]
In the run-up to his expedition, Shivaji appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that
Southern India was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders.[142][143] His
appeal was somewhat successful, and in 1677 Shivaji visited Hyderabad for a month and
entered into a treaty with the Qutubshah of the Golkonda sultanate, who agreed to
renounce his alliance with Bijapur and jointly oppose the Mughals.

In 1677, Shivaji invaded Karnataka with 30,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry, backed by
Golkonda artillery and funding.[144] Proceeding south, Shivaji seized the forts of Vellore
and Gingee;[145] the latter would later serve as a capital of the Marathas during the reign of
his son Rajaram I.[146] This conquest gave him possession of vast territory in Mysore
plateau and Madras Carnatic, containing 100 forts.[74]

Shivaji intended to reconcile with his half-brother Venkoji (Ekoji I), Shahaji's son by his Tanjavur Maratha Kingdom
second wife, Tukabai (née Mohite), who ruled Thanjavur (Tanjore) after Shahaji. The
initially promising negotiations were unsuccessful, so whilst returning to Raigad, Shivaji
defeated his half-brother's army on 26 November 1677 and seized most of his possessions on the Mysore plateau. Venkoji's wife
Dipa Bai, whom Shivaji deeply respected, took up new negotiations with Shivaji and also convinced her husband to distance
himself from his Muslim advisors. In the end, Shivaji consented to turn over to her and her female descendants many of the
properties he had seized, with Venkoji consenting to a number of conditions for the proper administration of the territories and
maintenance of Shahji's tomb (samadhi).[147][148]

Death and succession

The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated.
In 1678, Shivaji confined his son Sambhaji to Panhala Fort
for having an addiction to sensual pleasures or violating a
Brahmin woman.[149] Only to have the prince escape with
his wife and defect to the Mughals where he fought
against Shivaji in the Battle of Bhupalgarh. Upon
returning home, unrepentant, he was again confined to
Panhala Fort.[150]

Shivaji died around 3–5 April 1680 at the age of 50,[151] at

Raigad Fort, on the eve of Hanuman Jayanti. The cause of
Shivaji's death is disputed. British records states that
Shivaji died of bloody flux, after being sick for 12 days.[f]
In a contemporary work in Portuguese, in the Biblioteca
Sambhaji, Shivaji's elder son
Nacional de Lisboa, the recorded cause of death of Shivaji who succeeded him
Samadhi of Shivaji-I (Memorial)
is anthrax.[153][154] However, Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad,
author of Sabhasad Bakhar, a biography of Shivaji has
mentioned fever as the cause of death.[155][154] Putalabai, the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed sati by
jumping into his funeral pyre. Another surviving spouse, Sakwarbai, was not allowed to follow suit because she had a young
daughter.[150] There were also allegations, though doubted by later scholars, that his second wife Soyarabai had poisoned him in
order to put her 10-year-old son Rajaram on the throne.[156]

After Shivaji's death, Soyarabai made plans, with various ministers, to crown her son Rajaram rather than her stepson Sambhaji.
On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne. However, Sambhaji took possession of Raigad Fort after
killing the commander, and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20 July.[157] Rajaram, his
mother Soyarabai and wife Janki Bai were imprisoned, and Soyrabai was executed on charges of conspiracy that October.[158]
Governance

Ashta Pradhan Mandal

The Council of Eight Ministers, or Ashta Pradhan Mandal, was an administrative and advisory council set up by Shivaji.[159][160]
It consisted of eight ministers who regularly advised Shivaji on political and administrative matters. The eight ministers were as
follows:[155]

Ashta Pradhan Mandal

Minister Duty
Peshwa or Prime Minister General administration

Amatya or Finance Minister Maintaining public accounts

Mantri or Chronicler Maintaining court records

Summant or Dabir or Foreign Secretary All matters related to relationships with other states

