Science/Biography
Nicolaus Copernicus
Polish Astronomer, Mathematician, Doctor,
Lawyer and Economist
1473 –1543
Nicolaus Copernicus was the first person to develop a
comprehensive heliocentric cosmology removing the Earth
from the center of the universe. Copernicus' most important
book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the
Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), is considered as the
starting point of modern astronomy and the start of the
scientific revolution. His heliocentric model put the Sun at the center of the universe, and
explained the observed motions of celestial objects without placing Earth at rest in the center
of the universe. His work inspired others, such as Galileo, to more scientific investigations. It is
a landmark in the history of science that is referred to as the Copernican Revolution.
Copernicus was a perfect example of a “Renaissance man”. He spoke five languages
(German, Polish, Latin, Greek and Italian), and was a mathematician, astronomer, physician,
classical scholar, translator, artist, Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat and
economist. Among all his responsibilities, astronomy was little more than a hobby – and yet it
was what revolutionized science, and the world.
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in the Kingdom of Poland about 100 miles
south of Danzig. His father was a merchant from Cracow. Nicolaus was the youngest of four
children.
When young Nicolaus was ten years old his father died. His uncle Lucas Watzenrode, the
bishop and ruler of Ermland, became guardian to Nicolaus and his siblings. It was he who
provided Nicolaus with his education, and security later in life.
Copernicus first studied astronomy and astrology at the University of Cracow (1491-94). His
uncle, Lukas Watzenrode, a Catholic bishop got him elected a canon (a priest on the staff of a
cathedral) in Frombork. This position required Copernicus to study church and civil law, which
he did at the University of Bologna from 1496. In Bologna, he lived with and worked as an
assistant to Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara, a famous astronomer and professor of
mathematics. Copernicus recorded some planetary positions while in Bologna, and later in
Rome, where he also spent some time. He performed astronomical observations using
primitive instruments such as the quadrant, triquetrum, and armillary sphere, because the
telescope had not yet been invented.
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Upon returning home in 1506, Copernicus stayed in his uncle's castle at Heilsberg where he
served as his personal physician and secretary. During that time he translated from Greek into
Latin the eighty-five poems of Theophylactus Simacotta, the seventh-century poet. The work,
which was printed in Cracow in 1509, shows us Copernicus' interest in the arts. It was around
this time that he began his work on his heliocentric theory.
Copernicus was also an economist. In 1526 he wrote a study on the value of money, Monetae
cudendae ratio, in which he described an early version of a theory, now called Gresham's Law,
that "bad" (debased) coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation—70 years
before Thomas Gresham. He also formulated a version of quantity theory of money. Prussia
and Poland were both suffering from unstable currency at the time, and their leaders took his
recommendations seriously.
His work as a mathematician includes a treatise on trigonometry (later included in the second
book of De revolutionibus) first published in 1542.
Throughout his life, Copernicus continued making astronomical observations and calculations,
but only to the extent that his other work allowed. He never worked as a professional
astronomer.
Sometime before 1514 Copernicus gave friends his "Commentariolus" ("Little Commentary"), a
short forty-page manuscript that explained his heliocentric hypothesis. It contained seven basic
assumptions. Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work.
About 1532 Copernicus had basically completed his work on the manuscript of De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres). By then
rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe, but although his
closest friends urged him to publish, he resisted. He knew his ideas were revolutionary, and
did not want to expose himself to public scorn. Copernicus finally gave in to his friends’
demands and published the book in 1543, the year he died.
His earlier, briefer work "Commentariolus" summarized his heliocentric theory. It listed the
"assumptions" upon which the theory was based as follows:
• There is no one center of the universe; the center of the earth is not the center of the
universe;
• all the spheres (planets) revolve about the sun as their mid-point;
• the distance from the earth to the sun is imperceptible in comparison with distance to
the stars (i.e., space is big);
• any apparent motion in the heavens is due not to the heavens moving, but to the motion
of the earth itself. The earth performs a complete daily rotation on its fixed poles, while
the heavens do not move;
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• what seems to be motion of the sun is caused not by its motion but by the motion of the
earth, we revolve about the sun like any other planet;
• the apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but
from the earth's. The motion of the earth alone explains many apparent inequalities in
the heavens.
