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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

Chapter 1. Introduction to the Contemporary

World

Lesson 1: Introduction to the Study of Globalization

Introduction
One of the most important Lesson Objectives:
factors of developed countries is the 1. Differentiate the
indicator of the country's competing conceptions
globalization rate indicator. If a of globalization
country has good indicator or high 2. Identify the underlying
globalization indicator it is a positive philosophies of the
point for that country (Irani and varying definitions of
Noruzi, 2011). globalization
The first chapter of this course 3. Agree on a working
serves an opening salvo to the definition of
content of discovering the globalization for the
contemporary world by providing the course
learners an ocean of definitions of
‘globalization’, being the core concept of the course.

Defining ‘Globalization’

Authors / Globalization is…

Sources …the whole system of human interactions. The
modern-world system is structured politically as an
interstate system- a system of competing and allying
states. Political Scientist commonly call this the
international system and is the focus of the field of
International relation.
Nilson (2010) …refers to the process by which different economies
and societies become more closely integrated, and
concurrent with increasing worldwide globalization,
there has been much research into its consequences
Globalization, …is not a new phenomenon, with global ecological
2005 changes, an ever more integrated global economy,
and other global trends, political activity increasingly
takes place at the global level
Milanovic, 2002: … is a benign force leading us ultimately to the era of
Noruzi & converging world incomes, converging institutions as
Westover, 2010 democracy becomes a universal norm, and cultural
richness as people of different background interact
more frequently
Nederveen …has become a generic term for a wide variety of
Pieterse, processes involving a number of societal spheres:
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(1994); Clurk & trade and investment, the geography of branches and
Lund ( 2000) arms, the political geography of spatial competence in
decision-making, cultural exchange and hybridization,
transportation and telecommunications. Indeed, it can
be argued that since these processes are plural, we
should ``conceive of globalizations in the plural''
Teitel (2005) The phenomenon of increased integration of the world
economy as evidenced by the growth of international
trade and factor mobility.
Online …refers to the emerging of an international network,
etymology belonging to an economic and social system
dictionary
Oxford English … designates an overview of the human
Dictionary Online experience in education
(2009)
Inosemtsev, V. … as one of the most popular social studies of today,
(2008) but is at the same time an empty term.
Robertson, R. …as "the understanding of the world and the increased
(1992) perception of the world as a whole."
Albrow, M. and … as "all those processes by which the peoples of the
King, E. (eds.) world are incorporated into a single world society”
(1990).
Giddens, A. … as the intensification of social relations throughout
(1991) the world, linking distant localities in such a way that
local happenings are formed as a result of events that
occur many miles away and vice versa
Held, D., et al. "although in a simplistic sense globalization refers to a
(1999) rapid global interconnection, deep and on large scale,
such definition but requires now a more complex
research"
Larsson, T. …is the process of the shrinking of the world, the
(2001) shortening of distances, and the closeness of things.
Hutton, W. and …is the interaction of extraordinary technological
Giddens, A. innovation combined with global influence, which gives
(n.d.) today's changing its complexity
Harvey, D. … is the compression of time and space.
(1999)
Aldama, P. … is defined either in broad and inclusive or narrow
(2018) and exclusive manner
Ritzer (2015) … is a transplanetary process or a set of processes
involving increasing liquidity and the growing
multidirectional flows of people, places, objects and
information as well as structures they encounter and
create that are barriers to those flows.
Poppi (1997) … is the debate and the debate is globalization.
Appadurai … is a “world of things” that have different speeds,
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(1996) axes, points of origin and termination, and varied

relationships to instructional structures.

Globalization often functions for one or more of the following

phenomena
1. Economic Liberalization - The pursuit of classical liberal (or
―free market‖) policies in the world economy;
2. Westernization – (or Americanization) The growing dominance
of western (or even American) forms of political, economic, and
cultural life; and,
3. Internet Revolution - the proliferation of new information
technologies as well as the notion that humanity stands at the
threshold of realizing one single unified community in which
major sources of social conflict have vanished (global
integration); Globalization, 2010).

Two branches of interest in the area of globalization

1. Pro-globalization argues that globalization brings about much
increased opportunities for almost everyone, and increased
competition is a good thing since it makes agents of production
more efficient.
2. Anti-globalization group argues that certain groups of people
who are deprived in terms of resources are not currently
capable of functioning within the increased competitive
pressure that will be brought about by allowing their economies
to be more connected to the rest of the world

Globalization and culture (Global Culture)

 Technology has now created the possibility and even the
likelihood of a global culture.
 The Internet, fax machines, satellites, and cable TV are
sweeping away cultural boundaries.
 Global entertainment companies shape the perceptions and
dreams of ordinary citizens, wherever they live.
 This spread of values, norms, and culture tends to promote
Western ideals of capitalism.
1. Will local cultures inevitably fall victim to this global
"consumer" culture?
2. Will English eradicate all other languages?
3. Will consumer values overwhelm peoples' sense of
community and social solidarity?
4. Or, on the contrary, will a common culture lead the way to
greater shared values and political unity? (Global Policy,
2009).

Assumptions of Globalization
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1. Inevitable Phenomenon, characterizing our development era,

a phenomenon that the human society is forced to understand,
because for the first time, it questions the surviving and
evolution of the human society
2. Socio-historical Phenomenon, manifested itself firstly as a
theory, then as a practical necessity, becoming a strategy for
the constitution of a sole market, spread across a huge surface,
the engulfs states, regions, continents.

International Monetary Fund (2000) has identified four basic

aspects of globalization
1. Trade and transactions
2. Capital movements and investment
3. Migration and movement of people
4. Spreading of knowledge

Key aspects of globalization

1. Globalization describes the spread of communication
production and connection technologies throughout the world.
2. Globalization in terms of connectivity across the entire world of
the economic and cultural life increased throughout the
centuries.
3. The communication and the exchange rate, the complexity and
size of the networks involved, the volume of trade, the
interaction and the risk give a strange force to the label
"globalization".
4. The globalization involves spreading of ideas, practices and
technologies, and it is little more than internationalization and
universalization. It is not simply the modernization or
westernization. Certainly, it is much more than market
liberalization.
5. The globalization has 5 vectors that act on human society,
vectors that influence the development of human society. The
vectors through which globalization interacts with society, both
locally, regionally, and internationally are:
 economic vector
 military vector
 political vector
 religious vector
 cultural vector
6. Today the most advanced economies in terms of technology
are really based on science/knowledge. The increase of the
so-called "economic science" meant that economists were
challenged to look beyond labor and capital as key factors of
production.
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7. Paul Romer and others have said that technology (and the
science on which it is based) must be seen as the third factor in
driving the economy. Technology, science and global finance
form together a force leading the economies.
8. Commentators and analysts like Charles Leadbeater said and
argued for the need to innovate ate but also to recognize that
the successful economic knowledge must be addressed in
democratically in terms of spread "we should create an open
society, questioning, challenging and ambitious."

Reflective Questions
1. Which of the definitions provide you the best concept for your
understanding of globalization? Which has confused you?
2. With the given definitions, what general concept of globalization
can you create?
3. Are you a pro or anti-globalization? Why?
4. Do you agree with the idea that the contemporary world is
characterized by high liquidity? Why or why not?
5. What other metaphor(s) can you use to define ‘globalization’?

References
Clurk & Lund, 2000, Globalization of a commercial property market:
the case of Copenhagen, Geoforum 31 (2000) 467±475

Cuterela, S. (2012). Globalization: Definition, Processes and

Concepts. Revista Română de Statistică – Supliment Trim IV

Global Policy Forum, (2011), available online at: Global Policy, 2009,
globalization of culture, available online at:
http://www.globalpolicy.org/globalization/globalization-of-
culture.html

Global Policy.org, 2005, globalization of the economy. Available

online at:
http://www.globalpolicy.org/globalization/globalization-of-the-
economy-2-1.html

Globalization, 2005, globalization, available online at: www.

Globalization/globalization.html

Globalization, 2005, globalization, available online at: www.

Globalization/globalization-of-politics.html

Globalization, 2010, Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, available

online at: http://plato.stanford.edu/
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http://www.globalpolicy.org/globalization/defining-globalization.html
Held, David, et al. (1999). Global Transformations Cambridge: Polity
Press. ISBN 9780745614984

Inosemtsev Vladislav L. Age of Globalization.2008. Num. 1.The

Present Day Globalization

International Monetary Fund (2000). "Globalization: Threats or

Opportunity." 12th April, 2000: IMF Publications

Irani, F. and Noruzi, M.R. (2011). Globalization and Challenges;

What are the globalization's contemporary issues? International
Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 1 No. 6;
June2011

Larsson, Thomas. (2001). The Race to the Top: The Real Story of
Globalization Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute. p. 9. ISBN 978-
1930865150

Nilson, Theresse, (2010), Good for Living? On the Relationship

between Globalization and Life Expectancy, World
Development Vol. 38, No. 9, pp. 1191–1203, 2010

Noruzi, Mohammad Reza; Jonathan H. Westover (2010), A Short

Study of Iranian Organizations' Needs in the Area of
Globalization: Opportunities, Challenges and Relative
Advantages, Cross-cultural Communication Vol.6 No.3, 2010

Politzer, Malia, (2008) "China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties

Mean More Migration". By Malia Politzer, Migration Information
Source. August 2008. Pretoria: UNISA

Robertson, R., 1992. Globalization: Social Theory and Global

Culture. Sage, London.

Sklair, L., 2002. Globalization: Capitalism and Its Alternatives, third

ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

Teitel, S. (2005). Globalization and its disconnects. Journal of

Socio-Economics, 34, 444–470
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Chapter 2. The Structures of Globalization

Lesson 2: The Global Economy

Introduction
The global economy has changed
in significant ways during the past Lesson Objectives:
several decades, and 1. Define economic
these changes are rooted in how the globalization;
global economy is organized and 2. Identify the actors
governed. These transformations affect that facilitate
not only the flows of goods and services economic
across national borders, but also the globalization;
implications of these processes for how 3. Define the modern
countries move up (or down) in the world system; and,
international system. The development 4. Articulate a stance
strategies of countries today are affected on global economic
to an unprecedented degree by how integration.
industries
are organized, and this is reflected in a shift in theoretical frameworks
from those centered around the legacies and actors of nation-states
to a greater concern with supranational institutions and transnational
organizations.
This chapter provides the tracing of how economic globalization
came about. In addition, globalization system is to be assessed and
determine who benefits from and who is left out.

Economic globalization defined

1. According to Claudio and Abinales (2018, p. 12), the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) regards ‘economic
globalization’ as a historical process representing the
outcome of human innovation and technological
development. It can be described through the increasing
integration of economies in the world through the motion
of goods, services, and capital across borders.
2. According to United Nations (as mentioned by Shangquan,
2000), economic globalization refers to the increasing
interdependence of world economies because of the
growing scale of cross-border trade commodities and
services, flow of international capital, and wide and rapid
spread of technologies.
3. The term sometimes also refers to the movement of people
(labor) and knowledge (technology) across international
borders. (IMF, 2008)

Dimensions of Economic globalization

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(1)The globalization of trade of goods and services;

(2)The globalization of financial and capital markets;
(3)The globalization of technology and communication; and
(4)The globalization of production.

Different types of economies associated with economic

globalization
1. Protectionism means ‘protecting the economy from foreign
competition by creating trade barriers’.
2. Trade Liberalization or free trade. This reduces the trade
barriers to make international trade easier between countries.
Trade barriers are usually the tariffs (required fees on imports
and/or exports).

Economic globalization versus internationalization

1. What makes economic globalization distinct from
internationalization is that while the latter is about the extension
of economic activities of nation states across borders, the
former is ‘functional integration between internationally
dispersed activities’ Dicken (2004: 12).
2. That is, economic globalization is rather a qualitative
transformation than just a quantitative change.
3. If, however, globalization is indeed a ‘complex, indeterminate
set of processes operating very unevenly in both time and
space’ (Dicken, 2004: xv), a more substantive definition for
economic globalization is required than the one offered by the
IMF (2008).
4. The definition provided by Szentes (2003: 69) befits the
purposes of this chapter: ‘In economic terms globalization is
nothing but a process making the world economy an “organic
system” by extending transnational economic processes and
economic relations to more and more countries and by
deepening the economic interdependencies among them.’

Is Economic Globalization a New Phenomenon?

1. The best-known example of archaic globalization is the Silk
Road, which connected Asia, Africa and Europe. Adopting
Fernand Braudel’s innovative concept of ‘long duration’, i.e. a
slow-moving, ‘almost imperceptible’ (1973: 22) framework for
historical analysis, world-systems analysts identify the origins of
modernity and globalization with the birth of 16th century long
distance trade.
2. The economic nationalism of the 17th and 18th centuries,
coupled with monopolized trade (such as the first multinational
corporations, the British and the Dutch East India Companies,
established in 1600 and 1602, respectively) did not favor,
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however, international economic integration. If global economy

did exist in this period, then it was only in the sense of ‘trade
and exchange, rather than production’ (Gereffi, 2005: 161).
3. The real breakthrough came only in the nineteenth century. By
1913, trade equaled to 16–17% of world income, thanks to the
transport revolution: steamships and railroads reduced
transaction costs and bolstered both internal and international
exchange (Held et al., 1999).
4. The relatively short period before World War I (that is, 1870 to
1913) is often referred to as the ‘golden age’ of globalization,
characterized by relative peace, free trade and financial and
economic stability (O’Rourke and Williamson, 1999).

International Monetary Systems (IMS)

1. Consequently, an international monetary system or regime
(IMS) ‘refers to the rules, customs, instruments, facilities, and
organizations for effecting international payments’ (Salvatore,
2007: 764).
2. In the liberal tradition, the main task of an IMS is to facilitate
cross-border transactions, especially trade and investment. An
international monetary system is, however, more than just
money or currencies; it also reflects economic power and
interests, as ‘money is inherently political, an integral part of
“high politics” of diplomacy’ (Cohen, 2000: 91).

The Gold Standard

1. The origins of the first modern-day IMS dates back to the early
19th century, when the UK adopted gold mono-metallism in
1821. Half a century later, in 1867, the European nations, as
well as the USA, propagated a deliberate shift to gold at the
International Monetary Conference in Paris.
2. Gold was believed to guarantee a non-inflationary, stable
economic environment, a means for accelerating international
trade (Einaudi, 2001).
3. Following Prussia’s victory over France in 1872, Germany
joined the new regime. France decided to do so six years later.
With the joining of the United States in 1879, the gold standard
became the international monetary regime by 1880. Following
the joining of Italy (1984) and Russia (1897), roughly 70 percent
of the nations participated in the gold standard just before the
outbreak of World War I (Meissner, 2005).
4. In practice, the gold standard functioned as a fixed exchange
rate regime, with gold as the only international reserve.
Participating countries determined the gold content of national
currencies, which in turn defined fixed exchange rates (or mint
parities) as well.
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5. Consequently, ‘common adherence to gold convertibility …

linked the world together through fixed exchange rates’ (Bordo
and Rockoff, 1996: 3).
6. Monetary authorities were obliged to exchange their national
currencies for gold at the official exchange rate without limits on
international markets.
7. One of the main strengths of the system was the tendency for
trade balance to be in equilibrium. Balanced positions were
ensured by the automatic price-specie flow mechanism, which
assumed a passive change in money supply and a full flexibility
in internal prices. David Hume (1752) was the first to elaborate
on this mechanism by developing his quantitative theory of
money.
8. The outbreak of World War I brought an end to the classical
gold standard. Participating nations gave up convertibility and
abandoned gold export in order to stop the depletion of their
national gold reserves. The overvalued pound sterling and the
emergence of new rivals, especially the United States and
France, reduced the competitiveness of the UK substantially.
As opposed to the pre-World War I era, the UK could not
finance its current account deficit by capital inflow anymore;
therefore, it had no other choice but to abandon the gold
standard once and for all in 1931.
9. Indeed, the 1920s and extended until 1930s became the
darkest period of modern economic history called the Great
Depression. This was the worst and longest recession ever
experienced by the western world (Claudio and Abinales,
2018).

The Bretton Woods System and Its Dissolution

1. The dramatic consequences of the beggar-thy neighbor policies
of the inter-war period and the wish to return to peace and
prosperity impelled the allied nations to start negotiations about
a new international monetary regime in the framework of the
United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton
Woods, New Hampshire (US), in July 1944.
2. The gold exchange standard was not the only competing idea
on the table, however. The British economist, John Maynard
Keynes, proposed ambitious reforms for the post-war era and
recommended the creation of an international clearing union, a
kind of global bank, along with the introduction of a new unit of
account, the ‘bancor’ (Keynes, 1942/1969). Nevertheless, the
United States insisted on its own plan and branded the British
proposal as a serious blow to national sovereignty.
3. Delegates also agreed on the establishment of two international
institutions. The International Banks for Reconstruction and
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Development (IBRD) became responsible for post-war

reconstruction, while the explicit mandate of the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) was to promote international financial
cooperation and buttress international trade. The IMF was
expected to safeguard the smooth functioning of the gold-
exchange standard by providing short-term financial assistance
in case of temporary balance of payments difficulties.
4. As opposed to Keynes’s plan of a new international clearing
union, the Bretton Woods system did not prevent countries from
running large and persistent deficits (or surpluses) in their
balance of payments. Although nations were allowed to correct
the official exchange rate in order to eliminate deficits (hence
the name, adjustable peg system), adjustments did not happen
frequently.
5. The UK, for instance, was put under constant pressure by
speculators to devaluate its currency (it did so only once in
1967). Abstention from devaluations that were believed to be
humiliating triggered investors to relocate their capital outside
Britain.
6. The US’s situation was unique, however. During the first few
years of the new regime, the country managed to maintain a
surplus in its balance of payments. As soon as Europe regained
its pre-World War II economic power, the external position of
the United States turned into a persistent deficit as a natural
consequence of becoming an international reserve currency.
Nevertheless, by the mid-1960s, the dollar became excessively
overvalued vis-à-vis major currencies. As a response, foreign
countries started to deplete the US gold reserves. Destabilizing
speculations, fed by the huge balance of payments and trade
deficit, along with inflationary pressures, forced the United
States to abandon the gold-exchange standard on 15 August,
1971.
7. The 1990s saw the triumph of the neoliberal, pro-market
Washington Consensus. Its program points were advocated
and disseminated by the major international financial
institutions. The IMF used these points as part of its adjustment
requirements in exchange for financial assistance. Several
countries, especially the so-called emerging markets such as
Mexico, Brazil or the East Asian tigers, deregulated their
financial sectors and fully liberalized capital transactions from
the late 1980s onwards. Reforms, however, were not
supplemented by strengthened domestic supervision or
monitoring.

Economic Globalization Today (Claudio and Abinales, 2018)

1. The global financial crisis will take decades to be resolved.
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2. Exports, not just local selling of goods and services, make

national economic grow at present.
3. In the past, those that benefited the most from free trade were
the advanced nations that were producing and selling industrial
and agricultural goods. The US, Japan, and the member-
countries of the European Union were responsible for the 65%
global exports while developing countries are accounted for the
29%.
4. When more countries opened their economies to take
advantage of the free trade, the shares of the percentage
began to change. By 2011, developing countries like
Philippines, India, China, Argentina, and Brazil accounted for
51% of the global exports while advanced countries had gone
down to 45%. The WTO-led reduction of trade barriers, known
as trade liberalization, has altered the dynamics of the global
economy.
5. Increased exports rose the global per capita GDP over five-fold
in the second half of the 20th century and this growth created
the large Asian economies like China, Japan, Singapore, Hong
Kong, and Korea.
6. Yet, economic globalization remains an uneven process, with
some countries, corporations and individuals benefitting a lot
more than the others.
7. As an example, developed countries refused to lift policies that
that safeguard their primary products that could otherwise be
overwhelmed by imports from the developing countries. Japan’s
determined refusal to allow rice imports into the country to
protect its farming sector justifying that for Japan, rice is sacred.
8. US likewise protects its sugar industry, forcing consumers and
sugar-dependent business to pay higher prices instead of
getting cheaper sugar from plantations in Central America.
9. With this blatantly protectionist measures from powerful
countries and blocs, poorer countries can do very little to make
economic globalization more just. Trade imbalances
characterize economic relations between developed and
developing countries.
10. The beneficiaries of global commerce are mainly the
transnational corporations (TNCs) and not governments. These
TNCs are more concerned with profits than with assisting the
social programs of the governments hosting them.
11. Host countries, in turn, loosen tax laws, preventing wages
from rising, sacrificing social and environmental programs that
protect the underprivileged. The term ‘race to the bottom’ refers
to the country’s lowering labor standards, including the
protection of worker’s interest, to lure in foreign investors
seeking high profit margins at the lowest cost possible.
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Governments weaken environmental laws to attract investors,

creating fatal consequences on their ecological balance and
depleting them of their finite sources (like oil, coal and
minerals).

Conclusion
International economic integration is the central tenet of
globalization. Though this is so significant to the process, yet
economics is just one window into the phenomenon of globalization.
Nonetheless, much of globalization is anchored on the changes in the
economy.

Reflective Questions
1. From the ups and downs of the global economy as seen in
its historical accounts, what is your impression about
trading?
2. What could have happened if international monetary system
did not exist in the process of trading? Give possible
circumstance that may occur.
3. Comment on the trade imbalances between the developed
and developing countries.
4. Is being a colonized country beneficial or detrimental to
obtaining a better position in the global market? Explain your
view.
5. Based on your readings and/or observation, how is the
Philippines performing in the global economy today? Cite
proofs to your claim.

References
Bordo MD and Rockoff H (1996) The gold standard as a good
housekeeping seal of approval. Journal of Economic History
56(2): 389–428.

Cohen B (2000) Money and power in world politics. In: Lawton TC,
Rosenau JN and Verdun AC (eds) Strange power. Aldershot,
UK: Ashgate Publishing, pp. 91–113.

Claudio, L. and Abinales, P. (2018). The contemporary world.

Quezon City: C and E Publishing.

Clurk & Lund, 2000, Globalization of a commercial property market:

the case of Copenhagen, Geoforum 31 (2000) 467±475

Dicken, P. (2004) Global shift: Reshaping the global economic map

in the 21st century. London: SAGE.
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Einaudi L (2001) Money and politics: European monetary unification

and the international gold standard, 1865–1873. Oxford: Oxford
University Press

Gereffi, G. (2005). The global economy: Organization, governance,

and development. In: Smesler N and Swedberg R (eds)
Handbook of economic sociology. Princeton, NJ University
Press, pp.160–82.

Keynes JM (1942/1969) Proposals for an International Currency (or

Clearing) Union. In: Horsefield JK (ed.) The International
Monetary Fund 1945–1965: Twenty years of international
monetary cooperation. Vol. III, Washington, DC: IMF, pp. 3–19.

Meissner CM (2005) A new world order: Explaining the international

diffusion of the gold standard. Journal of International
Economics 66(2): 385–406.

Nafziger, E. (n.d.), The Economics of Developing Countries, 3rd

edition, pps. 47-49.

O’Rourke KH and Williamson JG (1999) Globalization and history.

