Shivaji

Shivaji I (Shivaji Shahaji Bhonsale, Marathi pronunciation: [ʃiˈʋaːdʑiː ˈbʱos(ə)le]; c. 19 February 1630 – 3
April 1680)[6] was an Indian ruler and a member of the Bhonsle dynasty.[7] Shivaji carved out his own
independent kingdom from the Sultanate of Bijapur that formed the genesis of the Maratha Empire.
In 1674, he was formally crowned the Chhatrapati of his realm at Raigad Fort.[8]

Shivaji offered passage and his service to the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to invade the declining
Sultanate of Bijapur. After Aurangzeb's departure for the north due to a war of succession, Shivaji
conquered territories ceded by Bijapur in the name of the Mughals.[9]: 63 Following his defeat at the
hands of Jai Singh I in the Battle of Purandar, Shivaji entered into vassalage with the Mughal empire,
assuming the role of a Mughal chief and was conferred with the title of Raja by Aurangzeb.[10] He
undertook military expeditions on behalf of the Mughal empire for a brief duration.[11] Over the
course of his life, Shivaji engaged in both alliances and hostilities with the Mughal Empire, the
Sultanate of Golconda, the Sultanate of Bijapur and the European colonial powers.

In 1674, Shivaji was crowned as the king despite opposition from local Brahmins.[9]: 87 [12] Praised for
his chivalrous treatment of women,[13] Shivaji employed people of all castes and religions, including
Muslims[14] and Europeans, in his administration and armed forces.[15] Shivaji's military forces
expanded the Maratha sphere of influence, capturing and building forts, and forming a Maratha
navy.

Shivaji's legacy was revived by Jyotirao Phule about two centuries after his death. Later on, he came
to be glorified by Indian nationalists such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and appropriated by Hindutva
activists.[16][17][18][19][20]

Early life

Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of Shivneri, near Junnar, which is now in Pune district. Scholars
disagree on his date of birth; the Government of Maharashtra lists 19 February as a holiday
commemorating Shivaji's birth (Shivaji Jayanti).[a][27][28] Shivaji was named after a local deity, the
Goddess Shivai Devi.[29][30]

Shivaji belonged to a Maratha family of the Bhonsle clan.[31] Shivaji's father, Shahaji Bhonsle, was a
Maratha general who served the Deccan Sultanates.[32] His mother was Jijabai, the daughter of
Lakhuji Jadhavrao of Sindhkhed, a Mughal-aligned sardar claiming descent from a Yadava royal
family of Devagiri.[33][34] His paternal grandfather Maloji (1552–1597) was an influential general of
Ahmadnagar Sultanate, and was awarded the
Shivaji I
epithet of "Raja". He was given deshmukhi rights
of Pune, Supe, Chakan, and Indapur to provide for Maharaj
military expenses. He was also given Shivneri fort Shakakarta[1]
for his family's residence (c. 1590).[35][36] Haindava Dharmoddharak[2]
Kshatriya Kulavantas[3]
At the time of Shivaji's birth, power in the Deccan
was shared by three Islamic sultanates: Bijapur,
Ahmednagar, Golkonda; and the Mughal Empire.
Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the
Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshahi of
Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his jagir
(fiefdom) at Pune and his small army.[32]

Scholar James Laine states that Shivaji was

imbued with the dream of re-establishing a Hindu
kingdom by his mother, Jijabai, who was aware of
her Yadava heritage and considered her husband
"a collaborator of low birth."[37]

Ancestry
Portrait of Shivaji (c. 1680s)

Chhatrapati of the Marathas

Reign 6 June 1674 – 3 April

1680

Coronation 6 June 1674 (first)

24 September 1674
(second)

Predecessor Position established

1. Shivaji I
Successor Sambhaji

Peshwa Moropant Trimbak

Pingle

Born 19 February 1630

Shivneri Fort,
Ahmadnagar
 Sultanate (present-day
Maharashtra, India)

Died 3 April 1680

(aged 50)
Raigad Fort, Mahad,
Maratha Empire
(present-day
Shivneri Fort
Maharashtra, India)

Conflict with Bijapur Sultanate Spouse Sai Bhonsale

(m. 1640; died 1659)
Soyarabai (m. 1650)
Background and context
Putalabai (m. 1653)

In 1636, the Sultanate of Bijapur invaded the Sakvarbai (m. 1656)

Kashibai Jadhav[4]
kingdoms to its south.[7] The sultanate had
recently become a tributary state of the Mughal Issue 8,[5] including
Empire.[7][38] It was being helped by Shahaji, who Sambhaji and
at the time was a chieftain in the Maratha Rajaram I

uplands of western India. Shahaji was looking for

House Bhonsale
opportunities of rewards of jagir land in the
conquered territories, the taxes on which he could Father Shahaji

collect as an annuity.[7]
Mother Jijabai

Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service. Religion Hinduism

Shahaji's campaigns against the Mughals,
Signature
supported by the Bijapur government, were
generally unsuccessful. He was constantly
pursued by the Mughal army, and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move from fort to fort.[39]
 Young Shivaji (right) meets his father
Shahaji. (left)

In 1636, Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained Poona as a grant. Shahaji, being
deployed in Bangalore by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah, appointed Dadoji Kondadeo as Poona's
administrator. Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona.[40] Kondadeo died in 1647 and Shivaji took over
its administration. One of his first acts directly challenged the Bijapuri government.[41]

Independent generalship

In 1646, 16-year-old Shivaji captured the Torna Fort through stratagem or bribery,[9]: 61 taking
advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the illness of Sultan Mohammed
Adil Shah, and seized the large treasure he found there.[42][43] In the following two years, Shivaji took
several important forts near Pune, including Purandar, Kondhana, and Chakan. He also brought
areas east of Pune around Supa, Baramati, and Indapur under his direct control. He used the
treasure found at Torna to build a new fort named Rajgad. That fort served as the seat of his
government for over a decade.[42] After this, Shivaji turned west to the Konkan and took possession
of the important town of Kalyan. The Bijapur government took note of these happenings and sought
to take action. On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was imprisoned by a fellow Maratha sardar called Baji
Ghorpade, under the orders of the Bijapur government, in a bid to contain Shivaji.[44]
 Map of Southern India c. 1605

Shahaji was released in 1649, after the capture of Jinji secured Adilshah's position in Karnataka.
During 1649–1655, Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated his gains.[45] Following
his father's release, Shivaji resumed raiding, and in 1656, under controversial circumstances, killed
Chandrarao More, a fellow Maratha feudatory of Bijapur, and seized the valley of Javali, near the
present-day hill station of Mahabaleshwar.[46] The conquest of Javali allowed Shivaji to extend his
raids into south and southwest Maharashtra. In addition to the Bhonsle and the More families, many
others—including Sawant of Sawantwadi, Ghorpade of Mudhol, Nimbalkar of Phaltan, Shirke, Gharge
of Nimsod, Mane, and Mohite—also served Adilshahi of Bijapur, many with Deshmukhi rights. Shivaji
adopted different strategies to subdue these powerful families, such as forming marital alliances,
dealing directly with village Patils to bypass the Deshmukhs, or subduing them by force.[47] Shahaji
in his later years had an ambivalent attitude toward his son, and disavowed his rebellious
activities.[48] He told the Bijapuris to do whatever they wanted with Shivaji.[48] Shahaji died around
1664–1665 in a hunting accident.[49]
Combat with Afzal Khan

