UNIT 31 INDIAN LANGUAGES AND

LITERATURE
Structure

31.0 Objectives
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Arabic and Persian
31.3 Sanskrit
31.4 North India
31.4.1 Hindi
31.4.2 Urdu
31.4.3 Punjabi
31.5 Western India
31.5.1 %uj&
315.2 Marathi
31.6 Eastern India
31.6.1 Bengali
31.6.2 Asaunek
31.6.3 Ckiya
31.7 South Indian Languages
31.7.1 T d
31.7.2 Teluy
31.7.3 Kamada
31.7.4 Malayalam
31.8 Let Us Sum Up
31.9 Key Words
31.10 Answers to Cbeck Your Progress Exercises

In this unit, we will discuss the languages and literatme tbat flourished m India during the
16th to mid 18th centuries. Aftea gomg through this unit you will: ,.
be able to appreciate the variety and richness of literam producedduring the period
under study;
know about the main literary works in India in the following languages:
Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Sanskrit,HiLdi,Punjabi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Tamil,
Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada; and
.a be familiar wit. some of the main historians, writers and poets writing in the above
languages.
' cr

31.1 INTRODUCTION
The Mughal rule created some semblanceof political unity m India. Further,it not only
encouraged an integtated internal matket and an increase m foreign trade, but also generated
an atmosphere of creative intellectual activity. Apart from the Empexors, the Mughal princes
and nobles, too,patronised literary activity. Tbe regional com.of the Rajput Rajas and the '
Deccan and South Indian rulers also did not lag bebind. Mainly inspired by the Bbaldi
.movement, a parallel popular litmature m different veanacnlar languages alsd developed
during this period.

We have already discussedhistorical works in Persian and other languages m Block 1. In

this unit, we will confine ourselves to literature other th* bistoricd warks.

It would not be possible for us to take adcount of all the languages m which litmatun was
bemg written. Qur main objective will be to highlight important literary works m tbe
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
different parts of the corntry.
 Ifro11116th to
lXtll Century 31.2 ARABIC AND PERSIAN
Arabic works under the Mughals were largely confined to religious subjects, though a few
poets composed verses in Arabic poetry.

Persian was the official language of the Mughal court. Babur, the first Mughal ruler, was an
accomplished poet and he wrote his memoirs in Turki which was later translated into Persian
hv Ahdur Rahim Khan Khanan. Babur also wrote a didactic work known as Mathnavi
Vuhira His chief contribution to the development of Persian literature in India lies in
havlng brought with him a number of Persian poets. The major influx of Persian writers into
India started with the return of Humayun from his exile in Iran. It was at Shah Tahmasp's
court in Iran that he met a number of poets and artists, some of whom he persuaded to
accompany him to India. When he later set up his own court, he was able to coordinate the
works of the indigenous poets and writers with those of the talented immigrants.

The stream of Persian poets who visited India during the 16th and 17th centuries created a
rich synthesis in a new genre of Persian literature known as (Sabaq Hindi) (.'Indian style').
The patronage given to the exponents of this particular school continued from Akbar to Shah
Jahan, which included notable Indian and Persian writers like Faizi, Urfi, Naziri, Talib
Amuli, Kalim, Ghani Kashrniri, Saib and Bedil.

The Mughal Emperors and princes often themselves composed poetry in Persian; for
example, Humayun composed a Persian diwan. Abul Fazl writes that thousands of poets
resided at Akbar's court. Apart from Fazi, there was Ghazali Mashnadi who was known to*
have been an extremely talented man. He wrote many rnathnavis. Faizi succeeded Ghazali
Mashhadi. His principal work included a diwan named Tabashir a1 Subh, which consisted
of Qasidas, Ghazals, Elegies, Qit'as and Ruba'is. He had planned to write a Khamsdh
according to the literary fashion of the time, but could complete only a few; for example,
Nal Daman. Faizi's prose works included a Persian adaptation of Lilavati, his epistles and
Persian translations of Hindu religious books. According to some critics Faizi enjoyed great
prestige in Turkey and it was his influence which carried the Indo-Persian poetry beyond the
borders of India.