The evolution of a nineteen- century Atlantic economy.
Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Ritzer, G. (2015). Globalizations: The Essentials. MA: Wiley-

Blackwell.

Salvatore D (2007) International economics. Hoboken: John Wiley &

Son

Szentes T (2003) World economics 2. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó

Lesson 3: Market Integration

Introduction
The market integration is
always related to efficiency of Lesson Objectives:
markets. To understand the 1. Explain the role of
market integration, it is necessary international financial
to understand the concept of institutions in the creation
"market" and "integration" of a global economy
separately and the way in which 2. Narrate a short history of
these are interconnected. This global market integration in
chapter will provide fundamental the twentieth century
3. Identify the attributes of
global corporations
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knowledge on market integration to learners of this contemporary

world.

Market versus Integration

Market derived from the Latin word "Mercatus" which means trading
or place of transactions.

There are 6 concepts of market:

1. Place Concept - "A market can be defined as a place where
buyers and sellers meet and function goods and services
offered for sale and transfer of ownership pf title occur." (W. J
Stanton)
2. Commodity Concept - "The term market refers not only to the
place but to a commodity or commodities and buyers and
sellers and they should be in direct competition with one
another." (Champman)
3. Exchange Concept - "It means to not any particular market
place in which things are bought and sold, but a whole of any
region in which buyers and sellers are in such free intercourse
with one another that the prices of some goods tend to quality
easily and quickly." (Cournot)
4. Area Concept - "Market is an area of potential exchanges that
is a group of buyers and sellers interested in negotiating the
terms of purchase and sale of goods and services." (Philip
Kotler)
5. Demand Concept -“Market may be defined as aggregate
demand of potential buyers of a production services." (Prof.
W.J. Staton)
6. Space or Digital Concept - This is the new technology of
market, the digital communication media made the direct
contact between the customer and the seller.

Integration according to Ulrich Koester is a state of affairs as a

process involving attempts to combine separate national economic
into larger economic region.

There are 2 types of integration:

1. Negative Integration-reduces nom-tariffs and tariff barriers to
trade as a main tool for integrating markets.
2. Positive Integration-adjust domestic policies and institutions
through the creation of supranational arrangement.
^Tariff is a tax imposed by one country in the goods and
services imparted from another country.
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^Supranational arrangement is a type of multinational political

union where negotiated power is delegated to an authority by
government of member state.

Definitions of Market Integration

Wikipedia Market integration occurs when prices among
different locations or related goods follow similar
patterns over a long period of time.
Sakthivel R. Market integration is a process which refers to
the expansion of firms by consolidating additional
marketing functions and activities under a single
management.
Dercon 1995 Market integration can assess the transmission
speed of price changes in the main market to the
peripheral markets.
Behura and Market integration as a situation in which
Pradhan, 1998 arbitrage causes prices in different markets to
move together.

To make a simple definition out of the said definitions, market

integration is a term used to identify a phenomenon in which markets
of goods and services that are related to one another being to
experience similar patterns of increase or decrease in terms of the
prices of those products.

Evolution of Market Integration

Before people only produced for their family but today economy
demands the different sectors to work together to produce, distribute
and exchange products and services.

The Agricultural Revolution

People learned how to domesticate plants and animals. This became
the new agricultural economy that led to major developments like
permanent settlements, trade networks and population growth.

The Industrial Revolution

This is the rise of industry through new economic tools, like
steam engines, manufacturing and mass production.

The 2 economic models that compete under Industrial

Revolution.
1. Capitalism – is a system in which all-natural resources and
means of production are privately owned. (e.g. When one owns
a business, he needs to outperform his competitors).
 17
SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

a. Monopoly is when a company has no competitors for

customers, to avoid overpricing governments set
minimum wages and rules.
2. Socialism – is a system that means for production under
collective ownership. The properties are owned by the
government and allocated to all the citizens.
The Information Revolution
This is when the technology reduced the role of human labor
and shifted it from manufacturing-based economy to one that is
based on service work and the production of ideas matter than
goods.

1. Primary Labor Market includes job that provide many benefits to

workers they are called white-collar professions.

2. Secondary Labor Market includes jobs that provide fewer benefits

and include lower-skilled jobs, lower-level service jobs and they also
tend to have less job security.

The 3 Types of Market Integration

1. Horizontal Integration – marketing agencies combine to form a
union to reduce their effective number and the extent if actual
competition in the market.

2. Vertical Integration – occurs when a firm performs more than one

activity in the sequence of the marketing process. It links together two
or more functions in the marketing process within a single firm or
under a single ownership.

The 2 types of Vertical Integration

a) Forward V Integration takes activities close to the consumption
function.
(e.g. A TV producer company operates local TV channels and
shows cooking programs).

b) Backward V Integration is the combination of sources of supply.

(e.g. The Amazon.Com integrated the role of supplier and can
sell books that its own publishing company published).

3. Conglomeration-combination of agencies or activities not directly

related to each other but may operate under a unified management.

Importance of Market Integration

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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

1. It is one of the ways to ascertain the extent of competitiveness

in market.
2. It helps in the development of a single economic market at
national level.
3. It provides better signals for optimal generation and
consumption decisions.
4. It improves the security of supply.
5. It unites different country's economic union.

The International Financial Institutions (IFI)

IFI is a financial institution that have been established by more
than one country and are subjects of international law. (Wikipedia)

The financial institutions and economic organizations that

made our countries closer when it comes to trade are:
1. The Bretton Woods System – is a system where all of the
payments are based on the dollar which defined all currencies in
relation to the dollar itself convertible into gold.

2. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) – is a legal

agreement between many countries whose overall purpose was to
promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers
such as tariffs or quotas. However, GATT was converted from a
provisional agreement into a formal international organization called
World Trade Organization (WTO) in the year 1995 month of January
1.

3. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) – where its primary

purpose is to ensure the stability of the international monetary
system-the system of exchange rates and international payments that
enables countries to transact with each other. (IMF.org)

4. World Bank – is an international organization dedicated to

providing financing, advice and research to developing nations to aid
their economic advancements. The bank act as an organization that
attempts to fight poverty by offering developmental assistance to
middle- and low-income countries.

5. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

– is a unique forum where the governments of 34 democracies of
market economies work with each other, as well as with more than 70
non-member economies to promote economies growth, prosperity
and sustainable development. (OECD.org)

6. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – is a

group of consisting of 14 of the world's major exporting nations. It is a
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

cartel that aims to manage the supply of oil in an effort to set the price
of oil on the world of market in order to avoid fluctuations that might
affect the economies of both producing and purchasing countries.

7. European Union (EU) – is a political and economic union in 28

member states that aims for their original objectives were the
development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single
market and a custom union between its member states. (Wikipedia)

8. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) – is a trade pact

between the U.S., Mexico and Canada started on January 1, 1994.
NAFTA helps in developing and expanding world trade by broadening
international cooperation. It also aims to increase cooperation for
improving working conditions in North America by reducing barriers to
trade as it expands the markets of 3 countries.

The Global Corporation

A global corporation is also known as global company, it is coined
from the basic term "global", which means all around the world. Any
company that operates in at least a country other than the country
where it originated is a global company.
(e.g. The Coca-Cola where it started in the year 1886 where they sell
beverage at the price of 5 cents each bottle but now, they sell their
beverage in more than 200 countries than 3,000 other products).

A global corporation can also be referred to as "Multinational or

Transnational Corporations" (MNCs or TNCs). They intentionally
surpass national borders and take advantage of opportunities in
different countries to manufacture, distribute and sell their products.
(e.g. The Ford Motor Company the classic American car company
headquarters in Michigan that manufacture cars worldwide).

Attributes of Global Corporation

According to Hodgetts (2005), US-based MNCs have common
characteristics which are based on formalization, specialization and
centralization.
 Formalization deals with define structures, communication
patterns and controlling business operations.
 Specialization is an organizational characteristic of assigning
job roles to individuals to perform a particular task such as
marketing, customer service, sales, recruitment and
purchasing.
 Centralization is when the top management have control over
decisions and entire activities of the business.

Advantages of Global Corporation

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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

1. They are often responsible for today's best practices.

2. Innovation happens because of the investments made by
multinational corporations.
3. The world has more cultural awareness because of
multinational corporations.
4. They focus on consistency of their consumers.
5. Local infrastructures improve with the presence of multinational
corporations.
6. It also offers employment opportunities at the local level.
7. The import-export market is present because of multinational
corporations.

Disadvantages of Global Corporation

1. Multinational corporations can use their structure to form
monopolistic market.
2. Because of their size, they put small entrepreneurs out of
business.
3. Political corruption typically rises with the influence of a
multinational corporation.
4. It can cause harm to the environment.
5. Multination corporations remove raw materials from the local
economy.
6. They tend to send their employees to another country which
lessens the employment opportunity of the local people.
7. It caused diffusion where it slowly changes the culture.

Reflective Questions
1. What are the possible backlogs of creating market integration?
2. Why is integration important in globalization? Cite concrete
scenarios.
3. Think of a world without the presence of market integration.
What do you think will happen?
4. What is the greatest role of international financial institutions in
globalization?
5. As a future educator, how can you help in rising our own
economy? Elaborate your answer and cite some examples.

References

Reguyal, Prince Kennex. The Contemporary World. Rex Book Store

(pp. 44-55)
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

The Market Integration retrieved from

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/
10603/141940/10/10_chapter%202.pdf

The Types of Market Integration retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/sakthivelRamar/market-
integration-80094070

The market retrieved from

https://www.kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/
note-detail/5821

The Advantage and Disadvantage of Global Corporation retrieved

From https://futureofworking.com/7-advantages-and-
disadvantages-of-multinational-corporations/

Bretton Woods System retrieved from

https://www.google.com.ph/search?
q=example+bretton+woods+system&client=safari&hl=enph&prm
d=inv&sxsrf=ACYBGNRYeAUadUZpd62769CxWNVflxkffw:1579
859379309&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiv5uT
o-
pvnAhUMFYgKHb29DLgQ_AUoAXoECBAQAQ&biw=320&bih=3
72&dpr=2

(GATT) retrieved from

https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_international-trade-theory-and-
policy/s04-05-the-general-agreement-on-tarif.html

(IMF) retrieved from https://www.google.com.ph/search?

q=international+monetary+fund&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&hl=en-
ph&client=safari

World Bank retrieved from

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/w/worldbank.asp

(OPEC) retrieved from

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/o/opec.asp

(EU) retrieved from

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/europeanunion.asp

(NAFTA) retrieved from

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Ag
reement
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

Lesson 4 (Part 1): Global Interstate System

Introduction
Capitalism is best conceived as Lesson Objectives:
a peculiar combination of economic 1. Explain the effects of
globalization on
and political processes which operate
governments
at the level of the world economy.
2. Identify the
Thus, the interstate system is the institutions that
political side of capitalism, not an govern international
analytically autonomous system, and relations
its survival is dependent on the 3. Differentiate
operation of the institutions which are internationalism from
associated with the capital- globalism
accumulation process.

Defining ‘Global Interstate System’

The whole system of human interactions. The modern-world
system is structured politically as an interstate system- a system of
competing and allying states. Political Scientist commonly call this the
international system, and is the main focus of the field of International
relation.

Nation – State is composed of two non-interchangeable terms:

State refers to a country and its government.
1. Population
2. Territory
3. Government
4. Sovereignty
Nation is a cultural identity (state cannot occur without nation).
Nations often limit themselves to people who have imbibed a
particular culture, speak a common language and live in a specific
territory.

Treaty Westphalia (First Interstate System established)

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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

A set of agreement signed in 1648 end the Thirty Years’ War

between the major continental powers of Europe. It was designed to
avert wars in the future by recognizing that the treaty signers
exercise complete control over their domestic affairs and swear not
to meddle in each other’s which affairs and provide stability for the
nations of Europe. The treaty signers which are, the Holy Roman
Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic.

Westphalian system provided stability for the nations of Europe

until Napoleon Bonaparte challenged it. Bonaparte challenged the
power of the kings, nobility and religion in Europe. Napoleonic wars
lasted from 1803-1815 with Bonaparte and his armies marching all
over much of Europe

Napoleonic Code
Bonaparte and his men implemented Napoleonic Code which
forbade birth privileged, encouraged freedom or religion, and
promoted meritocracy in government service.
In 1815, Bonaparte was defeated by Anglo and Prussian
armies in the Battle of Waterloo. To prevent another war and to keep
the royal power’s system of privileges, they created new system that
restored the Westphalian system.
Concert of Europe
Alliance of “great powers” of the United Kingdom, Austria and
Prussia that sought to restore the world of monarchial, hereditary,
and religious privileges of the time before the French Revolution and
Napoleonic Wars. This Metternich system (named after the
Australian diplomat, Klemens Von Matternich, the system’s main
artech) lasted from 1815 to 1914, at the dawn of World War I

PRINCIPLE OF INTERSTATE SYSTEM

Nationalism
a doctrine and/or a political movement that seeks to make the
nation the basis of a basis of a political structure especially a
state. It is a sense of national consciousness that generally
exalts one’s own nation above others, and focuses on the
promotion of interest.
International
desire for greater cooperation and unity among states and
people. In a more comprehensive definition, it is a political
principle that places the interest of the entire world above those
of individual nations and argues for cooperation among nations
for common good. This can be divided into two broad
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

categories: liberal internationalism and socialist

internationalism.

Key Principles of the Peace of Westphalia

1. The principle of the sovereignty of state and the fundamental
right of political self-determination.
2. The principle of legal equality between states.
3. The principle of non-intervention of one state in the international
affairs of another state.

Historical-Analysis
STRENGTHS
It will make travel less cheap, faster and better.
WEAKNESSES
• impose long-term costs on the country
• cut down on competition between shippers and passenger
carriers.
• Rising consumption of gasoline led to air pollution and a
dependence on oil that affected consumer’s foreign policy for
generations to come.

INSTITUTIONS - That govern international Relations

US President Franklin Roosevelt coined the name United

Nations that was used in the declaration of United Nation on I of
January 1942. UN means allies to fight against the axis Powers in the
Second World War II. Only 26 nation’s representatives pledge their
governments to:

1. Each Government pledge itself to employ its full resources,

military or economic, against those members of the tripartite
pact and its adherents with which government is at war.
2. Each Government pledge itself to cooperate with the
Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate
armistice or peace with the enemies.

Effects of Globalization on Governments

Government- a group of people who have the ultimate authority to
act on behalf of a state.
1. On a broad generalization, excessive printing of money leads to
inflation.
2. If the government borrows too much from abroad, it leads to
debt crisis.
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

3. If it draws down on its foreign exchange reserves, a balance of

payments crisis may arise.
4. Excessive domestic borrowing by the government may lead to
higher real interest rates.
5. The domestic private sector being unable to access funds
resulting “crowding out” of private investment.

Four Challenges to the Government

1. Traditional Challenges
*Larger markets, greater specialization opportunities, and the
increased ability to exploit economies of scale and scope.
*Faster transmission of technology and innovation.
*Greater competitive pressure on domestic firms to increase
their productivity.

2. Challenges from National/Identity Movements

It is important to know that a nation has cultural identity that
people attached to, while a state is a definite entity due to its
specific boundaries.

3. Global Economics
Government austerity comes from developments of
organizations that cooperate across the countries such as WTO
and regional agreements, NAFTA, European Union (EU) and
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEANS).

4. Global Social Movements

Social movements of people that are spontaneous or that
emerge through enormous grassroots organizations.

Institutions that Govern International Relation

UNITED NATION
The (UN) is one of the leading political organization in the
world where nation-states meet and deliberate. However, it
remains as an independent actor in global politics. United
states president Franklin Roosevelt coined the name ‘united
nations’ that was used in the declaration of United Nation on
January 1, 1942. UN means allies to fight against the access
powers in the World War II.

SELECTED INSTITUTIONSASSOCIATED WITH WORLD TRADE

1. WORLD BANK
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

The international financial institution that provides loans to

countries of the world for capital projects. It was established by
the United Nations Monetary and Finance Conference or the
Bretton Woods Conference.

WORLD BANK GROUP

1. International Bank Reconstruction and Development
(BERD)
• Offer loans to middle-income countries to develop and
improves their economy.
2. International Development Association (IDA)
• provides loans and grands programs that boost economic
growth, reduce inequalities and improve people’s living
conditions.
3. International Finance Corporation (IFC)
• Provides loans for private sectors and developing
countries to create markets that open up opportunities for
all
4. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
• To promote foreign direct investment (FDI) into
developing countries to help support economic, growth,
reduce poverty and improve people’s lives.
5. International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
(ICSID)
• Administered most of the international investment cases.
It is the forum for investor treaties and in numerous
investment laws and contract.

6. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

• Ensure the stability of the international monetary system.
It does so in 3 ways keeping track of the global economy
and the economist of member countries leading to
countries with balance of payments difficulties and giving
practical health to members.
7. World Trade Bank (WTO)
• Regulates international trade deals. Deals with the rule of
trade between nations. Ensures the trade will flow
smoothly, predictably and freely as possible. Acts as
forum in negotiation trade agreements.
8. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD)
• Consists of 35 member countries. Stimulate economic
progress and world trade. Providing a platform to
compare policy experience, seeking answers common
problem, identify good practice and coordinates domestic
and international policies of its members.
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SPECIALIZED AGENCIES
1. International Labor Organization
• A United State agency dealing with labor problems,
particularly international labor standards, social
protection, and work opportunities for all.
2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation
(FAO)
• A specialized agency of the United Nations that leads
international efforts to defeat hunger. Help eliminate
hunger, food in security and malnutrition. Reduce rural
poverty. Make agriculture, forestry and fisheries more
productive and sustainable. Enable inclusive and efficient
agricultural and food systems. Increase the resilience of
livelihoods to threats and crises.

3. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organizations (UNESCO)
• To contribute peace and security by promoting
international collaboration through educational, scientific
and cultural reforms in order to increase universal respect
for justice, the rule of law, and human rights along with
fundamental freedom. Contribute to build peace.
4. World Health Organization (WHO)
Building a better, healthier future for people all over the
world. Concern about public health. Prime concern is to
eradicate and combat dangerous disease like AID/HIVS.
Make researches in medicine and vaccines to eliminate
disease, and development of nutritious foods.
Responsible for World Health Report and Survey

OTHER SPECIALIZED INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

• International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
• To foster the planning and development of international
air transport to ensure the safe and orderly growth of
international civil aviation throughout the world.

• International Maritime Organization (IMO)

• Responsibility for the safety and security and shipping
and the prevention of marine pollution by ships.

• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

• Connecting all the world’s people. Allocate global radio
and satellite orbits, develop the technical standards that
ensure networks and technologies seamlessly
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

interconnect, and strive to improve access to ICTs to

underserved communities worldwide.

• Universal Postal Union (UPU)

• Ensure a truly universal network of up-to-date products
and services. Sets the rules for international mail
exchanges and makes recommendations to stimulate
growth in mail, parcel and financial services volumes and
improves quality of service for customers.

• World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

• Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind,
such as inventions; literacy and artistic work; designs; and
symbols, names and images used in commerce e.g.
patent, copyright and trademarks. Lead the development
of balanced and effective international intellectual
property (IP) system that enable innovation and creativity
for the benefit of all.

• United Nation Industrial Development Organization

(UNIDO)
• The specialized agency of the United Nations that
promotes industrial development for poverty reduction,
inclusive globalization and environment sustainability.

• WORLD TOURISM ORGANIZATION (UNWTO)

• Responsible for the promotion of responsible, sustainable
and universally accessible tourism. Leading international
organization on the field of tourism as a driver of
economic growth, inclusive development and environment
sustainability and offers leadership and support to the
sector in advancing knowledge and tourism policies.
2. NATO is a defensive treaty military alliance between the United
States, Canada and 25 European countries. The countries in this
organization basically agreed to combine their militaries and
announce to the world if a country messes with one of its members
the other countries will come to their defense. NATO was created
after the Second World War II mostly the Cold War.
3. NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs)
• NGOs are not tied to any country. This allows them to operate
freely throughout the world. They provide emergency relief such
as food, water, and medical supplies for those whose homes or
towns have been destroy by disasters or war. They also monitor
the treatment of Red Cross Organization.
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4. THE WTO AND NAFTA

• WTO it is made up of 162 countries around the world and was
created with the goal of increasing free trade. It is more about
helping large companies and corporations than it was helping
people.
• NAFTA is the economic treaty between the United States,
Canada, and Mexico in which the three countries trades freely
without taxing each other.

INTERNATIONALISM VS. GLOBALISM

INTERNATIONALISM GLOBALISM
Is social and political theory, a Refers to the universal,
certain concept of how human internationalist impulse that world
society of how human society is connected
ought to be organized, and
concept of the nation’s ought to
organize their mutual relations
Is political, economic and cultural Refers to the connection between
cooperation between nations. cultures, nations and people;
embodies cultural diffusion,
products and ideas, adopt new
technologies and practices, and
participate in “world culture”

Is the ideology based on the belief

that people, goods and
information ought to be able to
cross national borders unfettered.

Trade Agreement
are when two or more nations agree on the terms of the trade.
They determine the tariffs and duties that countries impose on import
and export. All trade agreements affect international trade.
• IMPORT are goods and services produce in a foreign country
and brought by domestic residents. That includes anything
shipped into the country even if its by the foreign subsidiary of a
domestic firm. If the consumer is inside the country’s
boundaries and the provider is outside, then the good and
service is an import.
• EXPORT are the goods and services that are made in a
country on sold outside its borders. That includes anything
shipped from a domestic company to its foreign affiliate or
branch.
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Conclusion
Globalization is a force that change the way nation-states deal
with one another, particularly in the area of international commerce.
The role of the nation-state in globalization is a complex one in part
due to the varying definitions and shifting concepts of globalization.
While it has been defined in many ways, globalization is generally
recognized as the fading or complete disappearance of economic,
social, and cultural borders between nation-states. Some scholars
have theorized that nation-state, which are inherently divided by
physical and economic boundaries, will be less relevant in a
globalized world.

Reflective Questions
1. Are there possibilities of overlapping of duties and
responsibilities with the rise of institutions in the interstate
system? Elaborate your thoughts.
2. Which do you think is needed to be prioritized, the intrastate or
the interstate system? Explain.
3. Why is it that a nation cannot run without the state and a state
without a nation?
4. An interstate system is a system as its name suggests and that
a system talks about a process, how then should a particular
state interact with another state? Focus your thought on the
process.