An early-20th-century painting by Sawlaram

Haldankar of Shivaji fighting the Bijapuri
general Afzal Khan

Pratapgad fort

The Bijapur Sultanate was displeased with their losses to Shivaji's forces, with their vassal Shahaji
disavowing his son's actions. After a peace treaty with the Mughals, and the general acceptance of
the young Ali Adil Shah II as the sultan, the Bijapur government became more stable, and turned its
attention towards Shivaji.[50] In 1657, the sultan, or more likely his mother and regent, sent Afzal
Khan, a veteran general, to arrest Shivaji. Before engaging him, the Bijapuri forces desecrated the
Tulja Bhavani Temple, a holy site for Shivaji's family, and the Vithoba temple at Pandharpur, a major
pilgrimage site for Hindus.[51][52][53]

Pursued by Bijapuri forces, Shivaji retreated to Pratapgad fort, where many of his colleagues
pressed him to surrender.[54] The two forces found themselves at a stalemate, with Shivaji unable to
break the siege, while Afzal Khan, having a powerful cavalry but lacking siege equipment, was
unable to take the fort. After two months, Afzal Khan sent an envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two
leaders meet in private, outside the fort, for negotiations.[55][56]
The two met in a hut in the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The arrangements had
dictated that each come armed only with a sword, and attended by one follower. Shivaji, suspecting
Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him,[57][b] wore armour beneath his clothes, concealed a bagh nakh
(metal "tiger claw") on his left arm, and had a dagger in his right hand.[59] What transpired is not
known with historical certainty, mainly Maratha legends tell the tale; however, it is agreed that the
two wound up in a physical struggle that proved fatal for Khan.[c] Khan's dagger failed to pierce
Shivaji's armour, but Shivaji disembowelled him; Shivaji then fired a cannon to signal his hidden
troops to attack the Bijapuri army.[61]

In the ensuing Battle of Pratapgarh, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the Bijapur Sultanate's
forces. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed; and one sardar of high rank, two
sons of Afzal Khan, and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner.[62] After the victory, a grand review
was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh. The captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and
sent back to their homes with money, food, and other gifts. Marathas were rewarded accordingly.[62]

Siege of Panhala

Having defeated the Bijapuri forces sent against him, Shivaji and his army marched towards the
Konkan coast and Kolhapur, seizing Panhala fort, and defeating Bijapuri forces sent against them,
under Rustam Zaman and Fazl Khan, in 1659.[63] In 1660, Adilshah sent his general Siddi Jauhar to
attack Shivaji's southern border, in alliance with the Mughals who planned to attack from the north.
At that time, Shivaji was encamped at Panhala fort with his forces. Siddi Jauhar's army besieged
Panhala in mid-1660, cutting off supply routes to the fort. During the bombardment of Panhala, Siddi
Jauhar purchased grenades from the English at Rajapur, and also hired some English artillerymen to
assist in his bombardment of the fort, conspicuously flying a flag used by the English. This
perceived betrayal angered Shivaji, who in December would retaliate by plundering the English
factory at Rajapur and capturing four of the owners, imprisoning them until mid-1663.[64]

After months of siege, Shivaji negotiated with Siddi Jauhar and handed over the fort on 22
September 1660, withdrawing to Vishalgad;[65] Shivaji retook Panhala in 1673.[66]

Battle of Pavan Khind

Shivaji escaped from Panhala by cover of night, and as he was pursued by the enemy cavalry, his
Maratha sardar Baji Prabhu Deshpande of Bandal Deshmukh, along with 300 soldiers, volunteered
to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind ("horse ravine") to give Shivaji and the
rest of the army a chance to reach the safety of the Vishalgad fort.[67]

In the ensuing battle of Pavan Khind, the smaller Maratha force held back the larger enemy to buy
time for Shivaji to escape. Baji Prabhu Deshpande was wounded but continued to fight until he
heard the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad,[31] signalling Shivaji had safely reached the fort, on
the evening of 13 July 1660.[68] Ghod Khind (khind meaning "a narrow mountain pass") was later
renamed Paavan Khind ("sacred pass") in honour of Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Shibosingh Jadhav,
Fuloji, and all other soldiers who fought there.[68]

Conflict with the Mughals

Shivaji with his personal guards by Mir

Muhammad c. 1672

Until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his
assistance to Aurangzeb, the son of the Mughal Emperor and viceroy of the Deccan, in conquering
Bijapur, in return for formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages in his
possession. Dissatisfied with the Mughal response, and receiving a better offer from Bijapur, he
launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan.[69] Shivaji's confrontations with the Mughals began in
March 1657, when two of Shivaji's officers raided the Mughal territory near Ahmednagar.[70] This
was followed by raids in Junnar, with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 hun in cash and 200 horses.[71]
Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at
Ahmednagar. However, Aurangzeb's countermeasures against Shivaji were interrupted by the rainy
season and his battles with his brothers over the succession to the Mughal throne, following the
illness of the emperor Shah Jahan.[72]

Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat

A 20th century depiction of Shivaji's

surprise attack on Mughal general Shaista
Khan in Pune by M.V. Dhurandhar

At the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb, now the Mughal emperor, sent his maternal
uncle Shaista Khan, with an army numbering over 150,000, along with a powerful artillery division, in
January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi Jauhar. Shaista Khan,
with his better equipped and well provisioned army of 80,000 seized Pune. He also took the nearby
fort of Chakan, besieging it for a month and a half before breaching the walls.[73] He established his
residence at Shivaji's palace of Lal Mahal.[74]

On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan's camp.[75] He, along
with 400 men, attacked Shaista Khan's mansion, broke into Khan's bedroom and wounded him. Khan
lost three fingers.[76] In the scuffle, Shaista Khan's son and several wives, servants, and soldiers were
killed.[77] The Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished
him for this embarrassment with a transfer to Bengal.[78]

In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in 1664 Shivaji
sacked the port city of Surat, a wealthy Mughal trading centre and decamped with plunder
exceeding Rs 10 million.[79][80] On 13 February 1665, he also conducted a naval raid on Portuguese-
held Basrur in present-day Karnataka, and gained a large plunder.[81][82]
Treaty of Purandar

Shivaji submits to Jai Singh

Raja Jai Singh of Amber receiving Shivaji a

day before concluding the Treaty of
Purandar

The attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat enraged Aurangzeb. In response, he sent the Rajput general
Jai Singh I with an army numbering around 15,000 to defeat Shivaji.[83] Throughout 1665, Jai Singh's
forces pressed Shivaji, with their cavalry razing the countryside, and besieging Shivaji's forts. The
Mughal commander succeeded in luring away several of Shivaji's key commanders, and many of his
cavalrymen, into Mughal service. By mid-1665, with the fortress at Purandar besieged and near
capture, Shivaji was forced to come to terms with Jai Singh.[83] Shivaji is noted to have said when
receiving Jai Singh "I have come as a guilty slave to seek forgiveness, and it is for you to pardon or
kill me at your pleasure."[84]

In the Treaty of Purandar, signed by Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665, Shivaji agreed to give up
23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation of 400,000 gold hun to the
Mughals.[85] Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire, and to send his son Sambhaji,
along with 5,000 horsemen, to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan, as a mansabdar.[86][87]

Sambhaji was taken as a political prisoner to ensure compliance with the treaty. Shivaji himself
wished to be excused from attending the court. To this end, he wrote letters to Aurangzeb,
requesting forgiveness for his actions and security for himself along with a robe of honour. He also
requested Jai Singh to support him in getting his crimes pardoned by the emperor, stating "Now you
are protector and a father to me, so I beg you to fulfil the ambition of your son."[88][89] On September
15, 1665, Aurangzeb granted his request and sent him a letter and a firman along with a robe of
honor. Shivaji responded with a letter thanking the emperor:[84]

Shiva, the meanest of life-devoting slaves who wears the ring of servitude in his ear
and the carpet of obedience on his shoulder—like an atom ... [acknowledges] the
goodnews of his eternal happiness, namely favours from the Emperor ... This sinner
and evil-doer did not deserve that his offences should be forgiven or his faults
covered up. But the grace and favour of the Emperor have conferred on him a new
life and unimaginable honour ...