Abdur Rahim Khan Khanm, an accomplished'scholar and talented poet, lived during Akbar
and Jahangir's reigns. His fame chiefly rests on maintaining a library that contained more
than four thousand books. He was known for his patronage extended to numerous writers
like Naziri Nishapxi, Urfi Shirazi and Mulla Abdul Baqi Nihawmdi.

Shah Jahan has been acclaimed as one of the greatest patrons, who according to the
contemporary Persian poet Ali.Quli Salem, enabled the full flowering of Persian poetry in
India. Abu Talib Kalim of Hamadan succeedexl Qudsi as Shah Jahan's court poet and
completed, beside his own diwan, as epic poem entitled Padshahnama describing Shah
Jahan's achievements. The greatest Persian poet of this period was Mirza Muhammad Ali
Saib of Tabriz, who was known to have created a new style in Persian poetry. On his return
to Isfahan, he recorded his indebtedness to Indlia by calling her as a second paradise. Thus,
the patronage of the Mughal ruling class not cmly created a new genre of Persian literature, it
also increased the excellence in prose writings;.

In the South, Persian hterature received generous patronage from the Adil Shahi rulers of
Bijapur. The court of Ibrahim Adil Shah 1I (1 580-1627) attracted a large n u e e r of poets
and writers both from North India as well as Central Asia Malik Qummi (d. 1640) was o!ie
of the best known poets patronised by the Ad3 Shahi dynasty. His contemporary Mulia
Zuhuri was decidedly the greatest of the Persian poets who tlourished in the D,pecan.
Known to possess a distinct style in both pcx;try and prose, he wrote a book called Saginama
based on the model of the Gulistan of Sadi.

The Qutab Shahis of Golconda were also known as great patrons of Persian scholarship and
literature under whose patronage varied works were executed in Persian. In 1651,
Muhammad Hussain Tabrezi's Persian dictionary gurhan Qati was compiled under the
parronee of Abdulla Qutab Shah. Bustarni's Hadiqal Salatin -a collection of the lives of
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU eminent Persian poets -was completed in 1681.
Four historical chronicles of the Qutub Shahi dynasty were rendered into verse during the Indian Languages and Uteratore
reign of Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah. An encyclopaedic woik of considerable merit (Abu
Imad's Khiraqatul 'Alam)'in six volumes testifies to the interest in and contact with Persian
culture that was maintained through the warm hospitality that the Qutub Shahi rulers offered
to the Persian scholars visiting their kingdom. ASa result, Persian as the regional court
language at Bijapur and Golconda gained a niche in the South.

Another category of literary works mostly written in Persian is mystical or sufi literature.
Under this category come: the treatises written by the sufis on mysticism; collectiop of
letters written by sufis; malfuzat (discourses by sufi saints); biographies of sufis and
collection of sufi poetry.

Sakinatul Uliya written by Prince Dara Shukoh is a biographical account of the sufi Miya
Mir and his disciples. The Majm'aul Bahrain (Mingling of two Oceans) is his other work
related to sufism. In this work has compared the Islamic sufi concepts with Hindu
philosophical outlook.
\

During this period, Persian literature was enriched by the Mughal Emperors by getting
classical Indian texts translated into Persian. During Akbar's period Singhasan Batisi,
Ramayana and Rajtaringni of Kalhan were also translated. Badauni was associated with
all these translations.

The Persian literature produced at the Mughal court exercised a tremendous influence in the
formation of regional literature, especially those cultivated by the Muslims, the greatest
innovation being the evolution of a literary Urdu language. Other languages modelled cn
~ersii'traditionare Punjabi, Pushtu, Sindhi, Baluchi and Kashmiri. All these share a written
script with Persian.

31.3 SANSKRIT
During this period, Sanskrit ceased to flourish as the q-nhlanguage of the Imperial court
nough Mughal Emperom and princes like Dara patronized Sanskrit scholars, it never again
gained the same importance in Northern India On the other hand, it.was in the South,
particularly due to the inspiring presence of Madbavacarya and Sayanacarya, that Sanskrit
literature continued to enjoy the pauonage of the kings of Vijayanagar. After 1565, the
rulers of Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties, the Nayakas of Tanjore and the chiefs of Travancore
and Cochin kept alive the custom of patronising Sanskrit.