References
Ala’I, P. (2011). Transparency and the Expansion of the WTO
Mandate. American University International Law Review, 26(4),
1009-1029.
Barton, J. H., Goldstein, J. L., Josling, T. E., & Steinberg, R. H.
(2008). Political Analysis of the Trade Regime, from The
Evolution of the Trade Regime: Politics, Law, and Economics of
the GATT and the WTO. In the Evolution of the Trade Regime:
Politics, Law, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO.
Princeton University Press.
Clemens, M. A., & Kremer, M. (2016). The New Role for the World
Bank. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 30(1), 53-76.
Doi:10.1257/jep.30.1.53
Easterly, W. (2005). What did structural adjustment adjust?: The
association of policies and growth with repeated IMF and World
Bank adjustment loans. Journal of Development Economics, 1-
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Fukuyama, F. (1998). The End of History? The National Interest (16),

3-18. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184
Garber, P. M. (1993). The Collapse of the Bretton Woods Fixed
Exchange Rate System. In M. D. Bordo, & B. Eichengreen
(Eds.), A Retrocpective on the Bretton Woods System: Lessons
for International Monetory Reform (pp. 461-494). University of
Chicago Press. Retrieved from
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Krasner, S. (1983). Structural causes and regime consequences:
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Mikita, M. (2015). International Monetary System: The Desired
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Lesson 4 (Part 2): Global Governance

Introduction
Global governance examines the
Lesson Objectives:
effects of globalization on the idea of
1. Identify the roles and
the sovereign state. Both realists and
functions of the United
liberals present international relations
Nations
as an anarchical system in which
2. Identify the challenges
states interact by trade, war, and
of global governance in
diplomacy, without any effective world
the twenty-first century
government regulating their actions.
3. Explain the relevance
For the record, governance and
of the state amid
government are two different concepts
globalization
yet there have been people who
attempted to really establish a sole
government for the world. Did they succeed?

Global Governance defined

• Is a collective management of common transnational or global
problems those were created or exacerbated by globalization,
and which cannot be managed at the nation-state?
• Purposeful order that emerges from institutions, processes,
norms, formal agreements, and informal mechanisms that
regulate action for the common good. (K. Benedict 2001)
• Encompasses activities that transcend national boundaries at
the international, transnational, and regional levels and is based
on rights and rules that are enforced through a combination of
economic and moral incentives.

Methods of Global Governance

1. Harmonization of laws among states;
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

2. International regimes;
3. Global policy issue networks; and
4. Hybrid institutions that combine functions of states agencies
and private sector organizations.

Figure 1. Framework of international institutions operate in the global

community.

Different factors in Global Governance

1. Individual empowerment
2. Increasing awareness of human security
3. Institutional complexity
4. International power

Focus Areas of Global Governance

 Peace and Security - Contemporary approaches for tackling
international peace and security issues require not only a
coherent global approach, but also mutually reinforcing
responses involving an effective United Nation system in
tandem with strong regional organization.

 Environment & Sustainable Development - Within the areas

of Food Security, socially inclusive Green Growth and Energy
Security, we focus on understanding and overcoming
coordination and coherency gaps amongst global, international,
and regional environmental governance actors.

 Global Economy - We are designed to produce in-depth

analysis and targeted answers on all questions of international
law to promote the rule of law globally.
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 Global Justice - States and private entities interact across

borders. International and regional organizations affect the lives
of individuals by taking targeted decisions.

Problems Global Governance Deals with.

 Global climate change and pollution of the environment
 Poverty and management of economic development
 Deficit of fresh water
 Financial instability and management of financial market
 Global economic crises
 Management of global trade and investment

The United Nation Charter under Article 24

 The UN Charter under Article 24 states that the SC mandated
to act on behalf of the entire UN body to fulfill its primary
responsibility for maintaining international peace and security.

 Functions may include:

1. investigating any situation that has the potential of creating
international tension;
2. call for military action towards ab aggressor or threat;
3. impose economic sanctions and other measures; and,
4. determine the existence of a breach of peace and actions to
be pursued.

 The UN agenda expanded during the World Summit of 2005

in crises urging international responsibility to protect exposed
populations against of human rights ethnic cleansing or
genocide.
State sovereignty is viewed as conditional based on the state's
fulfillment of its responsibility to protect people. If the state is
incapable unwilling to fulfill such as responsibility, the intervention of
the international community is called upon to address the human
right.

Six Principle Organ of United Nation

1. Security Council
The UN Charter assigns to the Security Council primary responsibility
for the maintenance of international peace and security. The Security
Council originally consisted of 15 members—five permanents
(China, France, Russian Federation, United Kingdom of Great
Britain, United States of America) and 10 nonpermanent—elected
by the General Assembly for two-year terms.
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2. General Assembly
The only body in which all UN members are represented, the General
Assembly exercises deliberative, supervisory, financial, and elective
functions relating to any matter within the scope of the UN Charter. Its
primary role, however, is to discuss issues and make
recommendations, though it has no power to enforce its resolutions
or to compel state action.

3. Economic and Social Council

Designed to be the UN’s main venue for the discussion of
international economic and social issues, the Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC) directs and coordinates the economic, social,
humanitarian, and cultural activities of the UN and its specialized
agencies. ECOSOC is empowered to recommend international action
on economic and social issues; promote universal respect for human
rights; and work for global cooperation on health, education, and
cultural and related areas.

4. Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council was designed to supervise the government
of trust territories and to lead them to self-government or
independence. The trusteeship system, like the mandate system
under the League of Nations, was established on the premise that
colonial territories taken from countries defeated in war should not be
annexed by the victorious powers but should be administered by a
trust country under international supervision until their future status
was determined.

5. International Court Justice

The International Court of Justice, commonly known as the World
Court, is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, though the
court’s origins predate the League of Nations. The idea for the
creation of an international court to arbitrate international disputes
arose during an international conference held at The Hague in 1899.

6. Secretariat
The secretary-general, the principal administrative officer of the
United Nations, is elected for a five-year renewable term by a two-
thirds vote of the General Assembly and by the recommendation of
the Security Council and the approval of its permanent members.
Secretaries-general usually have come from small, neutral countries.
The secretary-general serves as the chief administrative officer at all
meetings and carries out any functions that those organs entrust to
the Secretariat; he also oversees the preparation of the UN’s budget.
The secretary-general has important political functions, being
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charged with bringing before the organization any matter that

threatens international peace and security.

Structural Feature of the SC

1. The power to veto of the PMs to vote against a substantive
resolution-serves as a measure to protect states from possible
threats to independence and to ensure that the UN will not be
used to serve the interest of particular states.
2. The voting system ideally aims to foster and emphasize the
importance of unity, consensus, and compromise, which were
not present in the League of Nations where it was used as an
instrument by major powers to target Germany, Italy, and Japan
and why countries such as the United States opted out from the
membership.
3. The structural feature of the UN Charter-veto-is a result of an
international compromise allied powers of Second World War
(Carswell,2013).

Safeguard to sovereignty
1. Consequently, safeguard to sovereignty also serve as a severe
problem. When major powers are directly or indirectly involved
in a conflict, it renders the body unable to act in addressing
conflict.
2. Frequently vetoes would often come from the United States and
Russia on issues concerning the Middle East; for China issues
related to countries expressing recognition of Taiwan.
3. The by passing of the renders it as a mere rubberstamp on
intervention led by the major powers. This over presentation
and power concentration has resulted in demands to reform the
structures if the SC, which dramatically serves and benefits the
interest of the P-5 (Permanent Five).

Set of Instrument adopt by the SC to maintain peace and order

1. Sanctions can take in forms of non-military measures of
economic, trade or diplomatic sanctions, and targeted
measures on group or individuals such as travel bans, financial
and diplomatic restrictions. These are enforcement tool applied
when diplomatic relations have been fruitless, and a threat to
international security persists, and if deemed inadequate,
military sanctions may be taken.
2. Peacekeeping also a useful tool employed by the UN to assist
host countries struggling from armed conflict.
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GENERAL ASSEMBLY and SECURITY COUNCIL

1. General assembly is the only UN organ with universal
representation, with all 193 member states represented in the
body. GA decides on essential questions with a simple majority,
while concerns related to peace and security, budgetary
matters, and new membership admissions require a two-thirds
majority.
2. The assembly may discuss questions relating to international
peace and security, it can only make recommendations when
dispute is already being discussed by the SC.
3. Security Council (SC) remains to be the primary decision-maker
of the UN in all matters of international peace and security

Reforming the United Nations

1. Reform has only been met once in 1963 when the UNGA voted
for the expansion of the UNSC from 11-15 member states.
2. In 1994, the Open-ended Working Group on the Question of
Equitable Representation and Increase in the Membership of
the Security Council was created where members where invited
to submit comments on the reformation and review of the
Security Council. Since then, the negotiations have been
fruitless, and it has been dubbed as a "Never-ending Working
Group" for the endless years of consecutive deliberations
(Gould and Rablen, 2017)
3. The inequity in the country level, the problem lies in over
presentation of the PM countries; in the regional level, there are
lack of representation for Asia and Africa while Eastern and
Western Europe are overrepresented – an overt manifestation
of the North and South divide.
4. The difficulty for the UNSC to include rising powers into the
power-sharing arrangement in the UNSC is due to the absence
of the prospect for change.
5. The awakening of the latent potential of the General Assembly
is counteract the powers of the Security Council through the
"Uniting for Peace" resolution to serves as a potential solution.
6. The resolution ought to be fully realized and maximized for it
has bestowed the assembly the capacity to check the Security
Council in its proper and rightful exercise of veto, in accordance
to what is mandated by the UN Charter.

Importance of Global Governance

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1. Global governance is necessary because humanity

increasingly faces both problems and opportunities that are
global in scale. Today, transnational problems such as
violence and pandemics routinely reach across borders,
affecting us all.
2. At the same time, the increasingly integrated global system
has also laid the necessary foundations for peace and
spectacular prosperity. Effective global governance will allow
us to end armed conflict, deal with new and emerging
problems such as technological risks and automation, and to
achieve levels of prosperity and progress never seen.
3. Global governance will increasingly be judged not only by the
extent to which it prevents harm, but also by its demonstrated
ability to improve human wellbeing. Progress has let us set our
sights higher as a species, both for what we consider to be the
right trajectory for humanity and for our own conduct.

Conclusion
Global governance has a major rule in terms of solving global
problems such as Global Climate change and pollution of the
environment, poverty, and management of economic development
deficiency of fresh water, financial instability and management of
financial market, management of global trade and investment, and
the global economic crisis. The global governance also enhances
peace and security, environment and sustainable development,
global economy, and global justices.

Reflective Questions
1. Global governance simply talks about the institutions created
to govern international relations. How important is an
international institution in the strive for globalization?
2. United Nations is composed of almost all nation-states.
Comment on how it is being facilitated or operated? Is there
equality among state members?
3. How is Philippines existing in the life of United Nations?
What strong contributions did the country make as far as
being a member of UN?
4. An international institution like UN is composed of state
members. Research as to how a particular country can be
part of an international institution. What are the
requirements?
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

5. Identify a state who is not a member of any international

institution. Comment on how that country is surviving by not
becoming a member of a bigger coalition of states.
6. Is it essential to be a member of an international institution?
Why or why not?

References
Balaam, D. N., & Diliman B. (2014). Introduction to international
Political Economy. Pearson Education, Inc.
Carswell, A. J. (2013, December 1). Unblocking the UN Security
Council: The Uniting fro Peace Resolution. Journal of Conflict
and Security Law,18(3), 453-480. Doi:10.1093/jcsl/krt016

Cohn, T.H. (2011). Global Political Economy (6th ed.) Longman.

Gereffi, G. (2005). The global economy: Organization, governance,
and development. In Smesler, & R. Swedberg (Eds.),
Handbook of economic sociology (pp. 160-82). New Jersey:
Princeton University Press.
Gilpin, R. (2016). The Political Economy of International Relations.
Princeton University Press.
Gould, R., & Rablen, M. D. (2017). Reform of the United Nations
Security Council: equity and efficiency. Public Choice.
doi:10.1007/s11127-017-0468-2
Heywood, A. (2011). Global Politics. Palgrave Macmillan.
Hosli, M. O., & dorfler, t. (2017, may 10). Why is change so slow?
Assessing prospects for United Nations Security Council
reform. Journal of Economic Policy Reform.
doi:10.1080/17487870.2017.1305903
International Court of Justice. (2018). How the Court Works.
Retrieved from http://www. Icj.cij.org/en/how-the-court-works
Smith, R. (2018, April 18). The world’s biggest economies in 2018.
Retrieved from the World Economic Forum:
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/04/the-worlds-biggest-
economies-in-2018/
Sengutpta, S. (2017, September 17). The United Nations Explained:
Its Purpose, Power and Problems. Retrieved from New York
Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/17/
world/Americas/united-nations-un-explainer.html
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

United Nations Department of Public Information. (2017, March).

United Nations System. Retrieved from United Nations:
http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/structure/pdfs/17 00023e_
UN6205ystemo 20Chart_8.5xl1_4c_EN_web.pdf
United Nations Social and Economic Council. (2017). Retrieved from
https://www.un.org/ ecosoc/en/
Wallensteen, P. (2012). Understanding Conflict Resolution. SAGE
Publications.

Chapter 3. World of Regions

Lesson 5: Global Divides: The North and the South

Introduction
Understanding globalization
as all those processes by which Lesson Objectives:
the peoples of the world are 1. Differentiate the Global
incorporated into a single world North and the Global
society (Albrow, M. and King, E., South;
1990), still, skeptics believe that 2. Identify the rationale
the nation-states of the world as behind the Global North-
they are today could never be South Divide;
absolutely bounded together even 3. Understand the current
with the continuing surge of configurations and
globalization. There continue to manifestations of the
exist underlying factors that
divide.
differentiates nation-states from
4. Recognize how this
one another despite efforts of
increased internationalization. division affects the path
of Globalization and the
This chapter provides the current world in general.
information on how the different
nation-states in the world are being classified together and apart in
terms of socioeconomic factors and political ideologies. The history of
the North and South divide will also be tackled and the chapter will
also answer how our planet is actually being divided into different
worlds.

How is the world being demarcated?

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 While the world is broadly demarcated geographically and

demarcated through continental divisions, it is imperative to note
that there exist other delineations that harbor on other factors.
 These factors or parameters so to speak, are anchored on
developmental patterns, wealth distributions and emerging
economic situations. This is the primordial consideration when
one seeks to better understand the concepts underlying the
Global North and South divide.
 However, cultural and historical dimensions actually contributed
also to the existence of this concept.
 The North – South divide can be related to an economic
division between poorer and richer countries. This explains the
reason why it is more of a socio political and economic
classification.
 The Global North is generally viewed to be more affluent and
economically stable countries and generally includes the United
States of America, Canada, the members of the G8 (Group of 8),
the four permanent members of the UN Security Council. This
also includes countries below the equator namely Australia and
New Zealand.
 The Global South on the other hand includes most nations
located in Africa, Latin America and developing parts of Asia
except for Japan.

Understanding the Global North – South Divide

 It can be argued that the division goes beyond merely
geographical since not all states found north of the equator
belong to the Global North and in the same manner, not all states
that lies south of the equator form part of the Global South.
 One attempt to produce an objective classification uses the
UNDP’s Human Development Index to differentiate.
 Human Development Index is a Statistic composite index of life
expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which
are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.
 In effect, Rigg (2007) makes it clear that this is not a strict
geographical categorization of the world, but one based on
economic inequalities which happens to have some
cartographic coherence.
 It also emphasizes that both North and South are, together,
drawn together into global processes rather than existing as
separate slices of the world.
 However, for the purpose of Identifying which countries are
included in the list, the Global North includes Australia, Canada,
Israel, Hong Kong, Macau, New Zealand, Japan, Singapore,
South Korea, Taiwan, United States, and all of Europe
including Russia.
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 The Global South includes Asia (except for those above list),
Central America, South America, Mexico, Africa, and Middle
East (except for Israel)

The Global North

We could find in the North the More Economically Developed
Countries (MEDCs) in the world. They are considered the “richer” and
more stable countries.

Why are the countries in the North considered MEDC?

 The countries are considered MEDC because of the
stability that their economy has and the change that is
happening within it.
 Countries that are considered MEDC generally have a
better standard of living and quality of life.
 This may refer to life expectancy, education, medical
care and how developed their technology is.
 For instance, the United States, an MEDC, has a life
expectancy of 79 years for women and 77 years for men.
However, in Somalia a LEDC the life expectancy is 51
years for women and 48 years for men.
 The distribution of education and health care is also a
factor. For example, Canada has free universal health
care and free secondary education, which leads to a
better quality of life for Canadians. Whereas in many
parts of Africa – a continent filled with LEDC—has little
education and hardly any health care.
 These are just some of the many factors which separate
the MEDC from the LEDC (Guttal, 2016).

The Global South

 Known as the “Poor Side”, the Global South is composed of
developing countries, meaning the GDP, HDI and General
standard of Living within these countries are considered
inferior to that of the countries in the “North”.
 Gross Domestic Product is a monetary measure of the
market value of all the final goods and services produced in a
specific time.

Why are the countries in the South considered LEDCs?

 Nations belonging to Less Economically Developed Countries
(LEDC’s) often are faced with the challenges of an unstable
government and poor economy.
 In an LEDC, citizens have poor standard of living and quality of
life.
 Some characteristics of LEDC’s may include:
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

1. low Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

2. low Human Development Index (HDI)
 Some LEDC’s have skewed HDI’s due to a relatively high GDP
and an exceptionally low standard of living. An example is
Indonesia.

Why is the South at such a disadvantage?

 Of the many possible reasons for the South’s woes, the one
factor that stands out is colonization.
 Most of the MEDS of the North had become imperialist at
some point in history. From the 13th century on, most countries
that are powerful have stayed powerful, such as France and
United Kingdom.
 And therefore, most countries that were inferior have stayed
inferior.
 However, like any aspect in history, there is always an
exception, as the United States, a former British Colony, has
developed into the most powerful country in the world (Guttal,
2016).

The Rise of the First, Second and Third World

 The term Global North – Global South first emerged in
1996.
 However, since the end of the Cold War, many
commentators have employed the North – South label to
draw a dichotomy between wealthy, developed countries
primarily located in the northern hemisphere (the North)
and the poorer, developing countries located mainly in the
southern hemisphere (the South).
 Terms like “the North-South Divide” or “the gap between
North and South” are also being used to pertain to
complex political and economic world division.
 The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension
between the Soviet Union and the United States and their
respective allies, the Eastern Bloc and the Western
Bloc, after the World War II.
 The term “cold” was used because there was no large
scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but
they each supported major regional conflicts known as
proxy wars.

First, Second, and Third Worlds defined

First World was conveniently drawn upon political ideologies and
alliances with the US and much of the Western world who
preached Democracy and Capitalism.
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Second World refers to the Communist bloc lead by USSR

(United Soviet Socialist Republic)/Russia, China and other states
who employed Marxist.

Third World corresponds to the non-aligned states, the

underdeveloped nations and states that have unstable political and
economic condition.
 The term was coined by the French scholar Alfred Sauvy in
1952 to distinguish the formerly colonized and presently
neo-colonized societies of Asia, Africa and Latin America
from the modernized “first” world of capitalism and
modernizing “second” world of socialism.
 The term in its origin suggested that societies of the Third
World, embarking on a long path to modernity, had one of
two paths to follow, the capitalist or the socialist. Riggs
(2007) pointed out interchangeable terms that characterize
the Third World – The Less Developed World, the Majority
World, the Non – Western World and the undeveloped
world, all beaming with hues of economic dilemma and lack
of development.
 Tracing back the history of colonialism and considering modern
Neo Capitalism, much of the Third World serves as “ready and
willing markets” to the delight of the First World producer states.
 The next term used was Developing world, which refers to
states that were categorized as part of the Third World who
found themselves the necessity and means to grapple with the
economic realities after the cold war. The term “developing
states” came to be associated with attempts by many Asian
economies once dubbed as “Asian Tigers” or the NIC’s (Newly
Industrialized countries) like Taiwan, Hong Kong, South Korea
and Singapore. The Brandt Line introduced by former German
Chancellor, Willy Brandt in 1983, served as a tool for effectively
demarcating the Global North and the Global South.

Flashpoints and Perspectives of the Divide

1. Scholars and writers of Globalization consider the label “Global
South” as ambiguous because it uses a simple geographic
criterion to describe a complex social situation which
distinguishes poor countries from the wealthiest. It should be
clear here that the implied North – South dichotomy has never
been as geographically fixed as the labels imply.
2. The South was associated with starvation, malnutrition,
poverty, epidemics, low educational levels, political
authoritarianism and dictatorship. Now, although hunger and
poverty continue to exist, many South countries – especially
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Latin America and Asia – contribute large number of well-

educated, competent professionals to the global workforce.
3. However, the fact remains that inequality and inequity remain
inherent and almost foundational characteristics of the North-
South Divide. Despite improvements made by the developing
countries, there continue to be significant differences between
the North and South countries.
4. Magallanes (2012) also mentioned that the term Global South
is ahistoric and decontextualized. It is important to look at the
historical, political and even cultural context of this countries
why they are considered poor.
5. It should also be added that the term Global South rids itself of
the negative political and economic labelling that the Third
World had before, as it is generally considered to be more
apolitical. The Global South has embarked on an
unprecedented upward trajectory.
6. According to the 2013 UNDP Human Development Report, it is
estimated that 80% of the world’s middle-class population will
be living in developing countries by 2030 (Mendez,2015). As
opened by Mendez (2015), there is this on-going global
transformation phenomenon known as “South-South
cooperation”.
7. Jean Grugel (1990) enumerated the three factors that direct
the economic development of states within the Global South:
 Elite behaviour within and between nation states.
 Integration and cooperation within “geographic” areas.
 Resulting position of states and regions within the global
world market and related political economic hierarchy.
8. It is important to consider that the divide, as well as with any
Global phenomenon is never static especially when the factors
of technology, migration, increasing levels of literacy,
employment, GDP increase and currency evaluation increase
come into play. An example of this assertion is the association
of five major emerging economies: Brazil, Russia, India,
China and South Africa (BRICS).
9. The Global South and the Global North represent an updated
perspective on the post-1991 world, which distinguishes not
between political systems or degrees of poverty, but between
the victims and benefactor of global capitalism.
10. The Global North-South divide is seen by economists
because of international free trade which could actually
catapult further development in the South.
11. Closing or mitigating the divide has been a goal for many
developmental initiatives. The United Nations has developed a
program dedicated to narrowing the divide through its
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

Millennium Development Goals aimed at Sustainable

Development.

Conclusion
Though globalization at its peak may be characterized by
increased integration of global economies, there continue to exist
certain disparities in socioeconomic and political ideologies between
nation states. However, still through globalization, the world continues
its effort to become more internationally linked with the aims of
narrowing if not eliminating those societal demarcations.

Reflective Questions
1. What makes countries like the Philippines be a Global South?
2. Do you think the history of our country has something to do with
our position in the Global North-South Divide today?
3. Which do you think is better for our country, capitalism or
socialism?
4. What do you think is the role of the Divides in the process of
globalization?
5. How do you think can the gap between the Global North and
South be mitigated or narrowed?
6. The divide is more of a socio-political rather than geographical
in nature. Is it a coincidence that most rich countries are in the
north, and most of the poor countries in the south? Elaborate
your view.

References
Concepts of the Global South – Voices from around the world Global
South Studies Centre, University, University of Cologne,
Germany – http://gssc.uni- koeln.de/node/452

Dados, M. and Connel, R.Y (2012). The Foreign Policies of the

Global South: Rethinking Conceptual Frameworks.
Lynne Rienner Publishers. P. 11. ISBN 9781588261755.