Arrest in Agra and escape

20th century depiction by M.V. Dhurandhar

of Raja Shivaji at the court of Mughal
Badshah, Aurangzeb.

In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra (though some sources instead state Delhi), along
with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb planned to send Shivaji to Kandahar, now in
Afghanistan, to consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, on 12 May 1666,
Shivaji was made to stand at court alongside relatively low-ranking nobles, men he had already
defeated in battle.[90] Shivaji took offence, stormed out,[91] and was promptly placed under house
arrest. Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh, guaranteed custody of Shivaji and his son.[92] The emperor also
withheld the previous honors bestowed upon him such as his robe of honour, elephant and
jewels.[93]: 211

Shivaji's position under house arrest was perilous, as Aurangzeb's court debated whether to kill him
or continue employing him. Jai Singh, having assured Shivaji of his personal safety, tried to
influence Aurangzeb's decision. While Shivaji regarded himself as a king, in the eyes of the Mughal
emperor, he was only a relatively successful rebel zamindar.[94]

By the time the order for his posting to Kabul arrived, a rumor had already spread at the court that
Shivaji would be killed along the way. However, the order was canceled when Shivaji refused to go.
During the negotiations that followed, Shivaji demanded the transfer of his forts before becoming a
mansabdar, a demand the emperor rejected. The orders to kill him were prevented only by Jai
Singh's intervention. In the end, Shivaji's request to leave for Banaras as a sannyasi was also
rejected.[94]

Meanwhile, Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself. He sent most of his men back home and asked
Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son.
He surrendered to Mughal forces.[95][96] Shivaji then pretended to be ill and began sending out large
baskets packed with sweets to be given to the Brahmins and poor as penance.[97][98][99] On 17
August 1666, by putting himself in one of the baskets and his son Sambhaji in another, Shivaji
escaped and left Agra.[100][101][102] Stewart Gordon opines that there is no contemporary evidence to
support this story. He also states that, despite Aurangzeb's suspicions regarding Ram Singh's
involvement in Shivaji's escape, nothing was proven and Shivaji likely bribed the guards to facilitate
his escape.[103]

Peace with the Mughals

After Shivaji's escape, hostilities with the Mughals ebbed, with the Mughal sardar Jaswant Singh
acting as an intermediary between Shivaji and Aurangzeb for new peace proposals.[104] Between
1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb also conferred the title of Raja on Shivaji, although he did not restore his
right over forts.[105] Sambhaji was also restored as a Mughal mansabdar with 5,000 horses. Shivaji
at that time sent Sambhaji, with general Prataprao Gujar, to serve with the Mughal viceroy in
Aurangabad, Prince Mu'azzam. Sambhaji was also granted territory in Berar for revenue
collection.[106] Aurangzeb also permitted Shivaji to attack Bijapur, ruled by the decaying Adil Shahi
dynasty; the weakened Sultan Ali Adil Shah II sued for peace and granted the rights of sardeshmukhi
and chauthai to Shivaji.[107]

Reconquest

Dutch painting depicting Shivaji c. 1680

The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670, after which Aurangzeb became
suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu'azzam, who he thought might usurp his throne,
and may even have been receiving bribes from Shivaji.[108][109] Also at that time, Aurangzeb,
occupied in fighting the Afghans, greatly reduced his army in the Deccan; many of the disbanded
soldiers quickly joined Maratha service.[110] The Mughals also took away the jagir of Berar from
Shambhaji to recover the money lent a few years earlier for his father's trip to Agra.[93]: 212 [111] In
response, Shivaji launched an offensive against the Mughals and in a span of four months
recovered a major portion of the territories that had been surrendered to them.[112]

Shivaji sacked Surat for a second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able to repel
his attack, but he managed to sack the city itself, including plundering the goods of a Muslim prince
from Mawara-un-Nahr, who was returning from Mecca. Angered by the renewed attacks, the
Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas, sending a force under Daud Khan to intercept
Shivaji on his return home from Surat; this force was defeated in the Battle of Vani-Dindori near
present-day Nashik.[113]

In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to harass the English at Bombay; as they had refused to sell
him war materiel, his forces blocked English woodcutting parties from leaving Bombay. In
September 1671, Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay, again seeking materiel, this time for the
fight against Danda-Rajpuri. The English had misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain from
this conquest, but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving compensation for his looting
their factories at Rajapur. The English sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but
negotiations failed over the issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys
followed over the coming years, with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji was
never to pay the Rajapur indemnity before his death, and the factory there dissolved at the end of
1682.[114]

Battles of Umrani and Nesari

In 1674, Prataprao Gujar, the sarnaubat (commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces) and Anandrao,
was sent to push back the invading force led by the Bijapuri general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces
defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle, after cutting-off their water supply by
encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's
specific warnings against doing so, Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a
fresh invasion.[115]

Shivaji sent a letter to Prataprao, expressing his displeasure and refusing him an audience until
Bahlol Khan was re-captured. Upset by this rebuke, Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his
position with only six other horsemen, leaving his main force behind, and was killed in combat.
Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death, and arranged for the marriage of his
second son, Rajaram, to Prataprao's daughter. Prataprao was succeeded by Hambirrao Mohite, as
the new sarnaubat. Raigad Fort was newly built by Hiroji Indulkar, as a capital of the nascent
Maratha kingdom.[116]

Coronation

20th century depiction of the Coronation Durbar

with over 100 characters depicted in attendance
by M.V. Dhurandhar
 Portrait of Shivaji I c. 1675

Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and wealth through his campaigns, but lacking a formal title, he
was still technically a Mughal zamindar or the son of a Bijapuri jagirdar, with no legal basis to rule
his de facto domain. A kingly title could address this and also prevent any challenges by other
Maratha leaders, who were his equals.[d] Such a title would also provide the Hindu Marathis with a
fellow Hindu sovereign in a region otherwise ruled by Muslims.[118]

The preparation for a proposed coronation began in 1673. However, some controversies delayed the
coronation by almost a year.[119] One controversy erupted amongst the Brahmins of Shivaji's court:
they refused to crown Shivaji as a king because that status was reserved for those of the kshatriya
varna (warrior class) in Hindu society.[120] Shivaji was descended from a line of headmen of farming
villages, and the Brahmins accordingly categorized him as a Maratha, not a Kshatriya.[121][122] They
noted that Shivaji had never had a sacred thread ceremony, and did not wear the thread, such as a
kshatriya would.[123] When Shivaji came to know about this conspiracy, he later bribed and
summoned Gaga Bhatt, a pandit of Varanasi, who stated that he had found a genealogy proving that
Shivaji was descended from the Sisodias, and thus indeed a kshatriya, albeit one in need of the
ceremonies befitting his rank.[124][125][126] To enforce this status, Shivaji was given a sacred thread
ceremony, and remarried his spouses under the Vedic rites expected of a kshatriya.[127][128]
However, according to historical evidence, Shivaji's claim to Rajput, and specifically of Sisodia
ancestry, may be seen as being anything from tenuous, at best, to purely inventive.[129]