Sachiv or Shurn Nawis or Home Secretary Managing correspondence of the king

Panditrao or Ecclesiastical Head Religious matters

Nyayadhis or Chief Justice Civil and military justice

Senapati/Sari Naubat or Commander-in-Chief All matters related to army of the king

Except the Panditrao and Nyayadhis, all other ministers held military commands, their civil duties often being performed by
deputies.[155][159]

Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit

At his court, Shivaji replaced Persian, the common courtly language in the region, with Marathi, and emphasised Hindu political
and courtly traditions. Shivaji's reign stimulated the deployment of Marathi as a systematic tool of description and
understanding.[161] Shivaji's royal seal was in Sanskrit. Shivaji commissioned one of his officials to make a comprehensive
lexicon to replace Persian and Arabic terms with their Sanskrit equivalents. This led to the production of the Rājavyavahārakośa,
the thesaurus of state usage in 1677.[9]

Religious policy
Many modern commentators have deemed Shivaji's religious policies as tolerant. While encouraging Hinduism, Shivaji not only
allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their ministries with endowments.[162]

Noting that Shivaji had stemmed the spread of the neighbouring Muslim states, his contemporary, the poet Kavi Bhushan stated:

Had not there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have been turned into a mosque and all
would have been circumcised.[163]

However, Gijs Kruijtzer, in his book Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India, argues that the foundation for modern Hindu-
Muslim communalism was laid in the decade 1677–1687, in the interplay between Shivaji and Aurangzeb (though Shivaji died in
1680).[164] During the sack of Surat in 1664, Shivaji was approached by Ambrose, a Capuchin friar who asked him to spare the
city's Christians. Shivaji left the Christians untouched, saying "the Frankish Padrys are good men."[165]

Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. He was tolerant of different religions and believed in syncretism. He
urged Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had little trouble forming alliances
with the surrounding Muslim nations, even against Hindu powers. He also did not join forces with certain other Hindu powers
fighting the Mughals, such as the Rajputs.[g] His own army had Muslim leaders from early on. The first Pathan unit was formed in
1656. His admiral, Darya Sarang, was a Muslim.[167]
 Bakhar dedicated to Shivaji Writings of Modi Script. line 2 is
from the time of Shivaji

Ramdas
Shivaji was a contemporary of Samarth Ramdas. Historian Stewart Gordon concludes about their relationship:

Older Maratha histories asserted that Shivaji was a close follower of Ramdas, a Brahmin teacher, who guided him in an
orthodox Hindu path; recent research has shown that Shivaji did not meet or know Ramdas until late in his life. Rather,
Shivaji followed his own judgement throughout his remarkable career.[36]

Seal
Seals were a means to confer authenticity on official documents. Shahaji and Jijabai had
Persian seals. But Shivaji, right from the beginning, used Sanskrit for his seal.[9] The seal
proclaims: "This seal of Shiva, son of Shah, shines forth for the welfare of the people and
is meant to command increasing respect from the universe like the first phase of the
moon."[168]

Mode of warfare
Shivaji maintained a small but effective standing army. The core of Shivaji's army
consisted of peasants of Maratha and Kunbi castes.[169] Shivaji was aware of the
limitations of his army. He realised that conventional warfare methods were inadequate to Royal seal of Shivaji

confront the big, well-trained cavalry of the Mughals, which was equipped with field
artillery. As a result, Shivaji mastered guerilla tactics which became known as Ganimi Kawa in the Marathi language.[170][171] His
strategies consistently perplexed and defeated armies sent against him. He realized that the most vulnerable point of the large,
slow-moving armies of the time was supply. He utilised knowledge of the local terrain and the superior mobility of his light
cavalry to cut off supplies to the enemy.[166] Shivaji refused to confront the enemy in pitched battles. Instead, he lured the
enemies into difficult hills and jungles of his own choosing, catching them at a disadvantage and routing them. Shivaji did not
adhere to a particular tactic but used several methods to undermine his enemies, as required by circumstances, such as sudden
raids, sweeps and ambushes, and psychological warfare.[172]