Dirlick,J. (2007). “What’s wrong with the Global North and the Global
South?”. Global South Studies Centre. Retrieved 2017-
20-06.

Guttal, Shalmali. Interrogating the Relevance of the Global North-

South Divide Focus on the Global South, February 3,
2016. Retrieved from
http://www.cetri.be/IMG/pdf/shalmali_guttal_2300_eng_3-2.pdf

http://ismgeoc.wikifoundry.com/page/The+global+north+
+south+divide%3A+A+descripti on+and+explanation
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Inequality in the Asia Pacific, Trends, Drivers and Policy

Implications. Kanbur, Ravi, Changyong Rhee and Juzhong
Zhuang (eds). Asian Development Bank and Routledge, 2014.
Preface

Jean Grugel (1990) Regionalism Across the North-South Divide:

State Strategies and Globalization. Psychology Press\

Magallanes, K. (2012) “South-South cooperation and the rise of

the Global South”. Third World Quarterly. 37 (4): 557-
574

Mendez, R. (2012). Globalization: The Politics of Global Economic

Relations and International Business. Durham, N.C.:
Carolina Academic. pp. 48-54

Rigg, F. (2007). Urban Poverty in the Global South: Scale and

Nature. Routledge. p. 13
ISBN 9780415624664

World Investment Report 2015

Reforming International Investment
Governance. United Lesson Objectives:
Nations Conference on 1. Differentiate between
Trade and Development regionalization and
(UNCTAD). United Nations globalization
New York and Geneva 2015. 2. Identify the factors leading
Page ix. to a greater integration of
the Asian region
3. Analyze how different
Lesson 6: Asian Asian states confront the
challenges of globalization
Regionalism and regionalization
Introduction
The growing demand for
economic integration spurred by
and large by the rapid yet steady
onslaught of globalization, the
threat of terrorism, the spread of diseases, massive technological
innovations and geopolitical uncertainties are some realities that face
nation states. These perceived opportunities, threats and challenges
prompt nation states to bond together and forge ties and alliances
built on solid, legal frameworks.
The maxim that there is strength in numbers bodes well for
countries that choose to become a part of organizations that they feel
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

could indeed boost and support their national interest may it be in the
economic, military, political or even cultural contexts.
From the previous chapter, the idea of globalization started to
look smaller as the focus gets more specific to a particular area of the
globe. Though it is still globalization in aspect, how is regionalism
different in context from globalization? In this chapter, what makes it
extra-special to concentrate on understanding Asian region and not
the other regions of the globe? How is Asia significant for the
development and progress of the rest of the world?

Regionalism defined
Asian regionalism is the product of economic interaction, not
political planning. As a result of successful, outward oriented
growth strategies, Asian economies have grown not only richer,
but also closer together. In recent years, new technological trends
have further strengthened ties among them, as have the rise of the
PRC and India and the region’s growing weight in the global
economy.
Regionalism is the manifestation or expression of a common
sense of cultural identity and purpose combined with the creation
and implementation of institutions that express a particular identity
and shape collective action within a geographical region.

Regionalization vs. Globalization

Regionalization – the process of dividing an area into smaller
segment called regions.
Globalization – the process of international integration arising
from the interchange of the world views, products, ideas and other
aspects such as technology.

Difference between regionalization and globalization

a. Nature- globalization promotes the integration of economies
across state borders all around the world, but regionalization is
precisely the opposite because it is dividing an area into
smaller segments.
b. Market- globalization allows many companies to trade on
international level so it allows free market but in regionalized
system, monopolies are more likely to develop.
c. Cultural and Societal relations- globalization acceleration to
multiculturalism by free and inexpensive movement of people
but regionalism does not support this.
d. Aid- globalized international community is also more willing to
come to the aid of a country stricken by natural disaster but, a
regionalized system does not get involved in the affairs of other
areas.
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e. Technological advances- globalization has driven great

advances in technology but, advanced technology is rarely
available in one country or region.

The Imperative for Regionalism in Asia

The ADB paper on Emerging Asian Nationalism outlines some of the
more integral considerations regarding the need for regionalism in
Asia. Asian integration can result in the following:
1. Generate productivity gains, new ideas, and competition that
boost economic growth and raise incomes across the world.
2. Contribute to the efficiency and stability of global financial
markets by making Asian capital markets stronger and safer
and by maximizing the productive use of Asian savings.
3. Diversity sources of global demand, helping to stabilize the
world economy and diminish the risks posed by global
imbalances and downturns in other major economies.
4. Provide leadership to help sustain open global trade and
financial systems.
5. Create regional mechanisms to manage health, safety, and
environmental issues better, and thus contribute to more
effective global economic and political landscape.

 What characterize Asian regionalism is its openness and

accommodating nature. It should be noted that in the 1930s,
countries created preferential trade blocs to shelter their
economies from the Great Depression.
 Many economists and policy makers remain skeptical about
regionalism because of its potentially negative impact on the
multilateral trade and financial system. One thing that can
identify Asian regionalism is its disregard for protectionist blocs
(ADB, 2012).
 Asia’s growing economic interdependence provides many
opportunities for cooperation. These are divided into four major
areas: (1) trade, investment, and the integration of “real”
economic activity; (2) financial integration; (3) macroeconomic
policy links; and (4) shared social and environmental concerns.

Asian Regional Organizations

1. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
 A regional grouping of nation states predominantly
occupying the Southeast Asian locale. Comprising ten
Southeast Asian countries which seeks to promote
intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic,
political, security ,military, educational and socio—cultural
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integration amongst its members and other Asian

countries as well as with the rest of the world.
 Established on August 8, 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand with
the signing of the ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok
Declaration) by the Founding Fathers of ASEAN:
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
Brunei Darussalam then joined on January 7, 1984,
Vietnam on July 28, 1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar on July
23, 1997, and Cambodia on April 30, 1999.

Aims and Purposes

As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, the aims and purposes of
ASEAN are:
1. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural
development in the region through joint endeavors in the spirit
of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation
for a prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian
Nations;
2. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect
for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among
countries of the region and adherence to the principles of the
United Nations Charter;
3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on
matters of common interest in the economic, social, cultural,
technical, scientific and administrative fields;
4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and
research facilities in the educational, professional, technical and
administrative spheres;
5. To collaborate more effectively for the greater utilization of their
agriculture and industries, the expansion of their trade,
including the study of the problems of international commodity
trade, the improvement of their transportation and
communications facilities and the raising of the living standards
of their peoples;
6. To promote Southeast Asian studies; and
7. To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing
international and regional organizations with similar aims and
purposes, and explore all avenues for even closer cooperation
among themselves.

Fundamental Principles
In their relations with one another, the ASEAN Member States
have adopted the following fundamental principles, as contained in
the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) of
1976:
1. Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality,
territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations;
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2. The right of every State to lead its national existence free from
external interference, subversion or coercion;
3. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
4. Effective cooperation among themselves.

ASEAN Community
 The ASEAN Vision 2020, adopted by the ASEAN Leaders on
the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN, agreed on a shared vision of
ASEAN as a concert of Southeast Asian nations, outward
looking, living in peace, stability and prosperity, bonded
together in partnership in dynamic development and in a
community of caring societies.
 ASEAN covers a land area of 4.4 million square kilometers and
covers roughly around 3% of the total land area of Earth.
ASEAN territorial waters covers an area about three times
larger than its land counterpart, making it particularly important
in terms of sea lanes and fisheries.
 In 2015, the organization’s combined nominal GDP had grown
to more than USD $2.8 trillion.
 ASEAN is known for its diverse range of instruments and
treaties which enhances cooperation, recognition, and unity in
numerous aspects, internally, regionally and internationally.

2. ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION (APEC)

The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a regional
economic forum established in 1989 to leverage the growing
interdependence of the Asia-Pacific. APEC's 21 members aim to
create greater prosperity for the people of the region by promoting
balanced, inclusive, sustainable, innovative and secure growth and
by accelerating regional economic integration.

3. EAST ASIAN SUMMIT (EAS)

 A unique Leaders-led forum of 18 countries of the Asia-Pacific
region formed to further the objectives of regional peace,
security and prosperity. It has evolved as a forum for strategic
dialogue and cooperation on political, security and economic
issues of common regional concern and plays an important role
in the regional architecture.
 Established in 2005, EAS allows the principal players in the
Asia-Pacific region to discuss issues of common interest and
concern, in an open and transparent manner, at the highest
level.
 The EAS consists of ten ASEAN member states (Brunei
Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam),
Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of
Korea, Russian Federation were formally included as members
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of the EAS. USA and the Russian Federation were formally

included as members of the EAS at the 6th EAS held in Bali,
Indonesia on November 19, 2011.
 The concept of EA grouping was first promoted in 1991 by the
Malaysian Prime Minister, Mahathir bin Mohamad. The final
report of the East Asian Study Group in 2002, established by
the ASEAN+3 countries (China, Japan, and ROK),
recommended EAS as an ASEAN led development limited to
the ASEAN+3 countries.
 However, the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting held in Vientiane on
July 26, 2005 welcomed the participation of ASEAN, China,
Japan, ROK, Australia, India and New Zealand, in the first EAS.

4. ASEAN PLUS THREE (APT)

 ASEAN+3 cooperation began in December 1997 and
institutionalized in 1999 when the leaders issued a joint
statement on East Asia Cooperation at their third ASEAN+3
Summit in Manila.
 The ASEAN+3 leaders expressed greater resolved and
confidence in further strengthening and deepening East Asia
Cooperation at various levels and in various areas, including
energy, transport, strengthen partnership with the People’s
Republic of China, the Republic of Korea, and Japan to address
mutual issues and concerns in energy security, natural gas
development, oil market studies, oil stockpiling, and renewable
energy.
 APT can be considered as a forum that functions as a
coordinator of co –operation between the ASEAN and the three
East Asia nations of China, Japan, and South Korea.
Government leaders, ministers, and senior officials from the 10
members of the ASEAN and the three Northeast Asian states
consult on an increasing range of issues.
 The APT is the latest development of East Asian regional co-
operation.

Issues and Concerns of Asian Regionalism

1. They have not played a role in the major and long-standing
regional conflicts, especially those that are holdovers from the
cold war period, such as the PRC-Taiwan conflict, or those
between North and South Korea, and India and Pakistan.
2. Failure to make use of available instruments of conflict-
prevention and resolution.
3. Failure of regional trust-building, which is supposed to have
been brought about by regional groups like the ASEAN is
reflected in the emergence of what seems to be a significant
arms race across regions.
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4. On the economic front, there has been no regional free trade

area under the auspices of APEC, which was created partly
with that objective in mind.
5. While the region is regularly visited by natural calamities, there
is no standing regional humanitarian and disaster assistance
mechanism in place, despite periodic attempts to create one.
6. On human rights and social issues, Asia continues to lag
behind other regions, including Africa and Latin America, not to
mention Europe, in developing regional human rights promotion
and protection mechanisms.
7. Climate change efforts, limited at best at any level, are pursued
mainly at the global, rather than regional level.

Asian Regionalism and the Philippines

 The country has always been an active player in regional blocs
that have been established sine the time of the defunct South
East Asia Treaty Organization, up until the current regional
groupings.
 The Philippines firmly believes in establishing close ties with its
neighbors and pursue friendship, amity and cooperation as
embodied in its Constitution.
 The country remain to be steadfast to the ideals and vision of
One Asean and gives utmost importance to the tenets of
economic integration, the pursuit of peace in the region and
socio cultural cooperation.
 The Philippines remains to be an important founding member of
the ASEAN having hosted several summits recently.
 The current administration of Pres. Duterte aims for peaceful
and cooperative resolution of the Spratly’s debacle by forging
more cooperative and open ties with PRC.

Conclusion
The maxim that there is strength in numbers bodes well for
countries that choose to become a part of organizations that they feel
could indeed boost and support their national interest may it be in the
economic, military, political or even cultural contexts.

Reflective Questions
1. What could have happened if Asian regional organizations
did not exist? Give possible circumstance that may occur.
2. Are these regional organizations mere talk-shops, or are
they genuine forces for stability and security? Explain your
view.
3. Is being a member of the Asian organizations beneficial to
obtaining a better position in the world economy and
security? Explain your view.
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4. Based on your readings and/or observation, how is the

Philippines performing in the Asian Regionalism? Cite proofs
to your claim.
5. Must Asia continue to go on with its established regional
patterns?

References
ADB Executive Summary on Asian Regionalism (2012)

ADB paper on Emerging Asian Nationalism

Amitav Acharya, Constructing a Security Community in South East

Asia. ASEAN and the asean.org/asean-economic-community/

Bjorn Hettne, Andres Inotai and Oswaldo Sunkel (eds), Studies in the
New Regionalism. Vols 1-IV, (London: Macmillan, 1999-2001);
Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrell, Regionalism in World
Politics. Regional Organizations and International Order
(Oxford: Oxford University lPress 1995)) 1-4

Fawcett, Louise, The History and Concept of Regionalism (2012).

European Society of International Law (ESIL) Conference
Paper Series No. 4/2012. Available at SSRN:
https://ssrn.com/abstract-2193746

Focus Economics 2018 ed.

Joseph Nye (ed.) International Regionalism (Boston: Little Brown and
Co. 1968)

Problem of Regional Order, 2nd edn. (New York: Routledge, 2009)

R. Stubbs, 'ASEAN Plus Three. Emerging East Asian Regionalism'

Asian Survey XLI/3, (2002) 453-4.

Stubbs, K, Martin, K. and Eiken, L, (2005) International Relations of

Social Change, Open University Press, Buckingham

https://carum.my/publication/regionalism-in-asia

https://www.state.gov/p/eap/regional/asean/
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Lesson Objectives:
1. Analyze how
various media drive
various forms of
global integration
2. Explain the
dynamic between
local and global
cultural production

Chapter 4. World of Ideas

Lesson 7: Global Media Culture

Introduction
International mass media has
played a vital role in enhancing
globalization as if linked societies closer,
with the exchange of ideas, culture, and
multiple information. It has managed to
do so who with the help of capitalism.
However, the process of globalization of
culture constitutes a debate on whether
mass media has been pluralistic and
neutral in facilitating the flow of ideas, or
has it been an instrument for the
domination of western culture.

Global Media Culture

 Explores the relationship between the media, culture, and
globalization. The course approaches past and current
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challenges concerning international communication and

explores and problematizes the power of media representation.

Global Media
 It is a mass communication on a global level allowing people
across the world to share and access the same information. It
is indeed that technologies made people’s lives easier all over
the globe.

Media Culture
 It refers to the current Western capitalist society that emerged
and developed from the 20th century, under the influence of
mass media.

Global Integration
 Process by which a company combines different activities
around the world so that they operate using the same
methods.

Three major analytical perspective of media globalization that

developed in the field of international communication, defined three
models that emerged in three subsequent phases:
1. Communication and development - Models view media as
instruments of change in developing countries with its capacity
to alter values and attitudes towards modernization.
2. Cultural Imperialism - Asserts an uneven relationship in the
flow of ‘hardware’ transfer of technology and media alongside
the ‘software’ transfer of cultural products that contribute to
the dependency on the part of the developing countries to
developed countries.
3. Cultural pluralism - Asserts a more optimistic view on the
diversity of global media relationships, constitute by a variety
of producers and locales.

Free flow of information: The road to modernization?

 The post-World War II period would mark the prominence of the
models of developing through mass media and the free flow of
information, particularly under the leadership of the United
States.
 Mass media were viewed to play critical roles in development in
the modernization paradigm. Wilbur Schramm, one of the
pioneering scholars of this paradigm, observed a positive
association between communication components to that of the
social, political and economic components in national growth.
 According to him, ‘’ the task of the mass media of information
and the’ ’new media’’ of education is to speed and ease the
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long, slow, social transformation required for economic

development and to speed and smooth the task of mobilizing
human resources behind the national effort.
 Another key proponent of modernization is David Lerner, who
proposed that developing societies must follow the Western
concept of modernity to achieve development.
 He emphasized the importance of empathy, stating that ‘’ as
people are more exposed to media, the greater is their
capability to imagine themselves as strange persons in strange
situations places and time than did people in any previous
historical epoch.’’
 The strength and power of mass media to influence societies
lies in its ‘’one-way, top-down and simultaneous and wide
dissemination’’ and its capability to shape social processes,
create meanings, identities, and aspirations of a community.

Demanding for the balanced flow of information: A fight against

cultural imperialism
 The cultural imperialism paradigm grew in influence from the
1960s to the 1980s in the context of the Cold War and the
period of decolonization and post-colonialism.
 Third World countries formed the Non- Aligned Movement with
a united purposed stated in the Non-Aligned Countries
Declaration of 1979 also known as the Havana Declaration.
 ‘’meant’’ ‘’free-market’’ expression, meaning those who owned
the media had the right to decide what was expressed in it.
 Cultural imperialism theory argues that global audiences are
exposed to media messages dominantly delivering from
Western industrialized states (Kraidy,2002). Herbert Schiller
(1976), the clearest and most influential theorists of the cultural
imperialism tradition.
 (Sparks,2012) defines cultural imperialism as the concept of
cultural imperialism today best describes the sum of the
processes by which a society is brought into the modern world
system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured,
forced and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to
correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of
the dominating center of the system.

Media imperialism
The process whereby the ownership, structure, distribution or
content of the media in any one country are singly or together
are subject to substantial external pressures from the media
interests of any other country or countries without proportionate
reciprocation of influence by the country so affected.
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 According to Hesmondhalgh (2005) the concept of imperialism

means ‘’building of empires’’ however the use of the term
cultural imperialism implies that with the end of the age of direct
political and economic control by colonial states, a new form of
indirect power and concerned has emerged
 The Western dominance in news broadcasting, specifically of
international news agencies such as Reuters, AFP, UPI, and
AP have been viewed by scholars as contributory to the
spreading of biased images and prejudices of colonialism
towards the South and reducing nations as places of
‘’corruption, coup and disaster.’’
 According to Zenith Optimedia’s, annual global ranking of the
largest media companies in the world. Television remains to be
the most important advertising medium, but it is now followed
by internet which has replaced print media as the second.
 Digital advertising has been on the rise, with five digital
companies- Google, Facebook, Baidu, Yahoo and Microsoft –
included in the top 30 and representing 65% of the entire
internet advertising market, and accounting for more than a
third of the revenues of the largest media owners listed in the
top 30.

Cultural Pluralism: Transition from homogenization to

heterogenization
 Criticisms against the cultural imperialism paradigm would
eventually pave the way for the emergence of a new paradigm
termed “Cultural Pluralism” (Screberny 1996 as cited in
Rantanen , 2005).
 Other scholars would also refer to the paradigm as “Cultural
globalization” (Matos 2012).
 The paradigm shift was a departure from the “one way” model
of cultural imperialism towards more nuanced and sophisticated
analysis of “multidirectional flows” among country relations
(Matos, 2012
 It was a reaction to the treatment of the paradigms of
modernization and cultural imperialism to the role of the
audience as passive receptacles of information and ideas.
 The contemporary approach recognizes the capacity of the
audience in reacting and mobilizing toward resistance and
empowerment, according to their socio-economic context and
cultural preference (Matos, 2012)
Paradigms of development and imperialism approach as being
under Homogenization and Heterogenization.
 Homogenization school, with their assumptions on the impact
of globalization on the media cultures.
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 Heterogenization school, on the other hand, re-territorialization,

and indigenization (Ranteen, 2005)
 Contemporary media studies have focused on “unpacking” the
audience and its capacity to receive and interpret messages. It
is a departure from the view of the homogenous audience to an
audience that is fragmented with distinctive tastes (Rantanen,
2005).
Conclusion
Today people all over the world have easy access to
communicate with each other and to be aware of the news all over
the world. There are many advantages in global media. Now, people
have easier access of television, radio, internet and in fact, they have
access of others countries’ satellite TV channels. With those all easy
access in many regions western televisions shows became more
popular. Of course, global media made it easier for people to learn
about other culture via TV shows. On the other hand, I think there are
many disadvantages in global media as well. One thing I want to
focus on is foreign satellite TV channels. It is good thing when people
learn about different culture by watching their satellite TV channels,
but it became problematic when one forgets their own culture by
watching foreign TV shows.

Reflective Questions
1. Give you view on the following statement: David Lerner
proposed that developing societies must follow the Western
concept of modernity to achieve development.
2. As far as you may have observed, do you think media have
become true and fair with whatever information they are giving
the people? Explain.
3. In today’s problem on fake news, how does it affect
modernization?
4. What makes new media more advantageous than traditional
media?
5. What is the essence of studying global media culture? Justify
your answer.

References
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Ethnographic Critique of Media Consumption in the
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Bah, U. (2008). Rereading The Passing of Traditional Society:

Empathy, Orthodoxy and the Americanization of the Middle
East. Cultural Studies, 22(6), 795-819. doi:10.1080/
09502380701702599
Boadu, S. O. (1981, December). Mass Media and Modernization: An
Assessment of Theoretical Problems. Journal of Black Studies,
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Boyd-Barrett, O. (1977). Media Imperialism: Towards an International
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Gurevitch, & J. Woollacott (Eds.), Mass Communication and
Society (pp. 116-135). London: Edward Arnold.
Buchanan, C. (2014). Revisiting the UNESCO debate on a New
World Information and Communication Order: has the NWICO
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32, 391-399. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
tele.2014.05.007
Curran, J. & Park, M.-J. (2005). Beyond globalization theory. In J.
Curran, & M.-J. Park (Eds.), De-Westernizing Media Studies.
New York: Routledge.
Diokno, P.(2013, February 10). Who Killed Philippine Cinema?: Pepe
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Fejes, F. (1981). Media imperialism: an assessment. Media, Culture
and Society, 281-289. doi:10.1177/016344378100300306
Gordon, N. (2009). Globalization and Cultural Imperialism in Jamaica:
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Jamaican TV through Programme Modeling. International
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Hesmondhalgh, D. (2005). Globalisation and cultural imperialism: a
case study of the music industry. In R. Kiely, & P. Marfleet
(Eds.), Globalisation and the Third World (pp. 166-183). Taylor
& Francis e-Library.
Kearns, E. M., Betus, A., & Lemieux, A. (2017, March 13). Yes, the
media do underreport some terrorist attacks. Just not the ones
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Kearns, E. M., Lemieux, A., & Lemieux, A. F. (Forthcoming). Why Do

Some Terrorist Attacks
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Lesson 8: The Globalization of Religion

Introduction
Religion and globalization
Lesson Objectives:
have always shared a relation of
1. Understand how the
struggle and conflict. Globalization
scholars have approached
stands for increased and daily
the relationship between
contact while religions are
religion and globalization
becoming more self-conscious for
themselves as being the world 2. Grasp the nuances,
religions. Religion provides a strength, and weaknesses
sense of belongingness to a group of theses on secularization
and the resurgence of
religion;
3. Unravel the relationship
between conflicts and
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in the world. Religion has stood the complexities and onslaught of the
modern world and is seen to be further intensified under the
conditions of contemporary development.
In third world nations, where the vulnerable sections find
themselves more marginalized by the forces of globalization, religion
takes a prime welfare role and acts as a cultural protector for these
sections. Religion thus plays a social role by helping in social causes
and successfully gets greater recognition.
From religious or theological perspectives, globalization calls
forth religious response and interpretation. Yet religions have also
played important roles in bringing about and characterizing
globalization.