The various genres of Sanskrit literature -Mahakavyas, Slesh Kavyag Champu Kavyas,
Natakas and particularly historical Kavyas continued. In the field of Mahakavyas mention.
should be made of Raghunatha Nayaka, a ruler of Tanjore and his court poets. Among his '

many works the biography of his farher Achyutaraya should be specially mentioned.
Srhivasa Dikshit aminister of the Nayakas of G i e e was a prolific $titer: he had
composed eighteen dramas and sixty kavyas. Another 1iter;ry figure who flourished at the
Nayak Court of Tanjore was Govinda Dikshita. His great works are Sahitya Sudha and
Sangitsudhanidhi

Another prominent Sanskrit Scholar Appaya Dikshita (1520-92) was patronised by the
Nayak chiefs of Vellore. He wrote more than one hundred books on various branches of
Sanskrit learning.

Niliknatha Dikshit (17th century) was aminister of Tirumalanayaka of ~ a d u r a .He wrote a

number of Mahakavyas among which two dealing with Siva-leela and the penance of
Bhagirath were rated very high by scholars.

Other notable Sanskrit poets of this period were Chakrakavi, the author of Janaki Parinaya
and Narayana or Narayana Bhattatire who was a friend of Manadeva Zamouri, the king of
Kozhikode (1637-1648). The latter's contribution to Sanskrit literature is prohse and varied
covering the fields of Kavya, Mimamsa, grammar, etc. However, he excelled most in
Mahakavyas and is considered as one of the greatest poets of Kerala. Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
 S16th to
I ~ ~ Ifrom It is the historical 'Kavyas' and 'Natakas' written during this period that give us a glimpse
~ l 18th
d Century
into the social perception of these Sansloit writers who still adhered to the classical formula.'
Interestingly, the first of these historical kavyas was composed by a woman -
Tirurnalamba - who is described in the inscription as 'the reader'. Her work
Varadgumbika parinaya deals with the marriage of Achutadevaraya. Apart from the
historical value which is considerable, this kavya is considered as one of the most beautiful
'Champus' of the later period.

Of the many works based on the heroic exploits of Raghumalla Nayaka of Tanjore two are
worthy of notice, Sahityasudha composed by Govinda Dikshita and Raghunathahhyudaya
of Ramabhadramba. These contain references to many historical events.

An important source for Maratha history are a number of Mahakavgas based on the life of
Shivaji and his son. The most important work in this context is the Kavya known as
Anubharata or Sivabharata. The work was begun by Kavindra Paramananda a
contemporary of Shivaji, continued by his son Devadatta and grandson Govinda who now
incorporated the life of Shambhuji in their narrative.

Interestingly, some Muslim rulers also came to be included in a historical Kavya as heroes
by their court poets like Pandita Jagannath who wrote Jagadabh in praise of Dara Shukoh,
and Asaf Vilasa addressing Asaf Khan. Dam Shukoh himself composed a prasasti in
honour of Nrisimha Sarasvati of Benaras.

The most popular manual on logic written in South India was Tarkasongraha (c. 1625). Its'
author Annambhatta came from the district of Chittoor. He also contributed a number of
commentaries on many philosophical works. Important contributions to Dwaita philosophy
were made by Viyasaraya (d. 1539) and his pupil Viyayindra (1576). The.fomer wrote
Bhadojjivana, Tatparyacandrika and Nyayamitra. Vijayendra authored
Upasamharavijaya and Madhava-Tantramukhabhushana. Dalpati (1490-1533), a high
officer at the Nizam Shahi court of Ahmednagar, wrote Nririmhaprarada which is an
extensive work on religious and civil laws.