Although the Catholic Pope had originally found Copernicus’ astronomical ideas fascinating,
the Catholic Church eventually took a more negative stance on his work. In March 1616, in
connection with the Galileo affair, the Roman Catholic Church banned De revolutionibus until it
could be "corrected," on the grounds that the idea that the Earth moves and the Sun does not
was false and in contradiction to Holy Scripture. Although Copernicus was dead by this time,
life became dangerous for his followers.
In 1633 Galileo Galilei was convicted of grave suspicion of heresy for following the ideas of
Copernicus, and was put under house arrest for the rest of his life. Still, he was more fortunate
than another follower of Copernicus, Giordano Bruno. Bruno had gone beyond Copernicus and
suggested that there might be other worlds in space, inhabited by other beings equal to or
even superior to ourselves. For this, he was convicted of heresy by the Inquisition and burned
at the stake in 1600.
The original uncensored versions of De revolutionibus were not removed from the Catholic
Church’s list of banned books until 1835.
No "great book" of Western intellectual history was read by fewer people than Copernicus' De
revolutionibus when it was first published. Only one thousand copies of the first edition were
printed, and they did not sell out. Despite that, it not only revealed a new theory of the
movement of the planets, it started a revolution in science, and marked the beginning of
modern astronomy.
Copernicus died in 1543, without ever learning what a revolution in human thought his “hobby”
had brought about. His ideas went against the philosophical and religious beliefs that were
held during his lifetime. Rather than being the center of the universe, Copernicus' theories led
men to see that they are simply another part of nature and not superior to it.
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ANSWER THE QUESTIONS ABOUT NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
1. When was Copernicus born?
a. 1473
b. 1496
c. 1506
d. 1543
2. What was his profession?
a. Economist and diplomat
b. Cleric and doctor
c. Classical scholar and translator
d. All of the above
3. Who was Copernicus’ mentor and supporter?
a. His grandfather
b. The pope
c. His uncle
d. Galileo
4. What is Copernicus’ astronomical theory called?
a. The heliocentric model
b. The geocentric model
c. The geostationary model
d. The geographical model
5. What had people previously believed?
a. That the Earth revolved around the Sun
b. That the Sun was stationary
c. That the moon was made of cheese
d. That Earth was the center of the universe
6. When did Copernicus die?
a. 1473
b. 1496
c. 1506
d. 1543
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Use complete sentences to answer the questions below.
1. Describe an experience or situation in your life that is somehow similar to Copernicus
resisting publication of De Revolutionibus because he feared criticism.
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2. From the way it is used in the article what do you think is the meaning of hypothesis?
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3. Copernicus spoke five languages, and had numerous professions at which he excelled.
What do you think this says about him?
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4. Imagine you are a scientist deciding whether to announce a discovery that would
change the way people view the world and might be unpopular. Describe how you
would feel. What would you consider in making your decision?
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5. What do you understand differently after reading about Nicolaus Copernicus? How will
you use this information in the future?
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WRITING ABOUT NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
Nicolaus Copernicus spoke five languages, and worked as a mathematician,
physician, astronomer, cleric, translator, classical scholar, artist, jurist, governor,
diplomat, and economist. People with such multiple professions and specialties
were somewhat common in the Renaissance, giving rise to the expression
“Renaissance man”. Is it good to be a Renaissance man? Why or why not? Do
Renaissance men exist today? Is it easier or more difficult to be a Renaissance
man now than it was during the Renaissance? Why do you think so?
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Answers to NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
Multiple-choice questions
1. a
2. d
3. c
4. a
5. d
6. d
Short-answer questions
1. Answers will vary. Accept logical, realistic answers.
2. Hypothesis = an unproven theory
3. Answers will vary. Accept logical, realistic answers.
4. Answers will vary. Accept logical, realistic answers.
5. Answers will vary. Accept logical, realistic answers.
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