Religion (Concepts defined by Haynes, 2006)

1. In Spiritual Sense, religion is referred in three ways:
a. It involves the idea of transcendence, referring to supernatural
realities.
b. It relates which sacredness or holiness and system of practice
and language which is organized and defined as such.
c. It concerns ultimacy on how “it relates people to ultimate
conditions of existence (p. 538).
2. In Material Sense – Religious beliefs are capable of motivating
individuals and group to collectively mobilize to achieve political
gals and consequently, suppress mass actions as a tool of
repression (Haynes, 2006).

Secularization
1. The process by which a society moves away from religious
framework or foundation
2. A cultural transition in which religious values are gradually
replaced with nonreligious values.

Two aspects of how religion as defined concerning its context

as related to the context of globalization.
1. Secularization Paradigm where religion has been viewed
to have lost its influence to some extent with the advent of
modernization
2. Religious resurgence thesis where modernization has
caused a backlash and urged society to seek refuge in
religion due to the imposition of liberal and Western values
that are compatible with people’s culture, beliefs, and
identity.
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Secularization: The Consequence of Modernization

Paradigm of secularization refers to the belief that religion would

lose its significance with economic development and modernization.

The thesis can be traced back to the classical works of Auguste

Comte, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and Karl Marx who posited that
modernization involves a decline of religiosity among societies and
providing different explanations as to why this occurs.

1. Auguste Comte (one of the first theorists of secularization),

mentioned that societies undergo three stages:
 Theological stage
 Metaphysical stage
 Positivist/ Scientific stage

2. Max Weber argues that men will undergo modernization which is

a process of the disenchantment of the universe with the
replacement of bureaucratization, rationalization, and secularization
over the magical, metaphysical and the religious.

3. Emile Durkheim argues that the individualization of the societies

breaking the bonds of community.

4. Karl Marx views religion as the opium of the people created by the
material conditions. He believed that religion would have no place in
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a communist society where all individuals are treated equally with the
eradication of class division and the existence of the state.

Scholars and the Classical Theories of Secularization

Tschannen (1991)
 provides a systematic overview of theories that would constitute
the secularization since 1963.
 Secularization paradigm is based on three core concepts
(drawn from the theories of Thomas Luckmann, Peter Berger,
Bryan Wilson, David Martin, Richard Fenn, Talcott Parsons,
and Robert Bellah):
(1) Differentiation
He argues that religion becomes differentiated and
autonomous from other institutions, “which loses the
power of social control and guidance over the rest of the
society”.

Religion recognizes itself in terms of location and function

within society as it becomes:
 Privatized as a personal religion,
 Generalized to pervade across secular (political or
economic) institutions,
 Pluralized into several competing denominations, or
as religion declines in practice

(2) Rationalization
 Rationalization is viewed by Tschannen as the
process in the following aspects:
1. Scientization – related to the emergence of
science that would compete with religious
worldviews
2. Sociologization – where social life is
determined a scientific and rational fashion free
from religious influence.
 Rationalization is concomitant to the weakening of religion
which manifests in the societal level where there is
collapse of the world view, and in the individual level
where people no longer believe in God.
 The impact of the processes of differentiation and
rationalization as religion is its loss of specificity and shift
to worldliness.

(3) Worldliness
 Worldliness where religion organizations began to cater
their members’ physiological needs.
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 In entirety, Tschannen views secularization paradigm into

two parliamentary assumptions:
1. Some roots of the secularization process can be
found within region itself
2. Religion is related to human condition and thus will
not completely disappear.
Gorski (2000)
 He follows the same emphasis on differentiation as a
uniting concept across the paradigm of secularization.
 He provides an understanding of theories into four
basic positions:
1. The disappearance of religion on thesis as espoused by
Comte where religion is supplanted by science.
2. The decline of religion thesis as advocated by Weber,
where there is the decline of the religious, but not the
complete triumph of the scientific world views thus
possibilities of revival of new gods or religions
3. The privatization thesis is argued by Luckman, where
institutionalized religions are replaced by new
personalized faiths.
4. The transformation thesis as set forth by Parson, where
religion is viewed to undergo generalization across social
systems, with the sacred becoming more fragmented but
not less public.
 He argues that the secularization paradigm comprising of a
variant of theories revolve around the core theory of
differentiation, that branches out to different arguments of the
direction of individual religiosity in the modern era.

Goldstein (2009)
 He focuses on and questions the unilinear conception of
secularization process. There are three different camps
within the old secularization paradigm:
1. Functionalists (Talcott Parsons, Robert Bellah, and
Nicklas Lukmann)
2. Phenomenologists (Peter Berger, Thomas Lukmann,
Alfred Schutz)
3. Dialectic theorists (Bryan Wilson, David Martin, and
Richard Fenn

 He argues that secularization theories in the old paradigm

do not follow a linear process and may even follow other
patterns that are spiral, dialectical, and paradoxical.
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 He offers a dialectical understanding of the secularization

process that is marked by contradictions, progress, and
reversals where "religious movements in the direction of
rationalization, and social movements in the directions of
secularization, spawn religious counter-movements and
the direction of sacralization and dedifferentiation." From
a dialectic understanding of secularization views, the
tensions brought by the contradictions between the
sacred and profane and the religious and the secular, as
viewed as factors that drive further rationalization of
religion and the society.

The secularization paradigm is a family of theories that vary in

terms of the extent of the decline or displacement of religion, the
direction of the process, and the driving forces they ascribe to the
secularization.
The paradigm, however, has confronted challenges in its
relevance and validity especially due to the emergence of armed
conflicts fought under the banner of religious beliefs as seen in the
key events such as the Iranian Revolution, the Solidarity and the
Polish Revolution, and the September 11 tragedy (Thomas, 2005).
This brings the field of inquiry on the resurgence of religion in the era
of globalization.

The Resurgence of Religion in the Context of Globalization

Samuel Huntington, 1993 (one of the prominent works on the
resurgence of religion)
 He argues that the fundamental source of conflict that will
dominate the global politics will be cultural and not primarily
economic or ideological. He describes the politics of civilization
where "the peoples and governments of non-western
civilizations no longer remain the objects of history as targets of
western colonialism but join the west as movers and shapers of
history".
 He defines civilizations as cultural entities which are
differentiated from each other by culture, tradition, language
and history, and decides the world into the Western, Confucian,
Japanese, Islamic, Hindi, Slavic-orthodox, Latin American, and
African civilizations.
 In his thesis, civilizations will clash due to the processes of
economic modernization occurring across the world that are
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separations societies from longstanding cultural identities,

which is in line with the "unsecularization of the world" (thesis of
George Weigel and Gilles Kepels) and "the revival of religion"
as cited in Huntington 1993).

Azzouzi (2013)
 Reaffirms the clash of civilization thesis and argues the
revival and religion surgence or religion because of
globalization. Religion acts as a resistance against the
adverse effects of globalization, especially how Islam
constituted a challenge due to incompatibility of Islamic
norms and beliefs to the liberal aspects of globalization.
 Globalization and its defining feature of hybridization or
world cultures and world religion, he argues, failed to be
actualized and have even strengthened religious identities
that cannot intermingle or hybridize such as in the case with
Islam and Christianity, also Islam and globalization, thus
inclining them towards competition and clashes.
Huntington's (1993)
 Huntington primarily featured the notion that Western
Security and global order where being challenged by
sustained attacks from International Islamic militancy, which
would be given credence by the anti-Western Islamist
regimes in Sudan and Afghanistan in the mid-1990's. Sharp
criticism has been made by Edward Said (2005) who
problematized the conceptualization of "civilization" and
"identities" of Huntington into what they are not.

Amartya Sen (1999)

 He shares the same criticism of the inadequate recognition
of Huntington of the heterogeneities with cultures.
 He emphasizes diversity as an essential feature of most of
the cultures in the world including Western civilization. Sen's
criticism is in line with his arguments against the "Asian
values" thesis, that Asian societies traditionally value
discipline over political freedom and democracy.
 He also emphasized that lack of real basis for the claim as
well as the reference to East Asia which often generalized
as "Asian values" in its entirety.

Norris and Inglehart (2011)

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 These two also predict that the role of religion would eventually
be raised on the international agenda.
 They do not refer to the clash of civilizations as the cause of it
instead, it is caused by " the accommodation of divergent
attitudes toward moral issues found in international and modern
societies".
 These issues refer to the women and gay rights, divorce,
abortion, sexual liberalization, and other similar issues that may
challenge social tolerance.

Thomas (2005)
 He contradicted the thesis of clash of civilization.
 He defined the global resurgence of religion in the following
ways:
1. The global resurgence of religion is the growing saliency
and persuasiveness of religion
2. The increasing importance of religious beliefs, practices
and discourses in personal and public life
3. The growing rile of religious or religiosity related
individuals, non-state groups, political parties and
communities and organizations in domestic politics.
 He argues that this has been brought by the "political mythology
of liberal modernity" where religion is viewed as something that
must be privatized, restricted and marginalized.
Global resurgence of religion indicates not an end of the belief in
reason but the belief of secular reason-- it is not "anti-modern" but a
rethinking of the relationship between modernity and religion, and the
search for other ways of being "developed", " modern" or "making
progress" that are anchored on the different religious and cultural
traditions of the developing world.
Scholte (2005)
 He refers to religious revivalism as anti-rationalist faith in which
"transplanetary relations have help to stimulates and sustain
some renewals of an titrations list faith, but global networks
have more usually promoted activities involving rationalist
knowledge."Azzouzi (2013) states that, while anti-rationalism
can be ascribed to religion, this would refer to the
characteristics of extremist and fundamentalist religion. Thomas
(2005), it may be very misleading to see the global resurgence
of religion as the "clash of civilizations" "fundamentalist" or
"extremism”.

Edward Said
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 He cited Eqbal Amad and his articles. He criticized the religious

right constituted by financial and absolutists tyrants promoting
"an Islamic order reduced to a penal code, stripped of its
humanism, aesthetics, intellectual quests and spiritual
devotion".
 Amad argues that, it is a distortion of religion and debasement
of traditions to justify despotic rules and violent actions. It is a
stark departure from the pluralist meaning of Jihad, rooted in
the meaning " determined effort" or "striving" that may be
"maybe an inward struggle (directed against evil in oneself) or
an outward one (against injustice)

Reflective Questions
1. Has modernization swept religion of people in the pursuit of
globalization? State your view.
2. How does secularization shape the state in of modern societies
and culture?
3. What is the relationship of globalization and religion?
4. How has globalization transformed the role of religion within
societies?
5. In your opinion, does religion make impact for an individual
state to have certain aim for development?

References
Azzouzi, M. (2013). Religion and Globalisation: Benefits and
challenges. Romanian Review of Political Science and
International Relations, 10(1), 150-154.
Goldstein, W. S. (2009). Secularization Patterns in the Old Paradigm.
Sociology of Religion , 70(2), 157-178.
doi:10.1093/socrel/srp029
Gorski, P. (2000, February). Historicizing the Secularization Debate:
Church, State, and Society in Late Medieval and Early Modern
Europe, ca. 1300 to 1700. American Sociological Review,
65(1), 138-167.
Haynes, J. (2006). Review: Religion and International Relations in the
21st Century: conflict or cooperation? Third World Quarterly,
27(3), 535-541. doi: 10.1080/01436590600589289
Huntington, S.P. (1993). The Clash of Civilizations? Foreign Affairs,
71(3), 22-49
Institute for Economics & Peace. (2014). Five Key Questions
Answered on the Link Between Peace & Religion: A Global
Statistical Analysis on the Empirical Link Between Peace and
 71
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Religion. Retrieved from

http://vissionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/ 2017/04/ Peace-and-
Religion-Report.pdf
Noack, R. (2014, April 14). Map: These are the world least religious
countries. Retrieved from The Washington Post:
http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/04/1
4map-these-are-the-world-least-countries/?
utm_term=.c61d9a90127e
Poushter, J. (2015 November 17). FACTANK: In nations with
significant Muslim populations, much disdain for ISIS. Retrieved
from Pew Research Center: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-
tank/2015/11/17/in-nations-with-significant-muslim-population-
much-disdain-for-isis/
Rantanen, T. (2005). The Media and Globalization. SAGE
Publications.
Said, W. (2005) Adrift in Similarity. In E.W. Said, From Oslo to Iraq
and the Road Map. New York: Vintage Books.
Scholte, J. (2005). Globalization: A Critical Introduction. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Tschannen, O. (1991, December). The Ssecularization Paradigm: A
Systematization. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,
30(4), 395-415. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1387276

Chapter 5. Global Population and Mobility

Lesson 9: Global City

Introduction
The city, as we know it, has changed
dramatically over the course of time. Lesson Objectives:
Apparent changes in technology, cultural 1. Identify the
exchanges and migration as well as attributes of a
economic progress and personal social global city
mobility has changed the concept of a city. 2. Analyze how
Cities are ecosystem for business and cities serve as
innovation. The strength of an urban engines of
center’s network of businesses, the globalization
talent of its citizenry, the stability of political
institutions, and the creativity of cultural organizations all contribute to
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an environment in which existing businesses flourish and new

businesses are born. (Kearney,2017).

Defining of Global City

Anderson and Backfield (2004) A Global city, also known by other

terminologies as “alpha city” or “world centre” is a city regarded as a
primary node in the global economic network.
Brenner (1998) By at large Global city pertains to an urban centre
that enjoys significant competitive advantages and that serves as a
hub within a globalized economic system.
Smith (2003) It emanates from the idea that globalization is created,
facilitated, and enacted in strategic geographic locales (cities)
according to a hierarchy importance to the operation of global system
of finance and trade.
Sassen (1994) In effect, a global city serves as an important local
point for business, global trade, finance and globalization to exist.
Taylor (2001) The term has its origins n research on cities carried out
during the 1980s, which examined the common characteristics of the
world’s most important cities. However, with increased attention being
paid to processes of globalization during subsequent years, these
world cities came to be known as global cities. Linked with
globalization was the idea of spatial reorganization and the
hypothesis that cities were becoming key loci within global network of
production, finance, and telecommunications.
 Global cities are the highly globalized and competitive
metropolitan economies with deepest and most settled
concentration of firms, capital and talent. Six cities stand out.
The ‘Big Six’ include the traditional ‘super cities’ of London,
New York, Paris and Tokyo, but more recently this adds Hong
Kong and Singapore.
 They have significant competitive advantages, but nonetheless
are vulnerable to other dynamic getaway cities that are well
positioned to capture spill over demand, notably.
 Seoul, Toronto, and Sydney and over the longer term,
Shanghai.
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New World Cities

Established World Munich
Emerging Vancouver
Cities World Oslo Denver
New York Tokyo Cities Barcelona
London Hong Brisbane
Kong Paris
Newly High Lagging
Emerg Competitiv Potential/
e Agile Higher Weakly
Megacities
ed Quality Dhaka
Megacities Governed
Istabul Emerging Mumbai Lagos
Shangh Kuala Dubai Karachi
Manila
ai Lumpur Santiago
Taipie Bangalore Jakarta
Beijing
Maurice Shenzen
Citu
The New World Order of Cities
 There have been various researchers made in the past regarding
the realm of global city:
 Friedman who pioneered in the 1980s but a more solid and
grounded attempt to carefully appraise and analyze the
concept could be attributed to Saskia Sassen.
 Sassen is the leading urban theorist of the global world. Her
work, The Golden City: New York, London, Tokyo (1991)
has shaped the concepts and methods that other theorists
have used to analyse the role of cities and their networks in
the contemporary world.

Essential Traits of a Global City

1. There is an apparent presence of variety of international financial
services notably in finance, insurance, real estate, banking,
accountancy, and marketing
2. Headquarters of several multinational corporations.
3. The existence of financial headquarters, a stock exchange, and
major financial institutions
4. Domination of the trade and economy of a large surrounding area
5. Major manufacturing centres with port and container facilities
6. Considerable decision- making power on daily basis at a global
level
7. Centers of new ideas and innovation and business, economics,
culture and politics
8. Focal point of media and communications for global networks
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SocSci222 (The Contemporary World)

9. Dominance of the national region with great international

significance

10. High percentage of residents employed in the services

11. High – quality educational institutions, including renowned
universities, international student attendance and research facilities

12. Multi- functional infrastructure offering some of the best legal,

medical, and entertainment facilities in the world
13. High diversity in language, culture, religion and ideologies.

Analyzing Global Cities

Jon Beaver stock, Richard G. Smith and Peter J. Taylor

established the Globalization and World Cities Research Network
(GaWC). A roster of world cities in the GaWC Research Bulletin 5 is
ranked by their connectivity though four “advance producer services”:
accountancy, advertising, banking/finance, and law.
The illustration follows shows a list of alpha cities from the 2016
GaWC study. Notice that Manila was listed as an Alpha-city. This
show that the economic importance of our National Capital Region
resonated well with global standards and considered as an emerging
global economic player.
Alpha Level Cities:
Alpha-Cities are the most integrated with the global economy:
 London
 New York city

Alpha-cities are highly integrated cities, filling advances service

needed: Singapore, Hong Kong, Paris, Beijing, Tokyo, Dubai,
Shanghai

Alpha cities (and Alpha) are cities that link major economic
states and region to the world economy: Sydney, Sao Paulo,
Milan, Chicago, Mexico City, Mumbai, Moscow, Frankfurt, Madrid,
Warsaw, Johannesburg, Toronto, Seoul, Istanbul, Kuala Lumpur,
Jakarta, Amsterdam, Brussels, Los Angeles

Alpha –cities: Dublin, Melbourne, Washington D.C., New Delhi,

Bangkok, Zurich, Vienna, Taipei, Buenos Aires, Stockholm, San
Francisco, Guangzhou, Manila, Bogota, Miami, Luxembourg, Riyadh,
Santiago, Barcelona, Tel Aviv , Lisbon
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Global Cities Index

The GCI analyzes 128 cities in Six World Regions. This Global
Cities Index examines the current performance of cities based on 27
metrics spanning five dimensions: business activity, human capital,
information exchange, cultural experience, and political engagement.

The Global Cities Outlook evaluates a city’s potential based on

the rate of changes for 13 metrics across four dimensions: personal
well-being, economics, innovation, and governance. The Outlook
brings a forward-looking perspective to city-level policies and
practices that shape the future competitiveness, identifying growing
cities that are likely to become the world’s most prominent cities.

2017 Global City Index

The illustration below shows the Top 25 Global Cities for 2017
The Top 25 cities on the Index and the Outlook
1. New York
2. London
3. Paris
4. Tokyo
5. Hong Kong
6. Singapore
7. Chicago
8. Los Angeles
9. Beijing
10. Washington D.C.
11. Brussels
12. Seoul
13. Madrid
14. Berlin
15. Melbourne
16. Toronto
17. Sydney
18. Moscow
19. Shanghai
20. Vienna
21. Boston
22. Amsterdam
23. San Francisco
24. Barcelona
25. Istanbul

Source: ATKearney Global Cities Index

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This year, New York regained the first-place ranking, largely by

improving in information exchange and maintaining a higher ranking
than London in the business and political engagement.
Flash on the Concept of a Global City

Sassen (2001) present her hypothesis for a Global City and its
increasing role in the economics aspect of the nation-state as follows:

Seven fundamental “Global City” hypotheses

1. The geographic dispersal of economic activities that marks
globalization, along with simultaneous integration of such
geographically dispersed activates, is the key factor feeding
the growth and importance of central corporate functions.
2. The central function become so complex that increasingly the
headquarters of a large global firms outsource them: they buy
a share of their central functions from highly specialized
service firms.
3. Those specialized service firms engaged in the most complex
and globalized markets are subject to agglomeration
economies.
4. The more headquarters outsource their most complex, un-
standardized functions, particularly those subject to uncertain
and changing markets, the freer they are to opt for any
location.
5. These specialized service firms need to provide a global
service which has meant a global network of affiliates… and
the strengthening of cross border city-to-city- transaction and
networks.
6. The economics fortune of these cities become increasingly
disconnected from their border hinterland or even their
national economies.
7. One result of the dynamic described in hypotheses six, is the
growing informalization of a range of economic activities
which find their effective demand in the cities yet have profits
rates that do not a low them to compete for various resources
with the highly=profit making firms at the top of the system.

Migration, Mobility, and the Global City

The rise of globalization, in a massive scale has influenced the
creation of Global City has also created avenues for people to
migrate (Hall and Pain, 2006).
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In this era of globalization, the world is now ‘Borderless’ in

which capital, information and production can be moved across
national border seamlessly. While globalization has blurred the
distinction between countries, the flow of economic resources, such
as human capital and financial capital has become easier than ever
before.

This borderless realm has also contributed to the rise of

migration into global cities. The contention is held that without the
contribution by international migrants, a person who moves from one
place to another to seek a better living (Anderson, 2015). Global
cities are attractive to firms due to the possibility of being able to tap a
diverse pool of highly skilled labor, including the expatriate (Brenner,
1998).
But to what extent has the development of the Global city affected
migration?

According to Sassen (1991), the geography of globalization

consists both a dynamic dispersal and centralization. With
globalization, the increasing spatial dispersal of economic activities at
metropolitan, national, and global level has contributed to the need of
a new territorial centralization of top-level management and central
corporate functions.

Both large global firm and the specialized service firm could
benefit in operating closely in global cities. When those specialized
firms provide global services, their global network is strengthened. In
the long-run, this business practice would positively impact the global
economy, since people’s employment is secured, and at the same
time, both firms who engage in the international trade in services
would be benefited. Therefore, global cities are central to the
development of the global economy (Alderson, et. Al (2010).

Global City and Mobility

An increasing migration tendency and desire to live in the cities
bring several problems closely knit to urbanization. One of these
concerns is the mobility of people. By 2050, 70 percent of the people
on Earth will live in the cities. And if currents trends continue, those
people are likely to face even more crowded conditions, polluted air
and infrastructures than we do today.

Traffic indeed a problem especially in highly populated cities.

Traffic congestion is increasingly become a global issue, which
drivers spending nearly 50% of their driving time in a traffic in some
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cities around the world. The Philippines is no exception, Metro Manila

it ranked as the 3rd worst city to drive in the South East Asian region
with an average of 66 minutes stuck in traffic daily.

Investing in Public Transit

Banning cars may mitigate the traffic conditions but is not all an
effective solution. One consideration is by investing on Public
railways (Brenner, 1998). Most alpha cities possess a very elaborate
yet so effective mass transportation system. One has to look into the
MRT of Hong Kong or the MRT of Taiwan and the generalization
could be made how an effective mass train system can effectively
lessen road traffic.

Reflection Questions
1. From the obvious advantages linked to the creation and
existence of cities, what relevant challenges can you
enumerate that are brought by having cities in a particular
state?
2. Is it beneficial for a country to have many cities in it?
3. Comment on the culture of men flooding to the cities to land
jobs.
4. If the major economic operations are done in cities, what
happens to the rural areas of the state? Is their balance in the
economic mechanisms?
5. How far do you idealize living or working in the city?