In spite of the examples mentioned above, Sanskrit literature was on the decline. Writers .
were obsessed with writing numerous commentafies rather thar],fomposing original works,
and though scientitic texts, works on music and philosophy conmued they were few and far
between. The bulk of the works were on technicalities of form and commentaries on
existing texts or grammar. One of the major causes of decline of Sanskrit poetry is ascribed
to the rise of vernacular literature in this period. The Bhakti movement wtich swept the
country earlier inspired the regional poets who now composed elegant 1yrics.ina language
which was closer to the spoken words. The popularity of these literary works lay in the
instant response which they drew from the common people as well as the aristocracy.

bheck Your Progress 1

1) Give a brief account of:

a) Mystical literature
b) Persian Literary works of South India
c) Classical Indian Texts translated in Persian.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 ...................................................................................................................................... Indlan Lp11ouaga and Literature

......................................................................................................................................

2) Write a short note on the literary works written in Sanskrit during 16th and 17th centuries.

31.4 NORTH INDLA

In North-India the major languages in which literature was being produced were Hindi,
Urdu, and Punjabi.

31.4.1 Hindi
Hindi language as known to-day developed over a long period of time. A number of dialects
spoken in various regions of northern India contributed to its development. The main
dialects' from which Hindi emerged are Brajbhasa, Awadhi, Rajasthani, Maithh Bhojpuri,
Malwi, etc. Khari Boli, a mixed form of Hindi, also came into existence in the 15th-16th
cennuies.
The origins of Hindi date back to 7th and 10th centuries. It was during this period that Hindi
was evolving out of Apabhransha. Th2 early period of Hindi poetry is called Virgatha
kala (age of heroic poetry). During this period, the exploits of Rajput kings and chieftains
, were narrated in postic form. Some of the famous poems are Prithivirda Raso, Hamir
Raso, etc.
The form of poetry which developed during the subsequent period nas devotional (Bbakti).
t
Kabir was the most famous eqwnent of this form. The same tradition continued during the
16th and 17th centuries.
Derived from a broken form of Sanskrit known as "Maghadi-Prakrit", the Hindi literary
language bloomed under the pervasive influence of the Bhakti movement The new poetry
found its best creative expression in the writings of Gosvami Tulsidas. The poet born in
eastern UP. around 1523 became a mendicant and began to iwB his masterpiece
Ramcharita-Mansa in 1574 . The pop-Wty of this work rested on its language which
closely resembled Tulsidas' native Awadhi dialect. Tulsidas took up the life of Rama as that
of an ideal man and built around it his philosophy of 'Bhakti'. His observations touched the
lives of common men.
Among the many works that Tulsidas wrote Vinaya-Patrika or a prayer book brings out his
philosophy best. Though he preached pure devotion to an almighty God,in his personal life
he clung to a single deity investing him with all the necessary attributes of a cult figure.

Tulsidas insplred a number of other writers -like Agradas and Nabhajidas -who
composed the Bbakta -a well-known account of the Vaisnava saints dating back to the Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
ancient period.
 Inclls &on1 16lh to Devotion to Krishna rather than Rama as the highest incarnation of the Supreme Being was
Mid 18lh Century
propagated by another set of poets who vl.:reknown as Ashtachapa These eight men were
all disciples of Vallabhacharya among whom Surdas who wrote between 1503-1563 wai '-
considered the best. The exceptional personality who brought a new appeal to the Msh$a
hymns was Muabai.

A Rajput princess turned into a mendicant, Mira herself became the heroine of many '
romantic legends. Her songs addressed Krishna as a lover and portrayed the final
subjugation of a 'bhakta' to the Supreme Being. These songs originally composed in the
Marwari dialect of Rajasthan were altered through usage of Brajabhasha which was popular
mainly in Gujarat and parts of Northern India.

The Awadhi dialect of Hindi was enriched by a number of Sufi poets who used popular tales
to explain their mystic messages. Mostly these dealt with themes of love. Among the
writers in this genre were Maulana Daud the author of Chandayan, and Kutaban the
composer or Mrigavati. The greatest was, however, Malik Muhammad Jayasi whose
famoils work Padmavati was composed between A.D. 1520-1540. It is a detailed mystic
analysis of the popular legend bf queen Padmini of Chittor and Alauddin Khilji. The work,
though better known for its theme, should alsd be acclaimed for the excellenceof the
Awadhi language in which it was composed. Some Muslim poets belonging to the 17th and
18th centuries are Osrnan Shaikh Nabi, Kasim and Mu Muhammad.