On 28 May, Shivaji did penance for his and his ancestors' not observing Kshatriya rites for so long.
Then he was invested by Gaga Bhatt with the sacred thread.[130] On the insistence of other
Brahmins, Gaga Bhatt omitted the Vedic chant and initiated Shivaji into a modified form of the life of
the twice-born, instead of putting him on a par with the Brahmins. Next day, Shivaji made atonement
for the sins, deliberate or accidental, committed in his own lifetime.[131] He was weighed separately
against seven metals including gold, silver, and several other articles, such fine linen, camphor, salt,
sugar etc. All these articles, along with a lakh (one hundred thousand) of hun, were distributed
among the Brahmins. According to Sarkar, even this failed to satisfy the greed of the Brahmins. Two
of the learned Brahmins pointed out that Shivaji, while conducting his raids, had killed Brahmins,
cows, women, and children. He could be cleansed of these sins for a price of Rs. 8,000, which
Shivaji paid.[131] The total expenditure for feeding the assemblage, general almsgiving, throne, and
ornaments approached 1.5 million rupees.[132]

On 6 June 1674, Shivaji was crowned king of the Maratha Empire (Hindavi Swaraj) in a lavish
ceremony at Raigad fort.[133][134] In the Hindu calendar it was the 13th day (trayodashi) of the first
fortnight of the month of Jyeshtha in the year 1596.[135] Gaga Bhatt officiated, pouring water from a
gold vessel filled with the waters of the seven sacred rivers—Yamuna, Indus, Ganges, Godavari,
Narmada, Krishna, and Kaveri—over Shivaji's head, and chanted the Vedic coronation mantras. After
the ablution, Shivaji bowed before his mother, Jijabai, and touched her feet. Nearly fifty thousand
people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies.[136][137] Shivaji was entitled Shakakarta ("founder of
an era")[1] and Chhatrapati ("Lord of the Umbrella"). He also took the title of Haindava
Dharmodhhaarak (protector of the Hindu faith)[2] and Kshatriya Kulavantas:[3][138][139] Kshatriya being
the varna[e] of Hinduism and kulavantas meaning the 'head of the kula, or clan'.[140]

Shivaji's mother died on 18 June 1674. The Marathas summoned Nischal Puri Goswami, a tantric
priest, who declared that the original coronation had been held under inauspicious stars, and a
second coronation was needed. This second coronation, on 24 September 1674, mollified those
who still believed that Shivaji was not qualified for the Vedic rites of his first coronation, by being a
less controversial ceremony.[141][142][143]
Conquest in southern India

Tanjavur Maratha Kingdom

Beginning in 1674, the Marathas undertook an aggressive campaign, raiding Khandesh (October),
capturing Bijapuri Ponda (April 1675), Karwar (mid-year), and Kolhapur (July).[144] In November, the
Maratha navy skirmished with the Siddis of Janjira, but failed to dislodge them.[145] Having
recovered from an illness, and taking advantage of a civil war that had broken out between the
Deccanis and the Afghans at Bijapur, Shivaji raided Athani in April 1676.[146]

In the run-up to his expedition, Shivaji appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that Southern India
was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders.[147][148] His appeal was somewhat
successful, and in 1677 Shivaji visited Hyderabad for a month and entered into a treaty with the
Qutubshah of the Golkonda sultanate, who agreed to renounce his alliance with Bijapur and jointly
oppose the Mughals.

In 1677, Shivaji invaded Karnataka with 30,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry, backed by Golkonda
artillery and funding.[149] Proceeding south, Shivaji seized the forts of Vellore and Gingee;[150] the
latter would later serve as a capital of the Marathas during the reign of his son Rajaram I.[151] This
conquest gave him possession of vast territory in Mysore plateau and Madras Carnatic, containing
100 forts.[79]

Shivaji intended to reconcile with his half-brother Venkoji (Ekoji I), Shahaji's son by his second wife,
Tukabai (née Mohite), who ruled Thanjavur (Tanjore) after Shahaji. The initially promising
negotiations were unsuccessful, so whilst returning to Raigad, Shivaji defeated his half-brother's
army on 26 November 1677 and seized most of his possessions on the Mysore plateau. Venkoji's
wife Dipa Bai, whom Shivaji deeply respected, took up new negotiations with Shivaji and also
convinced her husband to distance himself from his Muslim advisors. In the end, Shivaji consented
to turn over to her and her female descendants many of the properties he had seized, with Venkoji
consenting to a number of conditions for the proper administration of the territories and
maintenance of Shahji's tomb (samadhi).[152][153]

Death and succession

Sambhaji, Shivaji's elder son

who succeeded him

Samadhi of Shivaji-I (Memorial)

The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated. In 1678, Shivaji confined his son Sambhaji
to Panhala Fort for having an addiction to sensual pleasures or violating a Brahmin woman.[154] Only
to have the prince escape with his wife and defect to the Mughals where he fought against Shivaji in
the Battle of Bhupalgarh. Upon returning home, unrepentant, he was again confined to Panhala
Fort.[155]

Shivaji died around 3–5 April 1680 at the age of 50,[156] at Raigad Fort, on the eve of Hanuman
Jayanti. The cause of Shivaji's death is disputed. British records states that Shivaji died of bloody
flux, after being sick for 12 days.[f] In a contemporary work in Portuguese, in the Biblioteca Nacional
de Lisboa, the recorded cause of death of Shivaji is anthrax.[158][159] However, Krishnaji Anant
Sabhasad, author of Sabhasad Bakhar, a biography of Shivaji has mentioned fever as the cause of
death.[160][159] Putalabai, the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed sati by
jumping into his funeral pyre. Another surviving spouse, Sakwarbai, was not allowed to follow suit
because she had a young daughter.[155] There were also allegations, though doubted by later
scholars, that his second wife Soyarabai had poisoned him in order to put her 10-year-old son
Rajaram on the throne.[161]

After Shivaji's death, Soyarabai made plans, with various ministers, to crown her son Rajaram rather
than her stepson Sambhaji. On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne.
However, Sambhaji took possession of Raigad Fort after killing the commander, and on 18 June
acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20 July.[162] Rajaram, his mother
Soyarabai and wife Janki Bai were imprisoned, and Soyrabai was executed on charges of conspiracy
that October.[163]

Governance

Ashta Pradhan Mandal

The Council of Eight Ministers, or Ashta Pradhan Mandal, was an administrative and advisory council
set up by Shivaji.[164][165] It consisted of eight ministers who regularly advised Shivaji on political and
administrative matters. The eight ministers were as follows:[160]
 Ashta Pradhan Mandal

Minister Duty

Peshwa or Prime Minister General administration

Amatya or Finance Minister Maintaining public accounts

Mantri or Chronicler Maintaining court records

Summant or Dabir or Foreign Secretary All matters related to relationships with other states

Sachiv or Shurn Nawis or Home Secretary Managing correspondence of the king

Panditrao or Ecclesiastical Head Religious matters

Nyayadhis or Chief Justice Civil and military justice

Senapati/Sari Naubat or Commander-in-Chief All matters related to army of the king

Except the Panditrao and Nyayadhis, all other ministers held military commands, their civil duties
often being performed by deputies.[160][164]

Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit

At his court, Shivaji replaced Persian, the common courtly language in the region, with Marathi, and
emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions. Shivaji's reign stimulated the deployment of
Marathi as a systematic tool of description and understanding.[166] Shivaji's royal seal was in
Sanskrit. Shivaji commissioned one of his officials to make a comprehensive lexicon to replace
Persian and Arabic terms with their Sanskrit equivalents. This led to the production of the
Rājavyavahārakośa, the thesaurus of state usage in 1677.[167]

Religious policy

Many modern commentators have deemed Shivaji's religious policies as tolerant. While encouraging
Hinduism, Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their
ministries with endowments.[168]

Noting that Shivaji had stemmed the spread of the neighbouring Muslim states, his contemporary,
the poet Kavi Bhushan stated:

Had not there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have
been turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised.[169]
However, Gijs Kruijtzer, in his book Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India, argues that the
foundation for modern Hindu-Muslim communalism was laid in the decade 1677–1687, in the
interplay between Shivaji and Aurangzeb (though Shivaji died in 1680).[170] During the sack of Surat
in 1664, Shivaji was approached by Ambrose, a Capuchin friar who asked him to spare the city's
Christians. Shivaji left the Christians untouched, saying "the Frankish Padrys are good men."[171]

Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. He was tolerant of different religions
and believed in syncretism. He urged Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu
beliefs and places. Shivaji had little trouble forming alliances with the surrounding Muslim nations,
even against Hindu powers. He also did not join forces with certain other Hindu powers fighting the
Mughals, such as the Rajputs.[g] His own army had Muslim leaders from early on. The first Pathan
unit was formed in 1656. His admiral, Darya Sarang, was a Muslim.[173]

Bakhar dedicated to Shivaji Writings of Modi Script. line 2 is

from the time of Shivaji

Ramdas

Shivaji was a contemporary of Samarth Ramdas. Historian Stewart Gordon concludes about their
relationship:

Older Maratha histories asserted that Shivaji was a close follower of Ramdas, a
Brahmin teacher, who guided him in an orthodox Hindu path; recent research has
shown that Shivaji did not meet or know Ramdas until late in his life. Rather, Shivaji
followed his own judgement throughout his remarkable career.[9]
Seal

Royal seal of Shivaji

Seals were a means to confer authenticity on official documents. Shahaji and Jijabai had Persian
seals. But Shivaji, right from the beginning, used Sanskrit for his seal.[167] The seal proclaims: "This
seal of Shiva, son of Shah, shines forth for the welfare of the people and is meant to command
increasing respect from the universe like the first phase of the moon."[174]

Mode of warfare

Shivaji maintained a small but effective standing army. The core of Shivaji's army consisted of
peasants of Maratha and Kunbi castes.[175] Shivaji was aware of the limitations of his army. He
realised that conventional warfare methods were inadequate to confront the big, well-trained cavalry
of the Mughals, which was equipped with field artillery. As a result, Shivaji mastered guerilla tactics
which became known as Ganimi Kawa in the Marathi language.[176][177] His strategies consistently
perplexed and defeated armies sent against him. He realized that the most vulnerable point of the
large, slow-moving armies of the time was supply. He utilised knowledge of the local terrain and the
superior mobility of his light cavalry to cut off supplies to the enemy.[172] Shivaji refused to confront
the enemy in pitched battles. Instead, he lured the enemies into difficult hills and jungles of his own
choosing, catching them at a disadvantage and routing them. Shivaji did not adhere to a particular
tactic but used several methods to undermine his enemies, as required by circumstances, such as
sudden raids, sweeps and ambushes, and psychological warfare.[178]

Shivaji was contemptuously called a "Mountain Rat" by Aurangzeb and his generals, because of his
guerilla tactics of attacking enemy forces and then retreating into his mountain forts.[179][180][83]
Military

Shivaji demonstrated great skill in creating his military organisation, which lasted until the demise of
the Maratha Empire. His strategy rested on leveraging his ground forces, naval forces, and series of
forts across his territory. The Maval infantry served as the core of his ground forces (reinforced by
Telangi musketeers from Karnataka) and supported by Maratha cavalry. His artillery was relatively
underdeveloped and reliant on European suppliers, further inclining him to a very mobile form of
warfare.[181]

Hill forts

Suvela Machi, view of southern sub-

plateaux, as seen from Ballekilla, Rajgad

Hill forts played a key role in Shivaji's strategy. Ramchandra Amatya, one of Shivaji's ministers,
describes the achievement of Shivaji by saying that his empire was created from forts.[182] Shivaji
captured important Adilshahi forts at Murambdev (Rajgad), Torna, Kondhana (Sinhagad), and
Purandar. He also rebuilt or repaired many forts in advantageous locations.[183] In addition, Shivaji
built a number of forts, numbering 111 according to some accounts, but it is likely the actual
number "did not exceed 18."[184] The historian Jadunath Sarkar assessed that Shivaji owned some
240–280 forts at the time of his death.[185] Each was placed under three officers of equal status,
lest a single traitor be bribed or tempted to deliver it to the enemy. The officers acted jointly and
provided mutual checks and balances.[186]
Navy

Sindudurg Fort provided anchorages for

Shivaji's Navy

Aware of the need for naval power to maintain control along the Konkan coast, Shivaji began to
build his navy in 1657 or 1659, with the purchase of twenty galivats from the Portuguese shipyards
of Bassein.[187] Marathi chronicles state that at its height his fleet counted some 400 warships,
although contemporary English chronicles counter that the number never exceeded 160.[188]

With the Marathas being accustomed to a land-based military, Shivaji widened his search for
qualified crews for his ships, taking on lower-caste Hindus of the coast who were long familiar with
naval operations (the famed "Malabar pirates"), as well as Muslim mercenaries.[188] Noting the
power of the Portuguese navy, Shivaji hired a number of Portuguese sailors and Goan Christian
converts, and made Rui Leitao Viegas commander of his fleet. Viegas was later to defect back to
the Portuguese, taking 300 sailors with him.[189]

Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them. He built his first marine
fort at Sindhudurg, which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.[190] The navy itself
was a coastal navy, focused on travel and combat in the littoral areas, and not intended for the high
seas.[191][192]
Legacy

An early-20th-century painting by M. V.
Dhurandhar of Shivaji and Baji Prabhu at
Pawan Khind

Shivaji was well known for his secularism, warrior code of ethics, and exemplary character.[193]

Contemporaneous view

Shivaji was admired for his heroic exploits and clever stratagems in the contemporary accounts of
English, French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Italian writers.[194] Contemporary English writers compared
him with Alexander, Hannibal, and Julius Caesar.[195] The French traveller Francois Bernier wrote in
his Travels in Mughal India:[196]

I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate, Seva-Gy, the Holy Seva-
Gi! respected the habitation of the Reverend Father Ambrose, the
Capuchin missionary. 'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and
shall not be attacked.' He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or
Gentile broker, of the Dutch, because assured that he had been very
charitable while alive.
Mughal depictions of Shivaji were largely negative, referring to him simply as "Shiva" without the
honorific "-ji". One Mughal writer in the early 1700s described Shivaji's death as kafir bi jahannum raft
(lit. 'the infidel went to Hell').[197] His chivalrous treatment of enemies and women has been praised
by Mughal authors, including Khafi Khan. Jadunath Sarkar writes:[13]

His chivalry to women and strict enforcement of morality in his camp was
a wonder in that age and has extorted the admiration of hostile critics like
Khafi Khan.