References
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world city system’, American.

Alderson, A.S, J. Sprague-Jones (2010). ‘Intercity relations and

globalisation: The Analysis: Asurvey of Cities in Globalisation,
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Brenner, N. (1998). ‘Global cities, global states: global city formation

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Castells, M. (20019). Communication Power. Oxford: Oxford

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Chalaby, J.K. (2005). From Internalization to Transnatinalization.

Global Media and Communication 1, pp.28-33.
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D. Bassens, J. Huang, F.

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Friedman,J. and G. Wolff (1982). ‘World city formation: an agenda for

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df

Mann. M. (1986), The Source of Social Power (Volume 1: A History of

Power from the Beginning network, 200-08’, Urban Studies,
47 (9). 1861-1877. network’, Urban Studies, 43 (11), 2027-
2046. restructuring in contemporary Europe’, Review of
International Political Economy, 5 (1),1-37.

Robinson, J. (2006), Ordinary Cities: Between Modernity and

Development, London: Routledge.

Sassen. S. (1994), Cities in a World Economy, Thousand Oaks, CA:

Pine Forge Press.

Sassen, S. (1995), ‘On concentration and centrality in the global city’,

in P.I. Knox and P.J. Taylor

Sassen, S, (2001a), The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo,

Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.

Lesson 10: Global Demography

Introduction
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For much of human history, demographic patterns were

reasonably stable; human populations grew slowly, and the ag e
structures, birth rates, and death rates of populations changed only
gradually. Epidemics and
Lesson Objectives:
pandemics had huge effects on
1. Differentiate between
populations, but these effects
the Global
were short-lived and had little Demography and
bearing on long-term trends. Globalization.
In the past 50 years, the 2. Identify how global
world accelerated its transition out demography affects
of long-term demographic stability. the other aspects of
As infant and child mortality rates our living in the current
fell, populations began to soar, in world.
most countries, this growth led to 3. Define the
failing fertility rates. Although demographic patterns
fertility has fallen, the population in the world.
continues to increase because of
population momentum: it will eventually level off. In the meantime,
demographic change has created a “bulge” generation, which today
appears in the many countries as a large working-age population.

Global Demography defined

1. Demography represents the study of statistics such as
births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease, which
illustrate the changing structure of human populations and
thus poses an effect on globalization on a holistic level.
2. Demography pertains to the composition of a particular
human population.
3. Demographic changes impact in the economy in general
and globalization.

Global Demographic Trends and Patterns

• The global population, which stood at just over 2 billion in 1950,
is 6.5 billion today.
• The world is currently gaining new inhabitants at a rate of 76
million people a year.
• These past and projected additions to world population have
been, and will increasingly be, distributed unevenly across the
world.
• The disparity in population growth between developed and
developing countries reflects the existence of considerable
heterogeneity in birth, death and migration processes, both
over time and across national populations, races and ethnic
groups.
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Crude Births and Death Rate

• This is computed based on the number of births and deaths per
1,000 people.
• On a worldwide basis, the difference between these rates is the
rate of population growth. Within regions or countries,
population growth is also affected by emigration and
immigration.

Global Fertility Rate

• The number of children born per woman, fell from about 5 in
1950 to a little over 2.5 in 2005. This number projected to fall to
about 2 by 2050.
• This decrease is attributable largely to changes in fertility in the
developing world. In 1950, the total fertility rate among
developed countries was already below 3 children per woman;
the rate among developing countries was over 6.
• The fertility decline in low-income countries can be ascribed to
several factors.

Infant and Child mortality decline

• The developing world has seen significant reductions in infant
and child mortality over the past 50 years.
• Infant mortality (death prior to age 1) in developing countries
has dropped from 180 to about 57 deaths per 1,000 live births.
It is projected to decline further to fewer than 30 deaths per
1,000 live births by 2050.
• The past half-century’s gains resulted primarily from improved
nutrition, public health interventions related to water and
sanitation, and medical advances such as the use of vaccines
and antibiotics.
• Infant mortality rates in the developed world have been, and will
continue to be, significantly lower than those in the developing
world.

Global Life Expectancy

• Life expectancy increased from 47 years in 1950-1955 to 65
years in 2000-2005. it is projected to rise to 75 years by the
middle of this country, with considerable disparities between the
wealthy developed countries, at 82 years, and the less-
developed countries, at 74 years.
• The proportion individuals aged 80 or over are projected to rise
from 1 per cent to 4 per cent of the global population by 2050.
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Working Age Population

• It is important to note how these baby booms have altered the
demographic landscape in many countries.
• Many instances show that an initial fall in mortality rates creates
a boom generation because high survival rates lead to more
people at young ages than in earlier generation.
• This movement affects the ebb and flow of productive age and
the working population in general.
• The baby boom creates challenges and opportunities for
countries.
• The working population is defined as those aged 15 to 64. the
basic indicator for employment is the proportion of the working
age population aged 15-64 who are employed.
• The age dependency ratio is that of the dependent (people
younger than 15 or older than 64) to the working-age population
(OECD).

Demographic Change and Its Economic Impact

• Demographic change is consequential with respect to economic
and social development.
• The economic consequences of population growth have long
been the subject of debate.It was first believed that population
growth would lead to the exhaustion of resources.
• In 1978, Thomas Malthus, perhaps the first of the ‘the
population pessimist’s, argued that the world’s resources would
be unable to keep pace with population growth.
• Then, in the 1960s, it was proposed the population growth
aided economic development by spurring technological and
institutional innovation and increasing the supply of human
ingenuity. Simon Kuznets (1967), Julian Simon (1981) and
Ester Boserup (1981) were the leaders among the ‘population
optimists.

Age distribution: working-age population

• Baby booms have altered the demographic landscape in many
countries. As the experiences of several regions during the past
century show, an initial fall in mortality rates creates a boom
generation because high survival rates lead to more people at
young ages than in earlier generations.

Migration
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• Migration also alters population patterns. Globally, 191 million

people live in countries other than the one in which they were
born.

Urbanization
• There has been a huge movement from rural to urban areas
since 1950.
• Less-developed regions, in aggregate, have seen their
population shift from 18 per cent urban in 1950 to 44 per cent in
2006, while the corresponding figures for developed countries
are 52 percent to 75 per cent.

The Impact of Demographical Changes in Globalization

• Demographic changes affect the phenomenon of Globalization
to a large extent.
• According to the World Bank report in 2013, ageing, migration,
educational convergence and women's growing participation in
the labor force- all linked to the underlying demographic
transition-help to shape countries comparative advantage
• All signs suggest that there will be continued but slowing
population growth.
• The world’s population is ageing, and the growth in the sheer
number of elderly people will be huge.
• International migration will continue, but the extent is unclear.
The pressures that encourage people to migrate – above all the
lure of greater economic well-being in the developed countries.
• Urbanization will continue, but here, too, the place is impossible
to predict. Greater economic opportunities in the cities will
surely continue to attract migrants from rural areas, but
environmental and social problems may stymie growth.

Reflective Questions:
1. How will the increasing of population affect the future
economic state of world?
2. What is your view regarding the information “The number of
children born per woman, fell from about 5 in 1950 to a little
over 2.5 in 2005 and is projected to fall to about 2 by 2050”?
Is this true to what is happening in reality?
3. Why is it that mortality rate in the developed countries is
lesser than in the developing?
4. As to the issue of population and the economy, which do you
think should be prioritized, quantity or quality of people?
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5. In Philippines, the data according to WHO in 2017, the life

expectancy of male is 65.3 years, female is 72.0 years. How
can our state increase the life expectancy of the Filipinos?
6. Should the Philippine government impose strict population
control among its citizens? Explain your stand.

References
Bloom DE and D Canning (2003), ‘Contraception and the Celtic
Tiger’,
Economic and Social Review , 34(3), pp 229–247.

Bloom DE and D Canning (2004), ‘Global Demographic Change:

Dimensions and Economic Significance’, in GH Sellon Jnr
(ed), Global Demographic Change: Economic Impacts and
Policy Challenges , Proceedings of a Symposium Sponsored
by the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, Jackson Hole,
pp 9–56.

Bloom DE and D Canning (forthcoming), ‘The Preston Curve 30

Years On: Still Sparking Fires’, International Journal of
Epidemiology

Bloom DE, D Canning and B Graham (2003), ‘Longevity and Life-

Cycle Savings’, Scandinavian Journal of Economics , 105(3),
pp 319–338.

Bloom DE, D Canning, L Hu, Y Liu, A Mahal and W Yip (2006), ‘Why
Has China's Economy Taken Off Faster than India's?’, paper
presented at the 2006 Pan Asia Conference on ‘Challenges
of Economic Policy Reform in Asia’, Stanford University, 1–3
June.

Bloom D, D Canning and P Malaney (2000), ‘Demographic Change

and Economic Growth in Asia’, Population and Development
Review, 26, pp 257–290.

Bloom DE, D Canning, R Mansfield and M Moore (forthcoming),

‘Demographic Change, Social Security Systems, and
Savings’, Journal of Monetary Economics .

Bloom DE, D Canning and M Moore (2004), ‘The Effect of

Improvements in Health and Longevity on Optimal
Retirement and Saving’, NBER Working Paper No 10919.
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Bloom DE, D Canning, M Moore and Y Song (2006), ‘The Effect of

Subjective Survival Probabilities on Retirement and Saving in
the U.S.’, paper presented at a conference on ‘Population
Aging, Intergenerational Transfers, and the Macroeconomy’,
Nihon University Population Research Institute, Tokyo, 26–28
June.

Bloom DE, D Canning and J Sevilla (2002), ‘The Demographic

Dividend: A New Perspective on the Economic
Consequences of Population Change’, RAND Corporation
Monograph Report No MR-1274.

Bloom DE, D Canning and J Sevilla (2004), ‘The Effect of Health on

Economic Growth: A Production Function Approach’, World
Development , 32(1), pp 1–13.

Bloom DE, D Canning and M Weston (2005), ‘The Value of

Vaccination’, World Economics , 6(3), pp 15–39.

Bloom DE and RB Freeman (1986), ‘The Effects of Rapid Population

Growth on Labor Supply and Employment in Developing
Countries’, Population and Development Review , 12(3), pp
381–414.

Bloom DE and JD Sachs (1998), ‘Geography, Demography, and

Economic Growth in Africa’, Brookings Papers on Economic
Activity , 2, pp 207–295.

Bloom DE and JG Williamson (1998), ‘Demographic Transitions and

Economic Miracles in Emerging Asia’, World Bank Economic
Review , 12(3), pp 419–455.

Boserup E (1981), Population and Technological Change: A Study of

Long-Term Trends , University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Bryant J and A Sonerson (2006), ‘Gauging the Cost of Aging’,

Finance & Development , 43(3). Available at
<http//www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2006/09/index.htm>
.
Ehrlich PR (1968), The Population Bomb, Sierra Club-Ballantine
Books, New York.

Fries JF (1983), ‘The Compression of Morbidity’, The Milbank

Memorial Fund Quarterly , 61(3), pp 397–419.
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Jimenez EY and M Murthi (2006), ‘Investing in the Youth Bulge’,

Finance & Development , 43(3). Available at
<http//www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2006/09/index.htm>
.
Kelley AC (1988), ‘Economic Consequences of Population Change in
the Third World’, Journal of Economic Literature, 26(4), pp
1685–1728.

Kulish M, K Smith and C Kent (2006), ‘Ageing, Retirement and

Savings: A General Equilibrium Analysis’, Reserve Bank of
Australia Research Discussion Paper No 2006-06.

Kuznets S (1967), ‘Population and Economic Growth’, Proceedings of

the American Philosophical Society , 111(3), pp 170–193.

Lee RD (2003), ‘Rethinking the Evolutionary Theory of Aging:

Transfers, Not Births, Shape Senescence in Social Species’,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America , 100(16), pp 9637–9642.

Lee RD and A Mason (2006), ‘What Is the Demographic Dividend?’,

Finance & Development , 43(3). Available at
<http//www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2006/09/index.htm>
.
Li N and RD Lee (2005), ‘Coherent Mortality Forecasts for a Group of
Populations: An Extension’, Demography , 42(3), pp 575–
594.

Manton KG, E Stallard and HD Tolley (1991), ‘Limits to Human Life

Expectancy’, Population and Development Review , 17(4), pp
603–637.

Oeppen J and JW Vaupel (2002), ‘Broken Limits to Life Expectancy’,

Science , 296(5570), pp 1029–1031.

Olshansky SJ and BA Carnes (1994), ‘Demographic Perspectives on

Human Senescence’, Population and Development Review ,
20(1), pp 57–80.

Olshansky SJ, BA Carnes and A Désesquelles (2001), ‘Prospects for

Human Longevity’, Science , 291(5508), pp 1491–1492.
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Preston SH (1975), ‘The Changing Relation between Mortality and

Level of Economic Development’, Population Studies, 29(2),
pp 231–248.
Preston SH (1996), ‘American Longevity: Past, Present, and Future’,
Syracuse University, Maxwell School Center for Policy
Research Policy Brief No 7/1996.

Preston SH (2005), ‘Deadweight? – The Influence of Obesity on

Longevity’, The New England Journal of Medicine , 352(11),
pp 1135–1137.

Simon JL (1981), The Ultimate Resource, Princeton University Press,

Princeton. Turner A (2006), ‘Pension Challenges in an Aging
World’, Finance & Development , 43(3). Available at
<http//www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2006/09/index.htm>
.
UN Population Division (2005), World Population Prospects: The
2004 Revision , United Nations, New York. Available at
<http://esa.un.org/unpp/>.

Williamson JG (2006), ‘Global Migration’, Finance & Development ,

43(3). Available at
<http//www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2006/09/index.htm>

Lesson 11: Global Migration Lesson Objectives:

1. Analyze the
Introduction political, economic,
Migration is increasingly seen as cultural, and social
a high-priority policy issue by many factors
governments, politicians, and the 2. underlying the
broader public throughout the world. global movements
Its importance to economic prosperity, of people
human development, and safety and 3. Display first-hand
security ensures that it will remain a knowledge of the
top priority for the foreseeable future. experiences of
This chapter will help the OFWs
learners understand and reflect how
migration in the contemporary world affect individual lives, families,
and the countries itself.

Global Migration
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 Global - Pertaining to the entire globe rather than a specific

region or country. Often used interchangeably with the term
international, with one exception being in regard to mutual
funds.
 Migration - is a term that encompasses a wide variety of
movements and situations involving people of all walks of life
and backgrounds Migration is intertwined with geopolitics, trade
and cultural exchange, and provides opportunities for States,
businesses and communities to benefit enormously.
 The United Nations defines migration as the movement of a
person or a person’s from one place to another, involving a
permanent move of home for over 1 year.
 "Human Migration is the permanent change of residence by an
individual or groups, excluding such movement as nomadism
and migrant laborr".-Encyclopedia Britannica
 International migration is a complex phenomenon that
touches on a multiplicity of economic, social and security
aspects affecting our daily lives in an increasingly
interconnected world.

Benefits of Migration
 The wages that migrants earn abroad can be many multiples of
what they could earn doing similar jobs at home. The wage
differences and relative income gains from migration are largest
for lower-skilled workers, whose international movements
around the world are the most restricted.
 The increase in migrants’ earnings can also lead to
considerable improvements in the welfare and human
development of migrants’ families, either directly if they are with
the migrant in the host country, or indirectly through
remittances.
 The beneficial effects of migration for migrants and their
families go beyond economic impacts and frequently include
improvements in other dimensions of human development,
such as education and health.
 Emigration can reduce unemployment and underemployment,
contribute to poverty reduction, and – with the appropriate
supportive policies – foster broader economic and social
development in origin countries in a variety of ways.
 The immigration of young workers can also help with easing
pressures on pensions systems of high-income countries with
rapidly ageing populations
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 Remittances are generally a less volatile and more reliable

source of foreign currency than other capital flows in many
developing countries.
 Migration can also result in the transfer of skills, knowledge and
technology – effects that are hard to measure, but that could
have considerable positive impacts on productivity and
economic growth
Who is a Migrant?
Two most used definitions are those by International
Organization for Migration (IOM) and the United Nations (UN).
For IOM, a migrant is usually understood to cover all persons
whose decision to migrate is taken freely for reasons of “personal
convenience” and without intervention of an external compelling
factor. The UN definition is broader, and differentiates between
short-term and long-term migrants:
 A “long-term migrant” is a person who moves to a country
other than that of his or her usual residence for a period of at
least a year.
 A “short-term migrant,” for a period of at least three months
but less than a year except in cases where the movement to
that country is for purposes of recreation, holiday, visits to
friends and relatives, business, medical treatment, or religious
pilgrimage.

Data on migration :
In 2019, the number of international migrants worldwide – people
residing in a country other than their country of birth – reached 272
million (from 258 million in 2017). Female migrants constituted 48
per cent of this international migrant stock. There are an estimated
38 million migrant children, three out of four international migrants
are of working age, meaning between 20 and 64 years old. 164
million are migrant workers. Approximately 31% of the international
migrants worldwide reside in Asia, 30% in Europe, 26% in the
Americas, 10% in Africa and 3% in Oceania [Source: Global
Migration Data Portal].

Human trafficking and migrant Smuggling

 Trafficking in persons often involves movements within
countries or across international borders. In different contexts,
migrant s(including workers, refugees, asylum seekers and
IDPs) can become victims o human trafficking. Due to the
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clandestine and underreported nature of this activity, however,

systematic data collection is problematic and global estimates
of human trafficking are limited.
 Tragedies involving smuggled migrants are often a key glimpse
into the potential scale and vulnerabilities associated with such
movements.

Migrant fatalities and IOM’s Missing Migrants Project

 According to IOM’s MMP, 7,927 migrants worldwide died or
went missing in 2016, 26 per cent more than the number of
deaths and missing migrants recorded in 2015 (6,281). Nearly
1,400 death sand missing migrants were recorded in North
Africa in 2016, mostly due to the harsh natural
environment ,violence and abuse, dangerous transportation
conditions, and sickness and starvation.

Global Migration Trends

1. Large numbers. Today, human mobility is moving at an
unprecedented pace not seen before at any point in the
history of humankind. People are moving in much larger
numbers.
2. Varied destinations. People are no longer flocking to the
few so-called “traditional” countries of destination, rather to
much varied destinations.
3. Short-term and temporary. Permanent migration is
becoming a thing of the past. There is an evolving and
emerging converging mutual interest for short-term,
temporary, circular migration between the destination
country and the migrants, and with the tacit support of the
origin country.
4. Multi-staged and multi-directions. Migration is no longer
linear or one-way. The opposite is becoming more and more
common trend, shorter timeframe, multi-staged, or in circular
manner.
5. Gender roles. Today, approximately half of the international
migrants are women. Women working overseas, range from
domestic helpers to skilled migrants, as engineers, nurses,
technicians, and executives. Indeed, overseas work is no
longer an exclusive domain of men. The feminization of
migration brought radical changes in customary family roles.
Mothers and female siblings are becoming the principal
family breadwinners; and as such, they command more
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authority in family decisions, a paradigm shift in some

traditional gender roles.
6. Return migration. Those who have worked and lived for
decades in another country are coming back home where
they could retire and expire. Return migration is becoming a
trend as migrants long to go back to their roots and where
retirement is much more affordable and thus could take
more advantage with their hard-earned hard currency.
7. Private sector leading the way. As governments, due to
political or cultural constraints, get their hands tied from
making timely critical decisions in addressing labor shortage,
the private sector to survive in their business enterprise, will
find their own or lead the way.

Inevitability of Migration
Understanding the inevitability of migration helps migration policy
makers and practitioners address these challenges more effectively
and with an open mind. The following non-exhaustive factors will
show how migration comes out naturally:
1) Demography – The ageing population and low birth rate in
developed economies versus the youthful population and
high birth rate in the developing economies will create
migration push and pull in order for countries to survive.
2) Demand – Also, the ageing population and low birth rate in
developed economies create labour shortage, while youthful
population and high birth rate in developing economies
create labour surplus.
3) Disparity – According to IMF, while globalization contributed
to remarkable average income growth overall, it was also
obvious that the progress was not evenly dispersed.
4) Distance – Fast, cheap and efficient transport is shrinking
the world to a commuting distance and contributed
tremendously to human mobility.
5) Digital revolution – With the advancement in information
technology, migrants, potential migrants or just curious
anyone, can know at any given time what is happening
anywhere in the world.
6) Disasters – Natural and human-made disasters force people
to move, temporarily or permanently.
7) Degradation – Environmental degradation due to human
activity and climate change displaces people. Degradation
is a migration push factor as people try to flee from its
disastrous effects, for their own and their families’ survival.
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8) Dreams – It is natural for people to dream of life with dignity

and prosperity.

Types of Migration
• Immigration- Moving into another country
• Emigration- Moving out of a country
• International- Moving from one country to another
• Voluntary- Moving by choice
• Forced- Having to move- reasons could include war, famine,
natural disaster, political asylum
• Temporary or seasonal- Moving for a short of time
• Rural to Urban- Moving from the countryside to the city
• Urban to Rural- Moving from the city to the countryside
Note: emigration is when someone leaves a country while
immigration is someone who enters a country.

Migration Difficulties:
 physical barriers
 immigration policies
 lack of capital
 travel cost
 illiteracy
 military service
 language
 family pressures state

The Roles and Functions of existing organizations

The following is a brief description of the roles of the major
multilateral institutions involved in migration issues.

International Organization for Migration (IOM)

IOM’s Constitution was revised in 1989 and establishes the following
purposes and functions of the organization:
• Decide for the organized transfer of migrants to countries
offering opportunities for orderly migration
• Concern itself with the organized transfer of refugees, displaced
persons, and other individuals in need of international migration
services for whom arrangements may be made between the
Organization and the States concerned, including those states
undertaking to receive them.
• To provide, at the request of and in agreement with the states
concerned migration services, such as recruitment, selection,
medical screening, orientation, and so forth
• To provide similar service for voluntary return migration
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• To provide a forum to states as well as international and other

organizations for the exchange of views and experiences, and
the promotion of cooperation and coordination of efforts on
international migration issues, including studies on such issues
to develop practical solutions.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

The WTO purpose is to bring about “reciprocal and mutually
advantageous arrangements directed to the substantial reduction of
tariffs and other barriers to trade” among its 144 9 members. The
movement of people comes into WTO trade negotiations through the
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). GATS recognizes
four modes of trade in services, one of which involves service
providers who are “natural persons” (human beings as opposed to
“juridical persons” such as corporations) providing services in another
country.

International Labor Organization (ILO)

According to its Constitution, one of the purposes of the ILO is
protection of the interests of workers employed in countries other
than their own.

UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

UNHCR is mandated to ensure that they receive international
protection in place of the national protection they have lost, and are
not returned to a place where they would be in danger of losing their
lives or liberty.