Shivaji was contemptuously called a "Mountain Rat" by Aurangzeb and his generals, because of his guerilla tactics of attacking
enemy forces and then retreating into his mountain forts.[173][174][78]

Military
Shivaji demonstrated great skill in creating his military organisation, which lasted until the demise of the Maratha Empire. His
strategy rested on leveraging his ground forces, naval forces, and series of forts across his territory. The Maval infantry served as
the core of his ground forces (reinforced by Telangi musketeers from Karnataka) and supported by Maratha cavalry. His artillery
was relatively underdeveloped and reliant on European suppliers, further inclining him to a very mobile form of warfare.[175]
Hill forts
Hill forts played a key role in Shivaji's strategy. Ramchandra Amatya, one of Shivaji's
ministers, describes the achievement of Shivaji by saying that his empire was created from
forts.[176] Shivaji captured important Adilshahi forts at Murambdev (Rajgad), Torna,
Kondhana (Sinhagad), and Purandar. He also rebuilt or repaired many forts in
advantageous locations.[177] In addition, Shivaji built a number of forts, numbering 111
according to some accounts, but it is likely the actual number "did not exceed 18."[178] The
historian Jadunath Sarkar assessed that Shivaji owned some 240–280 forts at the time of
his death.[179] Each was placed under three officers of equal status, lest a single traitor be Suvela Machi, view of southern sub-
bribed or tempted to deliver it to the enemy. The officers acted jointly and provided mutual plateaux, as seen from Ballekilla,
checks and balances.[180] Rajgad

Navy
Aware of the need for naval power to maintain control along the Konkan coast, Shivaji
began to build his navy in 1657 or 1659, with the purchase of twenty galivats from the
Portuguese shipyards of Bassein.[181] Marathi chronicles state that at its height his fleet
counted some 400 warships, although contemporary English chronicles counter that the
number never exceeded 160.[182]

With the Marathas being accustomed to a land-based military, Shivaji widened his search
for qualified crews for his ships, taking on lower-caste Hindus of the coast who were long
familiar with naval operations (the famed "Malabar pirates"), as well as Muslim Sindudurg Fort provided
mercenaries.[182] Noting the power of the Portuguese navy, Shivaji hired a number of anchorages for Shivaji's Navy
Portuguese sailors and Goan Christian converts, and made Rui Leitao Viegas commander
of his fleet. Viegas was later to defect back to the Portuguese, taking 300 sailors with
him.[183]

Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them. He built his first marine fort at Sindhudurg, which
was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.[184] The navy itself was a coastal navy, focused on travel and combat in the
littoral areas, and not intended for the high seas.[185][186]

Legacy
Shivaji was well known for his secularism, warrior code of ethics, and exemplary
character.[187]

Contemporaneous view
Shivaji was admired for his heroic exploits and clever stratagems in the contemporary
accounts of English, French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Italian writers.[188] Contemporary
English writers compared him with Alexander, Hannibal, and Julius Caesar.[189] The
French traveller Francois Bernier wrote in his Travels in Mughal India:[190]

I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate, Seva-Gy, the Holy Seva-Gi!
respected the habitation of the Reverend Father Ambrose, the Capuchin
missionary. 'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and shall not be
attacked.' He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker, of
the Dutch, because assured that he had been very charitable while alive.

An early-20th-century painting by M.
Mughal depictions of Shivaji were largely negative, referring to him simply as "Shiva"
V. Dhurandhar of Shivaji and Baji
without the honorific "-ji". One Mughal writer in the early 1700s described Shivaji's death
Prabhu at Pawan Khind
as kafir bi jahannum raft (lit. 'the infidel went to Hell').[191] His chivalrous treatment of
enemies and women has been praised by Mughal authors, including Khafi Khan. Jadunath
Sarkar writes:[10]
 His chivalry to women and strict enforcement of morality in his camp was a wonder in that age and has extorted the
admiration of hostile critics like Khafi Khan.