Early depictions

The earliest depictions of Shivaji by authors not affiliated with Maratha court in Maharashtra are to
be found in the bakhars that depict Shivaji as an almost divine figure, an ideal Hindu king who
overthrew Muslim dominion. The current academic consensus is that while these Bakhars are
important for understanding how Shivaji was viewed in his time, they must be correlated with other
sources to decide historical truth. Sabhasad Bakhar and 91 Kalami Bakhar are considered the most
reliable of all bakhars by scholars.[83]

Nineteenth century

A miniature Bronze statue of Shivaji in the

collection of the Shri Bhavani Museum of
Aundh

In the mid–19th century, Marathi social reformer Jyotirao Phule wrote his interpretation of the
Shivaji legend, portraying him as a hero of the shudras and dalits. Phule's 1869 ballad-form story of
Shivaji was met with great hostility by the Brahmin-dominated media.[198]

In 1895, the Indian nationalist leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak organised what was to be an annual
festival to mark the birthday of Shivaji.[18] He portrayed Shivaji as the "opponent of the oppressor",
with possible negative implications concerning the colonial government.[199] Tilak denied any
suggestion that his festival was anti-Muslim or disloyal to the government, but simply a celebration
of a hero.[200] These celebrations prompted a British commentator in 1906 to note: "Cannot the
annals of the Hindu race point to a single hero whom even the tongue of slander will not dare call a
chief of dacoits...?"[201]

One of the first commentators to reappraise the critical British view of Shivaji was M. G. Ranade,
whose Rise of the Maratha Power (1900) declared Shivaji's achievements as the beginning of
modern nation-building. Ranade criticised earlier British portrayals of Shivaji's state as "a
freebooting power, which thrived by plunder and adventure, and succeeded only because it was the
most cunning and adventurous ... This is a very common feeling with the readers, who derive their
knowledge of these events solely from the works of English historians."[202]

In 1919, Sarkar published the seminal Shivaji and His Times. Sarkar was able to read primary
sources in Persian, Marathi, and Arabic, but was challenged for his criticism of the "chauvinism" of
Marathi historians' views of Shivaji.[203] Likewise, although supporters cheered his depiction of the
killing of Afzal Khan as justified, they decried Sarkar's terming as "murder" the killing of the Hindu
raja Chandrao More and his clan.[204]

In 1937, Dennis Kincaid, a British civil servant in India, published The Grand Rebel.[205] This book
portrays Shivaji as a heroic rebel and a master strategist fighting a much larger Mughal army.[83]

Post independence

Statue of Shivaji at Raigad Fort

In modern times, Shivaji is considered as a national hero in India,[206][207][208] especially in the state
of Maharashtra, where he remains an important figure in the state's history. Stories of his life form
an integral part of the upbringing and identity of the Marathi people.[209]

Hindutva activists are noted for appropriating Shivaji by presenting him as "Hindu king" who "fought
against Muslim rulers", contrary to historic accounts that show he belonged to a marginalised caste
and held secular values.[210][211][212]

Political parties

In 1966, the Shiv Sena (lit. 'Army of Shivaji') political party was formed to promote the interests of
Marathi-speaking people in the face of migration to Maharashtra from other parts of India, and the
accompanying loss of power of locals. His image adorns literature, propaganda, and icons of the
party.[213]

Shivaji is seen as a hero by regional political parties and also by the Maratha-caste-dominated
Indian National Congress and the Nationalist Congress Party.[214]

Controversies related to Shivaji's depiction

In the late 20th century, Babasaheb Purandare became one of the most significant authors in
portraying Shivaji in his writings, leading him to be declared in 1964 as the Shiv-Shahir (lit. 'Bard of
Shivaji').[215][216] However, Purandare, a Brahmin, was also accused of overstating the influence of
Brahmin gurus on Shivaji,[214] and his Maharashtra Bhushan award ceremony in 2015 was protested
by those claiming he had defamed Shivaji.[217]

In 1993, the Illustrated Weekly published an article suggesting that Shivaji was not opposed to
Muslims per se, and that his style of governance was influenced by that of the Mughal Empire.
Congress Party members called for legal actions against the publisher and writer, Marathi
newspapers accused them of "imperial prejudice", and Shiv Sena called for the writer's public
flogging. Maharashtra brought legal action against the publisher under regulations prohibiting
enmity between religious and cultural groups, but a High Court found that the Illustrated Weekly had
operated within the bounds of freedom of expression.[218][219]

Statue of Shivaji opposite the Gateway of

India in South Mumbai
In 2003, the American academic James W. Laine published his book Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic
India to, what Ananya Vajpeyi terms, a regime of "cultural policing by militant Marathas".[220][221] As a
result of this publication, the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, in Pune, where Laine had done
research, was attacked by the Sambhaji Brigade.[222][223] Laine was even threatened with arrest,[220]
and the book was banned in Maharashtra in January 2004. The ban was lifted by the Bombay High
Court in 2007, and in July 2010 the Supreme Court of India upheld the lifting of the ban.[224] This
lifting was followed by public demonstrations against the author and the decision of the Supreme
Court.[225][226]

Commemorations

Statues of Shivaji are found in every taluka in Maharashtra[227][228] as well as in many places across
India, including Mumbai,[229] Pune,[228] New Delhi,[230] Surat,[231] and Yellur.[232] There are also
statues outside of India including in San Jose, California,[233] and Mauritius.[234]

A replica of Raigad Fort built by children on

occasion of Diwali as a tribute to Shivaji.

Several Mumbai landmarks were renamed for Shivaji in the 1990s, around the same time that
Bombay was renamed Mumbai.[235] The Prince of Wales Museum, which is devoted to Indian
history, was renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya.[235] Victoria Terminus,
Mumbai's main railway station and the headquarters of the Central Railway zone,[236] was initially
renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and later renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus.[237]
Similarly, Mumbai's busiest airport, Sahar International Airport, was first renamed Chhatrapati
Shivaji International Airport and further renamed to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International
Airport.[238]

Other commemorations include the Indian Navy's INS Shivaji station[239] and numerous postage
stamps.[240] In 2022, the Indian prime minister unveiled the new ensign of the Indian Navy, which
was inspired by the seal of Shivaji.[241] In Maharashtra, there has been a long tradition of children
building replica forts with toy soldiers and other figures during the festival of Diwali, in memory of
Shivaji.[242][243]

A proposal to build a giant memorial called Shiv Smarak was approved in 2016; the memorial is to
be located near Mumbai on a small island in the Arabian Sea. It will be 210 metres (690 ft) tall,
which will make it the world's tallest statue when completed.[244] As of August 2021, the project has
been stalled since January 2019, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Only the bathymetry survey has
been completed, while the geotechnical survey was underway. Consequently, the state public works
department proposed extending the completion date by a year, from 18 October 2021 to 18 October
2022.[245]