The United Nations Secretariat and General Assembly

The Department of Economic and Social Affairs is responsible for
follow-up to the ICPD. The Statistics Division of DESA collects and
works to improve migration statistics; it also provides some training
and technical assistance on statistical issues. One of its goals is to
persuade states to harmonize their definitions and methodology in
data collection.

The Human Rights Commission

The thematic mechanisms include a Special Rapporteur on the
Human Rights of Migrants, appointed in 1999, whose mandate is “to
examine ways and means to overcome the obstacles existing to the
full and effective protection of the human rights of this vulnerable
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group, including obstacles and difficulties for the return of migrants

who are non-documented or in an irregular situation.

UN/Bretton Woods Economic Organizations

Given the importance of remittances from international migrants in
the economies of many developing countries, it is remarkable how
little and how unsystematically international economic institutions
have dealt with migration processes.

Factors Influencing Migration; Population Movements

Migrants themselves can be divided into two broad categories:
humanitarian and economic.
• Humanitarian migrants include asylum seekers and refugees.
These individuals generally migrate to countries geographically
close to their country of origin.
• Economic migrants, on the other hand, migrate in order to find
employment or improve their financial circumstances.
• Socio-political Factors
Social push factors can include ethnic, religious, racial, and
cultural persecution. Warfare, or the threat of conflict, is also a
major push factor.
1. The politicization of religious and ethnic identities has the
potential to cause significant levels of conflict within
states. Empirical evidence suggests that states
undergoing a political transition from authoritarian rule to
democracy are at greater risk of instability and internal
conflict.
2. Economic Factors
(1)Economic factors relate to the labor standards of a
country, its unemployment situation and the overall
health of its economy.
(2)Economic migrants are drawn towards international
migration because of the prospect of higher wages,
better employment opportunities and, often, a desire to
escape the domestic social and political situation of their
home country.
(3) Ecological Factors: Climate Disruption Exacerbates
Other Forces

Individuals who are severely impacted by changing ecological

conditions may choose to migrate from their home state in search of
more favorable environmental conditions elsewhere. Those who
choose to emigrate due to more frequent or more destructive natural
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disasters may identify as climate refugees and seek asylum in other

countries less affected by climatic extremes.

To be more specific;
The Push-Pull Factor
Pull factors These factors attract people to a new place largely
because of the opportunities presented in the new location were not
available to them previously.
 able to support population
 more opportunities
 higher standard of living
 receptive society
 accept refugees and asylum seekers

Asylum seeker-a person who has right to work and live in a country
for a short time.

Refugee- a person who has left their home in country where they feel
unsafe because of persecution or war, and has applied to stay in
another country where they feel safe. If they are allowed to stay they
become a refugee.

Push factor refers to conditions which force people to leave their

homes.
 high population pressure
 economic hardship
 poor quality of life
 persecution
 forced out- ethnic cleansing
 no jobs
 starvation and disasters
 marriage
 harsh environment

Overseas Filipino Workers

• Overseas Filipino Workers (or OFWs) are workers that often
remain citizens of their home country but are working for a
series of years within another nation and often sending money
back to family or others in their home country.
• OFWs are in all regions of the world including especially other
Southeast Asian nations, Southwest Asia (Middle East), and
the West including especially the United States.
• OFWs were encouraged during the Marcos Martial Law period
with the decreases in the economy as a way for the
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unemployed male population to gain jobs and move elsewhere;

however, the reliance of families on OFW labor and remittances
has created a system of families needing to send members
overseas in order to increase the status of their family and gain
education.
• The OFWs often face issues of citizenship and human rights
abuses due to their precarious nature in their host countries.
• OFWs have been characterized in some regions as modern day
slaves due to the harsh conditions, taking of passports, limiting
movement, etc. as conducted in some regions by some
employers in order to keep control of the OFW population.
• The OFWs are also categorized by long hours, poor jobs,
under-employment for some educated individuals as they have
to go to school again in their host country, abuse, or lack of
healthcare and benefits.
• The OFWs are also often not given the chance to return to the
Philippines or remain in contact with families back in the
Philippines or are unable to do so because of the cost and
amount of money that is sent back to the Philippines.

Remittances are funds transferred from migrants to their home

country. They are the private savings of workers and families that are
spent in the home country for food, clothing and other expenditures,
and which drive the home economy.

The Positive and Negative Effects of Remittances

Positive Effects Negative Effects
 the money sent can fund  the spending of the
investments funds by the family and
the workers on products
rather than investment
 provide funds for business  the penalties created
start-ups for the families with the conversion of
money and the
exchange rate of the
home country
 can reach the family  the effects of
personally making a remittances in terms of
difference when other aid lacking family members
given may not reach the in the home country
individual due to corruption
or waste at the national level
or through aid organizations.
 contribute to the  remittances also cause
accumulation of human social and cultural
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capital, and then to the problems

growth of total factor
productivity of the local
economy.

Policies governing labor migration are well-established

 As a country of origin, the development of institutions, legal
frameworks and policies concerning international migration in
the Philippines has largely focused on emigration, particularly
international labor migration.
 Filipinos who migrate permanently to other countries, fiancés
and spouses of foreign citizens, participants of exchange visitor
programs, and au pairs must register with the Commission on
Filipinos Overseas (CFO).
 The Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995 (RA
8042) provides for the protection of migrant workers at all
stages of the migration process.
 The Office of the Undersecretary for Migrant Workers Affairs,
which is responsible for the legal representation and
repatriation of OFWs in crisis situations, is under the
Department of Foreign Affairs.
 A variety of programs and services for migrants and their
families are provided by the Overseas Workers Welfare
Administration (OWWA), which is a welfare fund built up with
contributions paid by employers (in practice, the USD 25
membership fee has been passed on to workers). Membership
in OWWA entitles migrants and their families to disability and
death benefits and education and training programs (including
scholarships for dependents of OFWs).
 To ensure access to social protection, OFWs are required to
pay their health insurance contribution to PhilHealth and they
are encouraged to be members of the national Social Security
System (SSS).

Return, reintegration, and remittance investment programs are

still a work in progress
Since labor migration is temporary, the return and reintegration of
OFWs is an important aspect. Reintegration has already been
considered in the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of
1995 (RA 8042), which provided for the establishment of a
Replacement and Monitoring Center.

What is the institutional framework governing migration?

The governance of migration is a multi-agency undertaking:
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 Immigration is the mandate of the Bureau of Immigration (BI).

The Philippine Immigration Act of 1940 provides the legal basis
for policies concerning the admission and stay of foreign
nationals.
 Permanent migrants are the responsibility of the Commission
on Filipinos Overseas (CFO). Created in 1980 by Batas
Pambansa 79, CFO is mandated to maintain the links between
permanent migrants and the Philippines.
 Temporary migrant workers come under the Department of
Labor and Employment (DOLE) and its attached agencies,
responsible for specific aspects of overseas employment.
 The Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA)
was established in 1982 and is tasked with the regulation of the
employment agencies, the regulation of the migration process,
anti-illegal recruitment programmes, and the adjudication of
complaints filed against employment agencies.
 The Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA) was
established in 1977 and is a welfare fund for the benefit of
migrants who pay a membership fee. It oversees the Pre-
Departure Orientation Seminar (PDOS) which is mandatory for
migrant workers.
 The National Labor Relations Commission (NLRC), established
by the 1974 Labor Code, is a quasi-judicial body with original
and exclusive jurisdiction over claims concerning the employee-
employer relationship.
 Return migrants are dealt with by the National Reintegration
Center for OFWs (NRCO), tasked with the reintegration of
OFWs and the promotion of their local employment and
entrepreneurship.

Trends in Global Migration

• The number of international migrants worldwide has continued
to grow over the past seventeen years ,reaching 258 million in
2017,up from 248 million in 2015,220 million in 2010,191 million
in 2005 and 173 million in 200.
• Between 2000 and 2005, the international migrant stock grew
by an average of 2 percent per year.
• Northern America hosted the third largest number of
international migrants (58 million), Followed by Africa (25
million), Latin America and the Caribbean (10million), and
Oceania (8million).
• Between 2000 and 2017, Asia added more international
migrants than any other region.
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• The number of international migrants originating in Asia

recorded the largest increase (40.7 million), followed by the
migrant population born in Africa (14.7million), in Latin America
and the Caribbean (12 .9million) in Europe (11.6million) in
Northern America (1.2million )and Oceania(700,000)

Migration and Globalization

In simplistic terms, just as anything and everything right now
falls within the ambit of globalization, migration too is affected by
globalization and in turn also affects globalization (Gaddes, 2012)
In fact, the UNFPA even opined that "Today, the number of people
living outside their country of birth is larger than at any other time in
history.

International migrants would now constitute the world's fifth

most populous country if they all lived in the same place.

In other words, in a glob economy jobs can move to potential

migrants instead of migrants moving to potential jobs. (Given and
Luedtke, 2004)

Challenged and Prospects

Human Trafficking
• The UN defines human trafficking as, “The recruitment,
transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by
means of the threat or use of force or others forms of coercion,
of adduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of
a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of
payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having
control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.

Terrorism
• In the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, many Americans
became hostile toward immigration because the terrorist who
perpetrated the attacks exploited gaping security holes in the
US. Immigration system.

Increased Racism
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• Racism is the belief that characteristics and abilities can be

attributed to simply based on their race and that some racial
groups are superior to others.
• Racism and discrimination have been used as powerful
weapons encouraging fear or hatred of others in times of
conflict and war, and even during economic downtowns (Davies
2011).
• Dealing with both legal and illegal immigrations, then is one of
the pressing issues facing governments and societies across
the world. (Hanson, 2012).

Reflective Questions
1. Should immigrants have the same rights as native citizens?
why/why not?
2. Do you think immigrants are treated with more suspicion
now than they were before? Explain further.
3. With the concept of migration at hand, how would you define
the word ‘’home’’?
4. What do you think is the best way to assess migration effect
on rural household’s income, in time of remittances?
5. How does migration affect the labor productivity in a
country?

References
Abedine, S., Sterling, J. and Smith-Spark, L... (2013, May 17). U. N.:
More than 1.5 million fled Syria, 4 million more displaced
within nation. CNN. Retrieved from
http://www.cnn.com/2013/05/17/world/meast/syria-civil-war

Andres, P. (2000). Border Games: Policing the U. S. -Mexico Divide.

Ithaca: Cornell UP

Bozzo, A. (2012, October 29) Some Ating Nations Look to

Immigration to Avert Economic Squezze. CNBC. Retrieved
from: http //www.cnbc .com /id/49571697
Cabrera, S.,Guild, E.,& Groenendijk, k. (2009).Illiberal Liberal state:
Immigration, Citizenship and Information in the EU. Survey:
Ashgate Limited.

Daniel, R. (2002). Coming to America: A history of Immigration and

Ethnicity in American Life, 2nd Edition. Princeton, NJ:Harper
Collins Publishers
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Davies, A (2011,April 29).The Impact of Immigration on jobs and

Income. Retrieved
from:hhtp://www.learnliberty.org/content/impact-immegration
-jobs-and-income

Duany, J. (2002) "Los países": Transnational Migration from the

DominicanRepublic to the United States. Paper presented at
the seminar on “Migration andDevelopment: Focus on the
Dominican Republic,” Santo Domingo.Hamburger, C. (ed)
(2003), Cultural diversity in European cities. Ministry of
Refugee, Immigration and Integration Affairs, Schultz Grafisk,
Albertslund.
Factors Influencing Migration and PopulationMovements
http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/factors-
influencing-migration-and-population-movements/

Filipino, R. (2011, December6).Worldwide Remmittance Flow

updated to. $483 billion for 2011. People Move. Retrieved
from: http://blogs. worldbank. org/peoplemove/worldwide-
remittance-flows -updated-to-483-billion-for2011

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=54xM8VlgP7s

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/savitanarayan29/migration-
59404668

International Organization for Migration (IOM)2000 World Migration

Report. IOM and United Nations, Geneva. Available from
https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/wmr_2000_edited
_0.pdf.
2003 World Migration Report: An Overview of international Migration.

IOM, Geneva. Available from

http://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/wmr_2003_1.pdf

OECD/Scalabrini Migration Center (2017), “The Philippines' migration

landscape”, in Interrelations betweenPublic Policies,
Migration and Development in the Philippines, OECD
Publishing, Paris.DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264272286-6-en
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Chapter 6. Towards a Sustainable World

Lesson 12: Sustainable Development
Introduction
Did you ever wonder how the Lesson Objectives:
simple word “sustain” has become 1. Differentiate stability
significant in the present time, from sustainability;
especially, in the discussions 2. Articulate models of
concerning the future of mankind? The global sustainable
dictionary offers various meanings for development;
the word sustain but should be 3. Define sustainability in
understood in the context as keeping the context of
something in operation. Thus, the globalization; and,
4. Familiarize with the
interrelated terms “sustainability” and
United Nations’
“sustainable development” both
Sustainable
suggest that the essential things in this Development Goals.
world need to be maintained,
particularly the natural resources,
despite being used by people continuously. The discussions below
will enlighten us about the complex natures of sustainability and
sustainable development.
Definition of Sustainability
 Kahle and Gurel-Atay (2014) think of sustainability as the
practice of maintaining processes of productivity indefinitely,
whether natural or man-made, by replacing the resources used
with resources equal or greater value without degrading or
endangering natural biotic systems.
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 Another view explains sustainability as a science. As such, it

is considered as the “study of how natural system function,
remain diverse, and produce everything it needs for the ecology
to remain in balance” (Mason, n.d.).
 Sustainability is something everyone can work towards…
whether it is picking up garbage you see on the street or
boycotting a company that practices environmentally harmful
business methods, we all can make a difference (“what is
sustainability?”, 2009).
 United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) explains
that the enactment of the National Environmental Policy act of
1969 articulates the US government’s definition of sustainability,
which is the creation and maintenance of “conditions under
which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony,
that permit fulfilling the social, economic and other
requirements of present and future generations” (why is
sustainability important?”, 2016).
What is Stability?
Stability is a term used by economist to describe a country’s
financial system that displays only tiny output growth fluctuations and
has a long track record or flow inflation. All the advanced economy’s
central banks, and those of most of the rest of the world, see
economic stability as a desirable state (marketbusinessnews.com).
The state or quality of being stable, or firm; steadiness;
firmness; strength to stand without to stand without being moved or
overthrown; as, the stability of a throne or a constitution (Webster
Dictionary).
What is Sustainable Development?
 Sustainable development is development that meets the needs
of the present without comprising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two
key concepts:
1. The concept of ‘needs’, in particular, the essential needs
of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be
given; and
2. The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology
and social organization on the environment’s ability to
meet present and future needs.
 The initial definition of sustainable development is formed an
integrational framework. This definition usually involves the
sense of responsibility and sense of justice that the present
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generation should have considering the consequences that

their actions will bring upon the next generations.
 From the notion of an intergenerational framework in 1987,
sustainable development has evolved into a concept that
stresses inclusivity in the attainment of environmentally
sustainable economic growth (Sachs, 2015).
 Development paved the way for the action plan called Agenda
12 for sustainable development. It specifically mentions
information, integration, and participation as key building blocks
to help countries achieve development. Moreover, Agenda 21
emphasizes that broad public participation in making decision is
an essential prerequisite to attain sustainable development.

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

During the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000, under
the leadership of former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, the UN
General Assembly announced the adoption of the United Nations
Millennium Declaration, which called for a global partnership to
primarily reduce extreme poverty. The UN Millennium Declaration
was historic since it is the first ever global strategy with quantifiable
targets agreed upon by all UN member states as well as the major
international development institutions (Woodbrige, 2015).
The eight Millennium Development Goals, as follows:
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Despite the criticisms hurled at the MDGs, the United Nations

remains proud of its remarkable achievements which are stated in the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) publication entitled
“From the MDGs to Sustainable Development for All: Lessons from
15 years of Practice” (2016). Below are some of the highlights of the
UNDP’s publication
1. The world met and exceeded its first MDG target, reducing the
number of people living in extreme poverty by more than half,
from 1.9 billion people in 1990 to 836 million in 2012. Most of
the progress occurred after 2000. The implications were
significant; in 1990, nearly half of all people in the developing
world lived in extreme poverty; by 2015, 14 percent did.
2. Although the world narrowly missed the MDG target, the
proportion of chronically undernourished people in developing
countries fell from around 23 percent in 1990 to under 13
percent today.
3. The world met its education target, reducing the number of out-
of-school children or primary school age from 100 million in
2000 to 57 million in 2015. Sub-Saharan Africa made the
largest jump, achieving a 20 percent rise in net enrolment.
4. Women worldwide now make up 41 percent of paid workers
outside the agricultural sector, an increase from 35 percent in
1990.
5. In developing countries, the number of under-five child-death
declined from around 13 million in 1990 to 6 million in 2015.
From 1990 to 2015 the speed of progress more than tripled.
6. New HIV infections dropped by 40 percent between 2000 and
2013. In 2014, over 13 million people living with HIV received
antiretroviral, therapy, compared with just 800,000 in 2003.
7. Between 2000 and 2013, tuberculosis interventions saved an
estimated 37 million lives.
8. In 2015, 91 percent of the global population had an improved
source of drinking water, compared to 76 percent in 1990. Over
half the population can now access piped drinking water on
premises.
9. After stagnating, official development assistance rose by an
unprecedented 66 percent between 2000 and 2014.
10. The resources developing countries diverted to pay off
external debts fell from an average 12 percent of export
revenue in 2000, to 3 percent in 2013.
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
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On September 25, 2015, all members of the UN General

Assembly agreed to adopt the 2030 Development Agenda entitled
“Transforming our world: the 2030 Agent for Sustainable
Development (“Chapter 1: Getting to know the Sustainable
Development Goals,” 2015).

GOAL 1: No Poverty
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being
GOAL 4: Quality Education
GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality
GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
GOAL 12: Responsible Consumptions and Productions
GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL 14: Life Below Water
GOAL 15: Life on Land
GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

Unlike the MDGs, the SDGs are described as a mixture of global

development and sustainability. They show an understanding that the
environment is not a mere add-on to or against sustainable
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development, but rather the base that underpins all other goals
(Woodbrige, 2015).
Reflective Questions:
1. What can individuals do to help realize the achievement of the
sustainable Development Goals?
2. Do you think Sustainable Development can improve the life of
every citizen until the next generations? Why or why not?
3. How do you explain “transforming our world” one of the agenda
of Sustainable Development in 2030? Cite some articles and
issues that will prove your stand.
4. Do you believe that Sustainability is somewhat a globalization?
Explain your answer and cite an example.
5. Do you think Sustainability can affect your life as a 21 st century
learners when it comes to your education, family and
community?
References:
Chapter 1: Getting to know the Sustainable Development Goals: An
introduction to the SDGs. (2015), December). Retrieved from
https://sdg.guide/chapter-1-getting-to-know-the-sustainable-
development-goals-e05b9d17801.
Kahle, L. and E. Gurel-Atay (Eds), (2014). Communicating
Sustainability for the Green Economy. New York: Routledge.
Mason, M. (n.d). What is sustainability and why is it important?
Retrieved from
https://www.environmentalscience.org/sustainability.
Sachs, J. (2012). From Millennium Development Goals to
Sustainable Development Goals. Lancet, 379, 2206-2211.
Sachs, J. (2015). The Age of Sustainable Development. New York,
NY: Columbia University Press.
UNDP. (2016). From the MDGs to Sustainable Development for All:
Lessons from 15 years of Practice. Retrieved from
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/librarypahes/sustai
nable-development-goals/from-mdgs-to-sustainable-
development-for-all.html.
What is sustainability? (2009). Retrieved from
http://www.globalfootprints.org/sustainability.
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Why is sustainability important? (2016) Retrieved from

https://www.epa.gov/sustainability/learn-about-
sustainability#what.
Woodbrdge, M. (2015, November). From MDGs: What are the
Sustainable Development Goals? Retrieved from
http://localizingthesdgs.org/library/251/From-MDGs-to-SDGs-
What-are-the-sustainable-Development-Goals.pdf.
https://www.acciona.com/sustainable-development/
https://marketbusinessnews.com/financial-glossary/stabilty-definiton-
meaning/amp/
https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/2030agenda-sdgs.html
https://www.globalpartnership.org/sites/default/styles/
standard_blog_banner/public/mdgs.jpg?itok=Z_PngjQV
Webster.com
Slideshare.com

Lesson 13: Global Food Security

Introduction
There is enough food in Lesson Objectives:
the world for everyone. Local 1. Define global food security
sources ensure that everyone 2. Critique existing models of
has enough to eat and global food security.
families can build their 3. Identify the importance of
global food security.
4. Enumerate the different
international institution
related to global food
security
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communities without worrying about securing one of our basic human

rights. This chapter will give us an insight how important global food
security is.
Global food security is an excellent investment, and it
empowers people and communities. In doing so, nutrition fuels the
development process and leads to poverty reduction. The five main
tenets of the concept of food security are: quality; quantity; safety;
palatability and cultural acceptability

Defining ‘Global Food Security’

 According to United States Department of Agriculture,
National Institute of Food and Agriculture, global food
security is an international effort to address the need that
people around the world have for reliable sources of quality
food.
 Global Food security is a measure of the availability of food
and individuals' ability to access it. Affordability is only one
factor. World Food Conference the term "food security" was
defined with an emphasis on supply. They said food security
is the "availability at all times of adequate, nourishing,
diverse, balanced and moderate world food supplies of basic
foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption
and to offset fluctuations in production and prices"
(WIKIPEDIA)
 The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as
existing "when all people at all times have access to
sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and
active life". Commonly, the concept of food security is defined
as including both physical and economic access to food that
meets people's dietary needs as well as their food
preferences.
 Food security exists when all people, always, have physical
and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active
and healthy life. (FAO)
 Food security for a household always means access by all
members to enough food for an active, healthy life. Food
security includes at a minimum, (USDA)

Model of Global Food Security

 A growing consensus is forming around the prediction that
the global human population will reach nearly 10 billion
people by 2050 (FAO, 2009a)
 Providing adequate and nutritious food for such a large
population highlights the importance of the world's agriculture
system. It is almost certain that there will be a need for
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global food production to increase substantially in the

foreseeable future. Projected increases in income globally will
increase demands for not only more food but for better quality
food, leading to an increased intake of animal protein (FAO,
2009a; Masuda and Goldsmith, 2010).

 The flow chart above displays the complex aspects and

interplay of food and nutrition security on different levels.

 Different factors and sectors on the global/national level

(such as the extent of agricultural production, existing
infrastructure, international policies and gender issues)
play a crucial role and influence the level of food
availability and access to food, care, and health services,
environmental and hygienic conditions on the sub-
national level, which directly affects communities and
households.