Early depictions
The earliest depictions of Shivaji by authors not affiliated with Maratha court in Maharashtra are to be found in the bakhars that
depict Shivaji as an almost divine figure, an ideal Hindu king who overthrew Muslim dominion. The current academic consensus
is that while these Bakhars are important for understanding how Shivaji was viewed in his time, they must be correlated with
other sources to decide historical truth. Sabhasad Bakhar and 91 Kalami Bakhar are considered the most reliable of all bakhars by
scholars.[78]

Nineteenth century
In the mid–19th century, Marathi social reformer Jyotirao Phule wrote his interpretation of
the Shivaji legend, portraying him as a hero of the shudras and dalits. Phule's 1869 ballad-
form story of Shivaji was met with great hostility by the Brahmin-dominated media.[192]

In 1895, the Indian nationalist leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak organised what was to be an
annual festival to mark the birthday of Shivaji.[13] He portrayed Shivaji as the "opponent
of the oppressor", with possible negative implications concerning the colonial
government.[193] Tilak denied any suggestion that his festival was anti-Muslim or disloyal
A miniature Bronze statue of Shivaji
to the government, but simply a celebration of a hero.[194] These celebrations prompted a in the collection of the Shri Bhavani
British commentator in 1906 to note: "Cannot the annals of the Hindu race point to a single Museum of Aundh
hero whom even the tongue of slander will not dare call a chief of dacoits...?"[195]

One of the first commentators to reappraise the critical British view of Shivaji was M. G. Ranade, whose Rise of the Maratha
Power (1900) declared Shivaji's achievements as the beginning of modern nation-building. Ranade criticised earlier British
portrayals of Shivaji's state as "a freebooting power, which thrived by plunder and adventure, and succeeded only because it was
the most cunning and adventurous ... This is a very common feeling with the readers, who derive their knowledge of these events
solely from the works of English historians."[196]

In 1919, Sarkar published the seminal Shivaji and His Times. Sarkar was able to read primary sources in Persian, Marathi, and
Arabic, but was challenged for his criticism of the "chauvinism" of Marathi historians' views of Shivaji.[197] Likewise, although
supporters cheered his depiction of the killing of Afzal Khan as justified, they decried Sarkar's terming as "murder" the killing of
the Hindu raja Chandrao More and his clan.[198]

In 1937, Dennis Kincaid, a British civil servant in India, published The Grand Rebel.[199] This book portrays Shivaji as a heroic
rebel and a master strategist fighting a much larger Mughal army.[78]

Post independence
In modern times, Shivaji is considered as a national hero in India,[200][201][202] especially
in the state of Maharashtra, where he remains an important figure in the state's history.
Stories of his life form an integral part of the upbringing and identity of the Marathi
people.[203]

Hindutva activists are noted for appropriating Shivaji by presenting him as "Hindu king"
who "fought against Muslim rulers", contrary to historic accounts that show he belonged to
a marginalised caste and held secular values.[204][205][206]
Statue of Shivaji at Raigad Fort
Political parties
In 1966, the Shiv Sena (lit. 'Army of Shivaji') political party was formed to promote the interests of Marathi-speaking people in
the face of migration to Maharashtra from other parts of India, and the accompanying loss of power of locals. His image adorns
literature, propaganda, and icons of the party.[207]

Shivaji is seen as a hero by regional political parties and also by the Maratha-caste-dominated Indian National Congress and the
Nationalist Congress Party.[208]
Controversies related to Shivaji's depiction
In the late 20th century, Babasaheb Purandare became one of the most significant authors in portraying Shivaji in his writings,
leading him to be declared in 1964 as the Shiv-Shahir (lit. 'Bard of Shivaji').[209][210] However, Purandare, a Brahmin, was also
accused of overstating the influence of Brahmin gurus on Shivaji,[208] and his Maharashtra Bhushan award ceremony in 2015 was
protested by those claiming he had defamed Shivaji.[211]