Sources

Notes

a. Based on multiple committees of historians and experts, the Government of Maharashtra

accepts 19 February 1630 as his birthdate. This Julian calendar date of that period (1 March
1630 of today's Gregorian calendar) corresponds[21] to the Hindu calendar birth date from
contemporary records.[22][23][24] Other suggested dates include 6 April 1627 or dates near this
day.[25][26]

b. A decade earlier, Afzal Khan, in a parallel situation, had arrested a Hindu general during a truce
ceremony.[58]

c. Jadunath Sarkar after weighing all recorded evidence in this behalf, has settled the point "that
Afzal Khan struck the first blow" and that "Shivaji committed.... a preventive murder. It was a
case of a diamond cut diamond." The conflict between Shivaji and Bijapur was essentially
political in nature, and not communal.[60]

d. Most of the great Maratha Jahagirdar families in the service of Adilshahi strongly opposed
Shivaji in his early years. These included families such as the Ghadge, More, Mohite, Ghorpade,
Shirke, and Nimbalkar.[117]

e. Varna is sometimes also termed Varnashrama Dharma

 f. As for the cause of his death, the Bombay Council's letter dated 28 April 1680 says: "We have
certain news that Shivaji Rajah is dead. It is now 23 days since he deceased, it is said of a
bloody flux, being sick 12 days." A contemporaneous Portuguese document states that Shivaji
died of anthrax. However, none of these sources provides sufficient details to draw a definite
conclusion. The Sabhasad Chronicle states that the King died of fever, while some versions of
the A.K. Chronicle state that he died of "navjvar" (possibly typhoid).[157]

g. Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. Over and over, he espoused
tolerance and syncretism. He even called on Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect
to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had no difficulty in allying with the Muslim states which
surrounded him – Bijapur, Golconda, and the Mughals – even against Hindu powers, such as
the nayaks of the Karnatic. Further, he did not ally with other Hindu powers, such as the
Rajputs, rebelling against the Mughals.[172]

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1. Sardesai 1957, p. 222.

2. Satish Chandra (1982). Medieval India: Society, the Jagirdari Crisis, and the Village (https://book
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3. H. S. Sardesai (2002). Shivaji, the Great Maratha (https://books.google.com/books?id=deHZAU

DHzYwC&pg=PA431) . Cosmo Publications. p. 431. ISBN 978-81-7755-286-7.

4. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, p. 260.

5. James Laine (1996). Anne Feldhaus (ed.). Images of women in Maharashtrian literature and
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6. Dates are given according to the Julian calendar, see Mohan Apte, Porag Mahajani, M. N.
Vahia. Possible errors in historical dates: Error in correction from Julian to Gregorian Calendars
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7. Robb 2011, pp. 103–104.

8. Govind Ranade, Mahadev (1900). Rise of the Maratha Power. India: Ministry of Information and
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Supriya; Saberwal, Satish (eds.). Traditions in Motion: Religion and Society in History. Oxford
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Edited version of Ananya, Vajpeyi (August 2004). "Making a Śūdra King: The Royal
Consecration of Shivaji". Politics of complicity, poetics of contempt: A history of the Śūdra in
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13. Sarkar, Jadunath (1920). Shivaji and his times (http://archive.org/details/shivajihistimes00sarkr

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14. Deshpande 2015.

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17. Devare, A. (2013). History and the Making of a Modern Hindu Self (https://books.google.com/bo
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18. Wolpert 1962, pp. 79–81.

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(http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/shivaji.pdf) (PDF). Current Science. 84 (1): 21.

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70) . Diamond Publications. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-89959-35-7.

23. Kavindra Parmanand Nevaskar (1927). Shri Shivbharat (https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbhar

at) . Sadashiv Mahadev Divekar. p. 51 (https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbharat/page/n14
0) .

24. D.V Apte and M.R. Paranjpe (1927). Birth-Date of Shivaji (https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handl
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41. Gordon 2007, p. 61.

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92. Jain, Meenakshi (2011). The India They Saw (Vol. 3) (https://books.google.com/books?id=YlMk
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93. Richards, John F. (1993). "Maratha insurgency and Mughal conquest in the Deccan & The
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101. Gandhi, Rajmohan (2000). Revenge and Reconciliation: Understanding South Asian History (http
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103. Gordon 2007, p. 78.

104. Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, p. 98.

105. Joshi, P.S. (1980). "Early life of Sambhaji". Chhatrapati Sambhaji, 1657-1689 A.D. (https://books.
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106. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, p. 185.

107. Gordon 1993, p. 231.

108. Murlidhar Balkrishna Deopujari (1973). Shivaji and the Maratha Art of War (https://books.googl
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109. Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock Throne 2000, p. 460.

110. Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock Throne 2000, p. 461.

111. Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, pp. 173–174.

112. Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, p. 175.

113. Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, p. 189.

114. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, p. 393.

115. Sarkar, History of Aurangzib 1920, pp. 230–233.

116. Malavika Vartak (May 1999). "Shivaji Maharaj: Growth of a Symbol". Economic and Political
Weekly. 34 (19): 1126–1134. JSTOR 4407933 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4407933) .

117. Jasper 2003, p. 215.

118. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, pp. 239–240.

119. Gordon 1993, p. 87.

120. Rajmohan Gandhi (1999). Revenge and Reconciliation (https://books.google.com/books?id=OV
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ground that Shivaji was merely a Maratha and not a kshatriya by caste, Maharashtra's
Brahmins had refused to conduct a sacred coronation."

121. Gordon 1993, p. 87-88.

122. B. S. Baviskar; D. W. Attwood (2013). Inside-Outside: Two Views of Social Change in Rural India
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123. Gordon 1993, p. 88.

124. Sunder, B. Shyam (1987). They Burn: The 160,000,000 Untouchables of India (https://books.goo
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125. Chand, Shyam (2002). Saffron Fascism (https://books.google.com/books?id=u2eKAAAAMAAJ

&q=bribed) . Hemkunt Publishers.

126. Cashman, The Myth of the Lokamanya 1975, p. 7 (https://archive.org/details/mythoflokamany

a00rich/page/7) .

127. Farooqui, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India 2011, p. 321.

128. Oliver Godsmark (2018). Citizenship, Community and Democracy in India: From Bombay to
Maharashtra, c. 1930–1960 (https://books.google.com/books?id=CCpKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT4
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129. Varma, Supriya; Saberwal, Satish (2005). Traditions in Motion: Religion and Society in History (ht
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130. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, p. 244.

131. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, p. 245.

132. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, p. 252.

133. Manu S Pillai (2018). Rebel Sultans: The Deccan from Khilji to Shivaji (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Rq5oDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9) . Juggernaut Books. p. xvi. ISBN 978-93-86228-73-4.

134. Barua, Pradeep (2005). The State at War in South Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=FII
QhuAOGaIC&pg=PA42) . University of Nebraska Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8032-1344-9.
135. Mallavarapu Venkata Siva Prasada Rau (Andhra Pradesh Archives) (1980). Archival
organization and records management in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=LXtmAAAAMAAJ) . Published under the authority of the Govt. of Andhra
Pradesh by the Director of State Archives (Andhra Pradesh State Archives). p. 393.

136. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920.

137. Yuva Bharati (https://books.google.com/books?id=6vUoAAAAYAAJ&q=50,000+people+shivaji+

coronation) (Volume 1 ed.). Vivekananda Rock Memorial Committee. 1974. p. 13. "About
50,000 people witnessed the coronation ceremony and arrangements were made for their
boarding and lodging."

138. Narayan H. Kulkarnee (1975). Chhatrapati Shivaji, Architect of Freedom: An Anthology (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=faodAAAAMAAJ&q=kshatriya+Kulawatans) . Chhatrapati Shivaji
Smarak Samiti.

139. U. B. Singh (1998). Administrative System in India: Vedic Age to 1947 (https://books.google.co
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140. Tej Ram Sharma (1978). Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions (https://bo
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141. Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava (1964). The History of India, 1000 A.D.–1707 A.D. (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=Bdw9AAAAMAAJ) Shiva Lal Agarwala. p. 701. "Shivaji was obliged to
undergo a second coronation ceremony on 4th October 1674, on the suggestion of a well-
known Tantrik priest, named Nishchal Puri Goswami, who said that Gaga Bhatta had performed
the ceremony at an inauspicious hour and neglected to propitiate the spirits adored in the
Tantra. That was why, he said, the queen mother Jija Bai had died within twelve days of the
ceremony and similar other mishaps had occurred."