 Education plays a crucial role to improve and change the

situation on the sub-national level. Improved food
availability and access to food, along with aspects of care,
determine the individual’s food intake (food use); whereas
care and questions of health and hygiene influence the
individual’s health status (food utilization).
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 Food intake and health status are closely related to each

other and both determine the level and overall goal of
food and nutrition security. (UNICEF 1998)

Importance of Global Food Security

Growth in the agriculture sector has been found, on average,
to be at least twice as effective in reducing poverty as growth in other
sectors. Food insecurity – often rooted in poverty – decreases the
ability of countries to develop their agricultural markets and
economies.
Access to quality, nutritious food is fundamental to human existence.
Secure access to food can produce wide ranging positive impacts,
including:

 Economic growth and job creation

 Poverty reduction
 Trade opportunities
 Increased global security and stability
 Improved health and healthcare

NIFA supports global efforts to strengthen agricultural production and

end hunger by:
 Helping countries to improve their agricultural markets and
increase food production
 Funding research to heighten disease resistance in beans and
increase crop production
 Joining with USDA and other federal agencies on global
initiatives intended to break the cycle of hunger and poverty
 Developing and testing new food products designed to improve
the nutritional value of the food aid that is delivered overseas
 Strengthening developing countries’ extension systems
 Helping developing countries improve their agricultural
economies

International Institution Helping Global Food Security

According to the report, the number of chronically
undernourished people has reached 815 million people, or 11 percent
of the global population. Here are the following institution helping
global food security;
1. U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), is an
agency of the United Nations that leads international
efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and
developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where
all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and
debate policy. FAO is also a source of knowledge and
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information and helps developing countries and countries

in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry,
and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food
security for all.

2. International Fund for Agricultural

Development (IFAD) is an international financial
institution and a specialized agency of the United Nations
dedicated to eradicating poverty and hunger in rural areas
of developing countries.

3. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), The United

Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), originally known as
the United Nations International Children's Emergency
Fund, was created by the United Nations General
Assembly on 11 December 1946, to provide emergency
food and healthcare to children and mothers in countries
that had been devastated by World War II. In 1950,
UNICEF's mandate was extended to address the long-term
needs of children and women in developing countries
everywhere. In 1953 it became a permanent part of
the United Nations System, and the words "international"
and "emergency" were dropped from the organization's
name, though it retained the original acronym, "UNICEF".

4. World Food Programme (WFP), helps the most

vulnerable people strengthen their capacities to absorb,
adapts, and transform in the face of shocks and long-term
stressors.

5. World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized

agency of the United Nations that is concerned with world
public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, and is
headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.

Challenges faced by Global Food Security

1. Rising population
There will be 219,000 people at the dinner table tonight who
were not there last night, many of them with empty plates.

2. Rising incomes, changing diets

Today, with incomes rising fast in emerging economies, there
are at least 3 billion people moving up the food chain toward
Westernized diets. They consume more grain-intensive livestock and
poultry products. Today, the growth in world grain consumption is
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concentrated in China. It is adding over 8 million people per year, but

the big driver is the rising affluence of its nearly 1.4 billion people. As
incomes go up, people tend to eat more meat. China’s meat
consumption per person is still only half that of the United States.
That leaves a huge potential for future demand growth.

3. Falling water tables

In India, some 190 million people are being fed with grain
produced by over pumping groundwater. For China, the number is
130 million. Aquifer depletion now threatens harvests in the big three
grain producers — China, India and the United States—that together
produce half of the world’s grain. The question is not whether water
shortages will affect future harvests in these countries, but rather
when they will do so.

4. More foodless days

In Nigeria, 27% of families experience foodless days. In India, it
is 24%; in Peru, 14%. The world is in transition from an era
dominated by surpluses to one defined by scarcity. Not eating at all
on some days is how the world’s poorest are coping with the doubling
of world grain prices since 2006. But even as we face new constraints
on future production, the world population is growing by 80 million
people each year.

5. Slowing irrigation
Water supply is now the principal constraint on efforts to
expand world food production. During the last half of the 20th century,
the world’s irrigated area expanded from some 250 million acres in
1950 to roughly 700 million in 2000. This near tripling of world
irrigation within 50 years was historically unique. Since then, the
growth in irrigation has come to a near standstill, expanding only 10%
between 2000 and 2010.

6. Increasing soil erosion

Nearly a third of the world’s cropland is losing topsoil faster
than new soil is forming. This reduces the land’s inherent fertility.
Future food production is also threatened by soil erosion. The thin
layer of topsoil that covers the earth’s land surface was formed over
long stretches of geological time as new soil formation exceeded the
natural rate of erosion. Sometime within the last century, the situation
was reversed as soil erosion began to exceed new soil formation.
Now, nearly a third of the world’s cropland is now losing topsoil faster
than new soil is forming. Soil that was formed on a geological time
scale is being lost on a human time scale. Peak soil is now history.
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7. Climate change
The generation of farmers now on the land is the first to face
manmade climate change. Agriculture as it exists today developed
over 11,000 years of rather remarkable climate stability. It has
evolved to maximize production within that climate system. Now,
suddenly, the climate is changing. With each passing year, the
agricultural system is more and more out of sync with the climate
system.

8. Melting water reserves

At no time since agriculture began has the world faced such a
predictably massive threat to food production as that posed by the
melting mountain glaciers of Asia. Mountain glaciers are melting in
the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, the Alps and elsewhere. But
nowhere does melting threaten world food security more than in the
glaciers of the Himalayas and on the Tibetan Plateau that feed the
major rivers of India and China. Ice melt helps sustain these rivers
during the dry season. In the Indus, Ganges, Yellow and Yangtze
river basins, where irrigated agriculture depends heavily on rivers, the
loss of glacial-fed, dry-season flow will shrink harvests and could
create potentially unmanageable food shortages.

9. Flattening yields
After several decades of raising grain yields, farmers in the
more agriculturally advanced countries have recently hit a glass
ceiling. That production ceiling is imposed by the limits of
photosynthesis itself. In Japan, the long-time leader in raising
cropland productivity, the rise in the yield of rice that began in the
1880s essentially came to a halt in 1996. Having maximized
productivity, farmers ran into the inherent limits of photosynthesis and
could no longer increase the amount they could harvest from a given
plot. In China, rice yields are now just 4% below Japan’s. Unless
China can raise its yields above those in Japan, which seems
unlikely, it, too, is facing a plateauing of rice yields. Yields of wheat,
the world’s other food staple, are also plateauing in the more
agriculturally advanced countries. For example, France, Germany
and the United Kingdom — Europe’s leading wheat producers — had
been raising wheat yields for several decades. Roughly a decade
ago, all three hit plateaus. Corn yields in the United States, which
accounts for nearly 40% of the world corn harvest, are starting to
level off. Yields in some other corn-growing countries such as
Argentina, France and Italy also appear to be stagnating.

10. Little time to prepare

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To state the obvious, we are in a situation both difficult and

dangerous. The world today desperately needs leadership on the
food security issue. Any further progress requires a total restructuring
of the energy economy. The gravity and urgency of the tightening
food situation is such that we are not looking at a crisis in 2030 or
2050. We are looking at an abrupt disruption in the world food supply
that could be just one poor harvest away.

Reflective Questions
1. As our planet faces environmental problems, such as a
growing population, and one billion people who are food
insecure, agriculture becomes a significant and exciting field,
so as a future educator what can you do about it?
2. In your own idea, discuss the existing model of global food
security.
3. Based on your observation, what are/is the current
challenges faced by global food security? Cite an example.

References
Barthwal-Datta, M. (2014). Global Food Security: The Challenge of
Feeding the World. In M. Steger, et.al., The Sage
Handbook of Globalization. London: Sage Publishing.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2003). Trade Reforms and
Food Security. Rome: FAO. Retrieved from
ftp:/ftp.fao.org.docrep/fao/005/y4671e00,pdf.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (PCC). (2007). Climate
Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.
Contribution of Working Group II to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Cambridge and New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Maxwell, S. (1988). National food security planning: first thoughts
from Sudan, paper presented to workshop on food security in
the Sudan. IDS, University of Sussex, Brighton.
Maxwell, S. (1996). Food security: a post-modern perspective. Food
Policy, 21 (2), 155- 170.
Rastello, S. and W. Pugh. (2011). Food surge is exacerbating
poverty, World Bank says. Bloomberg 16 February. Available
at: http://bloom.bg/eWEqEl.
Sen, A. (1981). Poverty and Famine: An Essay on Entitlement and
Deprivation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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Stern, N. (2006). The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern

Review: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lesson 14: Global Citizenship

Introduction
Who is considered a global
citizen? And what is meant by Lesson Objectives:
global citizenship? Some people 1. Identify the importance
say that global citizenship does not of Global Citizenship
exist because there is no such in maintaining global
thing as a global passport, others interconnectedness.
say that to think of yourself as a 2. Articulate a personal
global citizen is to know your definition of global
actions within your own home, citizenship
neighborhood, city or country 3. Appreciate the ethical
impact and or impacted by global obligations of global
forces. citizenship
This chapter will help us develop
our own ideas about what it means to be a global citizen.

Defining ‘Citizen’

Authors/ Sources Citizen is…

Wikipedia …one who enjoys a special legal status, which
may acquire at or after birth, including all the
obligations and benefits in a sovereignty state.
Black’s Law … a person who, by either “birth or
Dictionary naturalization, is a member of a political
(2009:278) community, owing allegiance to the community
and being entitled to enjoy all its civil rights and
protection.

Defining ‘Global Citizen’

Authors / Sources Global Citizen…

Joe McCarthy, www.globalcitizen.org …means thinking
about more than
yourself… realizing
that we’re all
connected to one
another in this
emerging global
community…
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protecting the
environment, uplifting
the vulnerable and
advocating for
equality.
Ronald Israel, www.kosmosjournal.org …is someone who
identifies with being
part of an emerging
world community and
whose actions
contribute to building
this community’s
values and practices.
Oxfam Education, www.oxfam.org.uk … is aware of and
understands the wider
world – and their place
it. They take an active
role in their
community, and work
with others to make
our planet more equal,
fair and sustainable.
www.buildabroad.org …can broadly be
defined as some who
identified as being part
of an emerging world
community and seeks
to contribute to the
values and practices it
upholds.
…is someone who
understands how the
world works, respects
and value diversity.
Baraldi, 2012 …might be a new type
of people that can
travel within these
various boundaries
and somehow still
make sense of the
world.
Caecilia Johanna van Peski (Baraldi, 2012) …is a moral and
ethical dispersion that
can guide the
understanding of
individuals or groups
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of local and global

contexts, and remind
them of their relative
responsibilities within
various communities”
Oxfam, www.oxfam.org.uk …is all about
encouraging young
people to develop the
knowledge, skills and
values they need to
engage with the world.
And it is about the
belief that we can all
make a difference.
http://www.ideas-forum.org.uk/about-us/ It is a way of living that
global-citizenship recognizes our world
is an increasingly
complex web of
connections and
interdependencies.
One in which our
choices and actions
may have
repercussions for
people and
communities locally,
nationally or
internationally.
Michael Byers Global citizenship
empowers individual
human beings to
participate in decisions
concerning their lives,
including the political,
economic, social,
cultural and
environmental
conditions in which
they live.... It is
expressed through
engagement in the
various communities
of which the individual
is a part, at the local,
national and global
level. It includes the
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right to challenge
authority and existing
power structures, to
think, argue and act
with the intent of
changing the world.
Oxfam Global citizenship is
all about encouraging
young people to
develop the
knowledge, skills and
values they need to
engage with the world.
And it's about the
belief that we can all
make a difference.
Caecilia Johanna van Peski Defined global
citizenship “as a
moral and ethical
disposition that can
guide the
understanding of
individuals or groups
of local and global
contexts and remind
them of their relative
responsibilities within
various communities.”
Convergence (book)  In sum, Global
citizenship is a
way of living that
recognizes our
world is an
increasingly
complex web of
connections and
interdependenci
es. One in which
our choices and
actions may
have
repercussions
for people and
communities
locally, nationally
or
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internationally.
 Global
citizenship
nurtures
personal respect
and respect for
others, wherever
they live. It
encourages
individuals to
think deeply and
critically about
what is equitable
and just, and
what will
minimize harm
to our planet.
Exploring global
citizenship
themes help
learners grow
more confident
in standing in
standing up for
their beliefs, and
more skilled in
evaluating the
ethics and
impact of their
decisions.

All these definitions convey the idea that the individual who
considers himself a global citizen has transcended the geographical
limitations imposed by being a citizen of a certain state and that he
thinks of himself as a member of a larger community, that is, the
global community, whose values he is willing to uphold and whose
interests he is willing to promote.
According to Israel (2012), the validity of the above-mentioned
definitions is contingent on proving their basic assumptions:
1. that there is such a thing as an emerging world community with
which people can identify; and
2. that such a community has a nascent set of values and
practices (Ibid:79)

He explains that the forces of globalization have instilled in the

minds and hearts of people an identity based on a growing sense of
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belonging to a world community. The advent of modern information

and communication technology has given them the power to see in
an instant the miserable conditions of their fellow individuals from
across the world and express, with the same speed, empathy for
those people.

As individuals who have turned global citizens, they feel

responsible for their fellows living in other part of the world who
experience various forms of oppression. What values are promoted
by the world community?

Israel (2012) explains they are the same values that world leaders
have been advocating for the past 70 years that includes:
 human rights,
 environmental protection,
 religious pluralism,
 gender equity,
 sustainable worldwide economic growth,
 poverty alleviation,
 prevention of conflicts between countries,
 elimination of weapons of mass destruction,
 humanitarian assistance and
 preservation of cultural diversity

To be effective Global citizens, young people need to be flexible,

creative and proactive. They need to be able to solve problems,
make decisions, think critically, communicate ideas effectively and
work well within teams and groups. These skills and attributes are
increasingly recognized as being essential to succeed in other areas
of 21st century life too, including many workplaces. These skills and
qualities cannot be developed without the use of active learning
methods through which pupils learn by doing and by collaborating
with others.
- (International Development Education Association of Scotland
[IDEAS], 2017)

Two Dimensions of Citizenship

1. Formal – relation between citizens and state; it is all about
rights and obligations.
2. Moral – refers to moral duties towards each other.

Theories of Citizenship
1. The Liberal Citizenship Theory – focuses on the individual
rights of the citizen and the importance of the individual
freedom. Also, citizens are expected to pay taxes and respect
the law.
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2. Communautarist Citizenship Theory – the focus is not on the

individual goals but on the collective. Citizens are expected to
actively participate in social and cultural community.
3. Republican Citizenship Theory – its focal point is the Political
Community. It revolves around democratic values. Citizens are
expected to be involved in public debate or at least commit
political community.
4. Neo-Republican Citizenship Theory – it is all about diversity.
Citizens are not only expected to participate in proper debate
but also to be reasonable and respect diversity.

A Global Citizen is someone who:

1. is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as
a world citizen;
2. respects and values diversity;
3. understands how the world works;
4. is outraged by social injustice;
5. participates in the community at a range of levels, from the local
to the global;
6. is willing to act to make the world a more equitable and
sustainable place;
7. takes responsibilities for their action.

Conclusion
Global citizenship is a way of living that recognizes our world is an
increasingly complex web of connections and interdependence. It
nurtures personal respect and respect for others, wherever they live.
It also encourages individuals to think deeply and critically about what
is equitable and just, and what will minimize harm to our planet.

This means that as a global citizen in a global world, one should be

aware and conscious on the actions that they are taking, and this
action should manifest to reciprocate to the standard within the
community; school, country and finally to the broader state – the
world.

Reflective Questions
1. Which of the following definitions provide you the best concept
for your understanding of a “global citizen”? Explain.
2. If given the opportunity to mention criteria for singling out a
global citizen, what top 3 qualities must a human possess to
become a global citizen?
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3. How should an ethical global citizenship be portrayed in the

economic and socio-political interaction of people between and
among states?
4. Why is there a need to emphasize ‘ethical’ alongside being
effective global citizen?
5. Mention an individual you think is a global citizen. What distinct
characteristics of this person make him/her a global citizen?
6. With the provided descriptions of a global citizen, can you
consider yourself as one? Why? Why not?

References
Build Abroad, The Rise of the Global Citizen and Why That’s so
Important for Humanity, www.buildabroad.org/2017/02/17/global-
citizen/

Israel, R. (2012). What Does it Mean to be a Global Citizen? Kosmos.

Retrieved from
https://www.kosmosjournal.org/wp-content/article-pdfs/what-
does-it-mean-to-be-a-global-citizen.pdf
Joe McCArthy, September 26, 2019, What is a Global Citizen?
Retrieved from: www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/what-is-a-
global-citizen/

Kris Olds, March 11, 2012 , Global Citizenship – What Are We

Talking About and Why Does It Matter? ,
www.insidehighered.com/blogs/globalhighered/global-
citizenship-%E2%80%93-what-are-we-talking-about-and-why-
does-it-matter

IDEAS for Global Citizenship,

www.ideas-forum.org.uk/about-us/global-citizenship

OXFAM, What is Global Citizenship? ,

www.oxfam.org.uk/education/who-we-are/what-is-global-
citizenship

McCarthy, J. (2015, August). "Citizenship: What does it mean to be a

global citizen?” Retrieved from
https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/what-it-means/).
Oxfam Education. What is global citizenship? Retrieved from
https://www.oxfam.org. uk.education/who-we-are/what-is-
global-citizenship.
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RUBRIC FOR ARTICLE CRITIQUING

Source: Evaluation Rubric for Written Summaries of Journal Articles
(www.lakeforest.edu)
Criteria Outstanding Very Good Good Satisfactory Unacceptable
5 4 3 2 1
Clearly Evaluation Good attempt at Some attempt No attempt to
Writer's articulated, well includes evaluation with at evaluation, evaluate study
evaluatio supported positive value some support comments or evaluative
n of statements of of study as for conclusions; valid but not statements
the study value and/or well as possibly more necessarily unsupported or
shortcomings of clearly negative than well supported.
study supported positive inappropriate
explanation comments
of
shortcomings
Overall Overall purpose, Overall Purpose, Purpose, Major sections
organizati methods, results, purpose, methods, methods, missing or lack
on and conclusions methods, results, and results, and of logical flow
of study clearly results, and conclusions conclusions
stated; conclusions clearly stated; possibly
seemingly of study some
effortless and clearly stated; most of awkwardness
seamless logical stated; presentation in logical flow
flow logical flow flows logically
always easy
to follow
Sophisticated All Most Overall Serious difficulty
Clarity of use of language explanations explanations meaning is explaining
explanati maximizes are clear and clear and easy understandable ideas, major
ons interest, easy to to understand, ; possibly some factual errors;
enjoyment and understand, mostly factually areas of slight lack of
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GRADING RUBRIC for REFLECTION PAPER - UTC.eduwww.utc.edu

Criteria EXCEEDS MEETS NEEDS FAILS TO MEET
EXPECTATIONS EXPECTATIONS IMPROVEMENT EXPECTATIONS
10 8 5 0
Clearly Easy to read, topic Paper has intro, Disorganized, Fails to meet this
organized introduced, body, and leaves criteria by obvious
introduction, organization clearly conclusion but may reader wondering disregard for the
body, evident with proper take a re-reading to what is being said;
expectations stated
introduction, body, understand abrupt ending in the criteria;
conclusion
conclusion Disorganized and
the reader can not
follow the paper at
any length.
Does this The student’s The entire paper’s Student does not The topic of the
paper reflection about the content relates to clearly identify paper is not
address the topic is explained in the prompt or topic; his/her reflections addressed at all;
prompt clear language; the student explains about the topic; Fails to stick to the
immediately his/her reflections topic therefore fails
or the topic?
interesting and about the topic but to meet these
supported with may take a criteria
detail rereading to
understand
Paragraph Each paragraph Each paragraph Paragraphs are Fails to meet this
Organization has a central idea; has a central idea disorganized; criteria by obvious
and ideas are that is ideas are included disregard for the
Writing Style: connected and supported with which expectations stated
paragraphs are details; ideas are do not relate to the in the criteria
Ideas
developed with connected and main idea; ideas
are clearly details; paper is important points are not connected
connected easy to read and make sense and have little or
and
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RUBRIC FOR VIDEO CAMPAIGN

Points
Criteria
10 8 6 4
Content The video The video The video The video
campaign campaign campaign campaign
provided provided provided fair provided poor
excellent satisfactory persuasive persuasive
persuasive persuasive content that content that
content that content that captivated captivated not
captivated captivated more than 200 more than 100
more than 500 more than 300 likes/hearts likes/hearts.
likes/hearts likes/hearts
Organization Presentation is Presentation is Presentation is The speaker
organized with effectively organized with seems to have
high degree of organized in some no clear plan
effectiveness. most sections. effectiveness. for the
Supporting Adequate supporting presentation.
material vividly supporting material is Supporting
contributes to material inadequate in material is
overall supports the some cases insufficient.
effectiveness speaker’s
position
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Vocal ElementsSpeaker Speaker Speaker Speaker

speaks with speaks with speaks with speaks with a
high degree of considerable some degree limited degree
effectiveness: effectiveness: of of
Volume, Volume, effectiveness: effectiveness:
Clarity, rate of Clarity, Rate of Volume, Volume,
Speaking, Speaking, Clarity, Rate of Clarity, Rate of
Pausing for Pausing for Speaking, Speaking,
Effect Effect Pausing for Pausing for
Effect Effect
Eye Contact Establish eye Establish eye Establish some There is little, if
contact with a contact with eye contact any, attempt to
high degree of considerable maintain eye
effectiveness effect contact
Preparedness Student is Students seems Student is Student does
completely prepared but somewhat not seem at all
prepared and might have prepared, but prepared to
has obviously needed a couple is clear that present. The
of more
rehearsed with rehearsal was speaker read
rehearsals.
minimal Considerable.
lacking the whole
reliance speech.

RUBRIC FOR POSTER MAKING

Criteria X 4 3 2 1
Has an Has a Has a fair Has a poor
Substance of 3 outstanding satisfactory presentation presentation
the Content presentation presentation of major of major
of major of major points of the points of the
points of the points of the topic. topic.
topic. topic.
Creativity of Output has Output has a Output has a Output shows
background 3 an satisfactory fair creativity no creativity
impressive creativity incorporated. at all.
creativity incorporated.
incorporated.
Observed Observed Observed fair Observed
Grammatical 3 excellent satisfactory grammatical poor
Structures grammatical grammatical structures grammatical
structures structures with some structures
without errors with few errors with many
errors errors.
Output was Output was Output was Output was
Timeliness of submitted submitted on submitted 1-2 submitted
Submission 1 early than the time. days after more than 2
deadline. deadline. days after
deadline.
TOTAL:
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RUBRIC FOR CONDUCTING INTERVIEW

Criteria X 4 3 2 1
Has Has a Has a Has failed to
Interviewer’s 4 excellently satisfactory somewhat possess the
total
possessed possessed possessed needed
personality
the needed the needed the needed personality
personality personality personality when
when when when conducting
conducting conducting conducting interview.
interview. interview. interview.
Flow of the Interview Interview Interview Interview
interview 3 questions questions questions questions
were were were fairly were not
excellently satisfactorily arranged. logically
arranged. arranged. arranged.
Interviewee Interviewee Interviewee Interviewee
Interviewee’s 2 has felt total has felt a has felt felt
comfort and
comfort satisfactory somehow uncomfortabl
genuine
during the comfort during comfort e during the
interview. the interview. during the interview
interview
Video of the Video of the Video of the Video of the
Video interview was interview was interview was interview was