In 1993, the Illustrated Weekly published an article suggesting that Shivaji was not opposed to Muslims per se, and that his style
of governance was influenced by that of the Mughal Empire. Congress Party members called for legal actions against the
publisher and writer, Marathi newspapers accused them of "imperial prejudice", and Shiv Sena called for the writer's public
flogging. Maharashtra brought legal action against the publisher under regulations prohibiting enmity between religious and
cultural groups, but a High Court found that the Illustrated Weekly had operated within the bounds of freedom of
expression.[212][213]

In 2003, the American academic James W. Laine published his book Shivaji: Hindu King
in Islamic India to, what Ananya Vajpeyi terms, a regime of "cultural policing by militant
Marathas".[214][215] As a result of this publication, the Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute, in Pune, where Laine had done research, was attacked by the Sambhaji
Brigade.[216][217] Laine was even threatened with arrest,[214] and the book was banned in
Maharashtra in January 2004. The ban was lifted by the Bombay High Court in 2007, and
in July 2010 the Supreme Court of India upheld the lifting of the ban.[218] This lifting was
followed by public demonstrations against the author and the decision of the Supreme
Court.[219][220] Statue of Shivaji opposite the
Gateway of India in South Mumbai

Commemorations
Statues of Shivaji are found in every taluka in Maharashtra[221][222] as well as in many places across India, including
Mumbai,[223] Pune,[222] New Delhi,[224] Surat,[225] and Yellur.[226] There are also statues outside of India including in San Jose,
California,[227] and Mauritius.[228]

Several Mumbai landmarks were renamed for Shivaji in the 1990s, around the same time
that Bombay was renamed Mumbai.[229][8] The Prince of Wales Museum, which is
devoted to Indian history, was renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu
Sangrahalaya.[229] Victoria Terminus, Mumbai's main railway station and the headquarters
of the Central Railway zone,[230] was initially renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and
later renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus.[8] Similarly, Mumbai's busiest
airport, Sahar International Airport, was first renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji International
Airport and further renamed to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport.[231]
A replica of Raigad Fort built by
Other commemorations include the Indian Navy's INS Shivaji station[232] and numerous children on occasion of Diwali as a
postage stamps.[233] In 2022, the Indian prime minister unveiled the new ensign of the tribute to Shivaji.
Indian Navy, which was inspired by the seal of Shivaji.[234] In Maharashtra, there has been
a long tradition of children building replica forts with toy soldiers and other figures during
the festival of Diwali, in memory of Shivaji.[235][236]

A proposal to build a giant memorial called Shiv Smarak was approved in 2016; the memorial is to be located near Mumbai on a
small island in the Arabian Sea. It will be 210 metres (690 ft) tall, which will make it the world's tallest statue when
completed.[237] As of August 2021, the project has been stalled since January 2019, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Only the
bathymetry survey has been completed, while the geotechnical survey was underway. Consequently, the state public works
department proposed extending the completion date by a year, from 18 October 2021 to 18 October 2022.[238]