142. Indian Institute of Public Administration. Maharashtra Regional Branch (1975). Shivaji and
swarajya (https://books.google.com/books?id=ytQgAAAAMAAJ) . Orient Longman. p. 61.
"one to establish that Shivaji belonged to the Kshatriya clan and that he could be crowned a
Chhatrapati and the other to show that he was not entitled to the Vedic form of recitations at
the time of the coronation"
143. Shripad Rama Sharma (1951). The Making of Modern India: From A.D. 1526 to the Present Day
(https://books.google.com/books?id=oAUdAAAAMAAJ) . Orient Longmans. p. 223. "The
coronation was performed at first according to the Vedic rites, then according to the Tantric.
Shivaji was anxious to satisfy all sections of his subjects. There was some doubt about his
Kshatriya origin (see note at the end of this chapter). This was of more than academic interest
to his contemporaries, especially Brahmans [Brahmins]. Traditionally considered the highest
caste in the Hindu social hierarchy. the Brahmans would submit to Shivaji, and officiate at his
coronation, only if his"

144. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, p. 17.

145. Maharashtra (India) (1967). Maharashtra State Gazetteers: Maratha period (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=EXtEAQAAIAAJ) . Directorate of Government Printing, Stationery and
Publications, Maharashtra State. p. 147.

146. Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times 1920, p. 258.

147. Gijs Kruijtzer (2009). Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India (https://books.google.com/book

s?id=yTTJa0usl80C) . Amsterdam University Press. pp. 153–190. ISBN 978-90-8728-068-0.

148. Kulkarni, A. R. (1990). "Maratha Policy Towards the Adil Shahi Kingdom". Bulletin of the Deccan
College Research Institute. 49: 221–226. JSTOR 42930290 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/42930
290) .

149. Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period 1960, p. 276.

150. Everett Jenkins Jr. (2010). The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 2, 1500–1799): A Comprehensive
Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=kSYkCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA201) . McFarland. pp. 201–. ISBN 978-1-4766-0889-
1.

151. Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period 1960, p. 290.

152. Sardesai 1957, p. 251.

153. Maya Jayapal (1997). Bangalore: the story of a city (https://books.google.com/books?id=UEluA

AAAMAAJ) . Eastwest Books (Madras). p. 20. ISBN 978-81-86852-09-5. "Shivaji's and Ekoji's
armies met in battle on 26 November 1677, and Ekoji was defeated. By the treaty he signed,
Bangalore and the adjoining areas were given to Shivaji, who then made them over to Ekoji's
wife Deepabai to be held by her, with the proviso that Ekoji had to ensure that Shahaji's
Memorial was well tended."
154. Laine, James W. (13 February 2003). "Cracks in the Narrative" (https://academic.oup.com/
book/10230/chapter/157915767) . Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India (https://academic.
oup.com/book/10230) . Oxford University Press. p. 93.
doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195141269.003.0006 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3
Aoso%2F9780195141269.003.0006) . ISBN 978-0-19-514126-9. "Besides the fact that
Shivaji grew up apart from his father, we are also aware of his testy relationship with his
oldest son Sambhaji, who deserted his father's cause for a time and allied with the
Mughals, and is primarily remembered for his affronts to the chaste virtue of brahmin
women, his drug use, and his association with Tantric priests of questionable integrity"

Richards, John F. (1993). "Maratha insurgency and Mughal conquest in the Deccan". The
Mughal Empire (https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC) . Cambridge
University Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2. "In December 1678, in disgrace for the
rape of a respectable Brahmin woman, [he] escaped his father's surveillance and fled."

Rajaram Narayan Saletore (1978). Sex in Indian Harem Life (https://books.google.com/boo

ks?id=4ikbAAAAYAAJ) . Orient Paperbacks. p. 143. "During his life-time his son
Sambhaji's conduct was a source of grief and vexation to him. When Sambhaji attempted
to violate a Brahman's wife, Shivaji confined his son for a time in Panhala fort and, after his
release, placed a strict watch over him."

Mehta, Jaswant Lal (1986). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India (https://books.
google.com/books?id=-TsMl0vSc0gC&pg=PA551) . Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 47.
ISBN 978-81-207-1015-3. "Though an excellent warrior, he became addicted to sensual
pleasures on attaining maturity and displayed irresponsible conduct, unbecoming of a
crown prince. What Salim had been to Akbar, Sambhaji was to his father Shivaji."

Vatsal, Tulsi (1982). Indian political history, from the Marathas to modern times (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=kygKAQAAIAAJ) . Orient Longman. p. 29. " 'Unlike his father,'
observes Khafi Khan, 'Sambhaji was addicted to wine, and fond of the society of
handsome women, and gave himself up to pleasure.' He was not merely dissolute; in 1678
he had actually deserted to the Mughal camp and had attacked the Maratha fort of
Bhupalgad, and Shivaji had been forced to keep him in confinement at Panhala."

155. Mehta 2005, p. 47.

156. Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period 1960, p. 278.

157. Mehendale 2011, p. 1147.

158. Pissurlencar, Pandurang Sakharam. Portuguese-Mahratta Relations. Maharashtra State Board

for Literature and Culture. p. 61.
159. Mehendale, Gajanan Bhaskar (2011). Shivaji his life and times (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/
801376912) . India: Param Mitra Publications. p. 1147. ISBN 978-93-80875-17-0.
OCLC 801376912 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/801376912) .

160. Mahajan, V. D. (2000). India since 1526 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956763986) (17th

ed., rev. & enl ed.). New Delhi: S. Chand. p. 203. ISBN 81-219-1145-1. OCLC 956763986 (https://
search.worldcat.org/oclc/956763986) .

161. Truschke 2017, p. 53.

162. Mehta 2005, p. 48.

163. Sunita Sharma, K̲h̲udā Bak̲h̲sh Oriyanṭal Pablik Lāʼibrerī (2004). Veil, sceptre, and quill: profiles
of eminent women, 16th–18th centuries (https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2kaAAAAYAA
J) . Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library. p. 139. "By June 1680 three months after Shivaji's
death Rajaram was made a prisoner in the fort of Raigad, along with his mother Soyra Bai and
his wife Janki Bai. Soyra Bai was put to death on charge of conspiracy."

164. Ashta Pradhan (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/38366) at the Encyclopædia

Britannica.

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1707) (https://books.google.com/books?id=zG1DAAAAYAAJ) , Phoenix Publications

Stein, Burton (1987), Vijayanagara (The New Cambridge History of India), Cambridge and New
York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-26693-9

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5036-0259-5

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L_eAayUC) , Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-81-7991-070-2

Further reading

Apte, B. K., ed. (1974–1975). Chhatrapati Shivaji: Coronation Tercentenary Commemoration

Volume. Bombay: University of Bombay. OCLC 3032928 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/303292
8) .

Laine, James W. (2003). Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India (https://archive.org/details/shivajihind

uking0000lain) . Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-514126-9.

Pearson, M. N. (1976b). "Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire" (https://www.jstor.org/sta
ble/2053980) . Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (2): 221–235. doi:10.2307/2053980 (https://doi.org/
10.2307%2F2053980) . JSTOR 2053980 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053980) .
S2CID 162482005 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162482005) .
External links

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