Sources

Notes
a. Based on multiple committees of historians and experts, the Government of Maharashtra accepts 19 February
 1630 as his birthdate. This Julian calendar date of that period (1 March 1630 of today's Gregorian calendar)
corresponds[16] to the Hindu calendar birth date from contemporary records.[17][18][19] Other suggested dates
include 6 April 1627 or dates near this day.[20][21]
b. A decade earlier, Afzal Khan, in a parallel situation, had arrested a Hindu general during a truce ceremony.[53]
c. Jadunath Sarkar after weighing all recorded evidence in this behalf, has settled the point "that Afzal Khan struck
the first blow" and that "Shivaji committed.... a preventive murder. It was a case of a diamond cut diamond." The
conflict between Shivaji and Bijapur was essentially political in nature, and not communal.[55]
d. Most of the great Maratha Jahagirdar families in the service of Adilshahi strongly opposed Shivaji in his early
years. These included families such as the Ghadge, More, Mohite, Ghorpade, Shirke, and Nimbalkar.[112]
e. Varna is sometimes also termed Varnashrama Dharma
f. As for the cause of his death, the Bombay Council's letter dated 28 April 1680 says: "We have certain news that
Shivaji Rajah is dead. It is now 23 days since he deceased, it is said of a bloody flux, being sick 12 days." A
contemporaneous Portuguese document states that Shivaji died of anthrax. However, none of these sources
provides sufficient details to draw a definite conclusion. The Sabhasad Chronicle states that the King died of fever,
while some versions of the A.K. Chronicle state that he died of "navjvar" (possibly typhoid).[152]
g. Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. Over and over, he espoused tolerance and syncretism.
He even called on Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had no
difficulty in allying with the Muslim states which surrounded him – Bijapur, Golconda, and the Mughals – even
against Hindu powers, such as the nayaks of the Karnatic. Further, he did not ally with other Hindu powers, such
as the Rajputs, rebelling against the Mughals.[166]

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Gaga Bhatta had performed the ceremony at an inauspicious hour and neglected to propitiate the spirits adored in
the Tantra. That was why, he said, the queen mother Jija Bai had died within twelve days of the ceremony and
similar other mishaps had occurred."
137. Indian Institute of Public Administration. Maharashtra Regional Branch (1975). Shivaji and swarajya (https://books.
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Kshatriya clan and that he could be crowned a Chhatrapati and the other to show that he was not entitled to the
Vedic form of recitations at the time of the coronation"
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according to the Vedic rites, then according to the Tantric. Shivaji was anxious to satisfy all sections of his
subjects. There was some doubt about his Kshatriya origin (see note at the end of this chapter). This was of more
than academic interest to his contemporaries, especially Brahmans [Brahmins]. Traditionally considered the
highest caste in the Hindu social hierarchy. the Brahmans would submit to Shivaji, and officiate at his coronation,
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November 1677, and Ekoji was defeated. By the treaty he signed, Bangalore and the adjoining areas were given
to Shivaji, who then made them over to Ekoji's wife Deepabai to be held by her, with the proviso that Ekoji had to
ensure that Shahaji's Memorial was well tended."
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Press. p. 93. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195141269.003.0006 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2
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father, we are also aware of his testy relationship with his oldest son Sambhaji, who deserted his father's
cause for a time and allied with the Mughals, and is primarily remembered for his affronts to the chaste virtue
of brahmin women, his drug use, and his association with Tantric priests of questionable integrity"
Richards, John F. (1993). "Maratha insurgency and Mughal conquest in the Deccan". The Mughal Empire (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC). Cambridge University Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-521-
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Mehta, Jaswant Lal (1986). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India (https://books.google.com/books?
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Vatsal, Tulsi (1982). Indian political history, from the Marathas to modern times (https://books.google.com/book
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addicted to wine, and fond of the society of handsome women, and gave himself up to pleasure.' He was not
merely dissolute; in 1678 he had actually deserted to the Mughal camp and had attacked the Maratha fort of
Bhupalgad, and Shivaji had been forced to keep him in confinement at Panhala."
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Further reading
Apte, B. K., ed. (1974–1975). Chhatrapati Shivaji: Coronation Tercentenary Commemoration Volume. Bombay:
University of Bombay. OCLC 3032928 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3032928).
Laine, James W. (2003). Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India (https://archive.org/details/shivajihinduking0000lain).
Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-514126-9.
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Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (2): 221–235. doi:10.2307/2053980 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2053980).
JSTOR 2053980 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053980). S2CID 162482005 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:162482005).

External links
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