Literature in Brajabhasa flourished under the patronage of &bar and was enriched by poets
and musicians and his court including Tansen and Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan who
composed lyrics on the 'leela' of Krishna.

31.4.2 Urdu
The word derived from the Turki 'Urdu' meaning a military camp came into existence as a
dialect among Muslipls who ruled in the Deccan and South India from the 14th century
onwards. The literary speech arising out of it was known as 'Dakken' and can be traced to
the 15th century. This language though retaining traces of pre-Muslim dialects developed
mainly by drawing its form and themes from the current Persian literature. This continued
till the end of the 17th century even as the script continued to k!Perso-Arabic.

The major centres of Dakhni literature were Gujarat, Bijapur, Golconda, Aurangabad and
Bidar. The oldest writer in this Muslim Hindi tradition was the famous Sufi poet Sayyid
Banda Nawaz Gesudoraz (author of the Me'raj ul Ashiqi) who played an impdrtant role in
the politics of the Bahmani kingdom in 1422.

Two important poets of this literary dialect flourished in Gujarat, Shah Ali Mohammad Jan
and Sheikh Khub Muhammad. The major patrons of Dakhni literature were the Qutab Shahi
Sultans of Golconda. Among them Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah (1580-1612) was both a
poet and the romantic hero of a love poem by his court poet Mulla Wajhi. Among the
notable poets residing in Golconda mention should be made - of Ghawasi, Ibni Nishati and
Tabi.

Ibrahim Add Shah I1 (1580-1626) the Sultan of Bijapur, was a great patron and himself an
author of a book on music in Dakhni. Local events often featured in the works of the
Dakkni poets as seen in the woNr of Hasan Shawqi who wrote a poem commemorating the
battle of Talikoe (1565) in which the Muslim Sultans of the Deccan won a victory over the
Hindu kingdom of Vijaynagar. Though most poets were Muslim like Rustumi and Malik
Khusnud, the most important poet was a Hindu Brahmin who wrote under the pen-name of
Nusrati. His major works were a long poem Alinama eulogising his patron Ali Qdil Shah Jl
(1656-1672), and Gulshani Ishq -a romance of a Hindu calledManohar and his love for
Marlllumalati. (on the line of the Nayak-Nayika theme).

The important works of Rnsthmi included Khavar Nama. Another important poet was
Wajhi, the author of Qutbo Mushtari, a masnavi and Sab Ras ( a work of prose). By far
the most important Urdu writer of the p e m was Wali Dakkani. His great contribution to
Urdu poetry is that he brought Urdu ghazal in line with Persian traditions. Wali had
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU intensity of feeling and a flexible and varied style. b e of his
x a r y z t Mina Daud alqo contributed to the literature of the period.
 By 1750, Urdu became well established in the Delhi region and Dakkani declined after the ldlenLangu%esaldLl(em(ure
conquest of the Deccan by Aurangzeb.

31.4.3 Punjabi
The Punjabi language svolved from a broken form of Sanskrit known as Savraseni Prakrit
or more aptly Sauraseni Apabhransa. Along with Brajabhasa and Rajasthani, Punjabi has
the same grammatical base. Yet, prior to Guru Nanak (1469-1538), there is no written
record of Punjabi literature. The earliest text is the 'Adi Granth' whose compilation was
completed by Guru Arjun Dev in 1604. Since it was a sin to add or delete even a single
word from the original text, it has come down to us in its pristine form. It, therefore, serves
as the best model for medieval literatwe.

Since the Gurus discuss largely the nature and attribubs of the creator, the form of the text is
composed as hjlmns set to specific Ragas. The expressions of Guru Nanak are particularly
aphoristic as they show the process of deep reflection which are combined with certain
intuitive principles of self-realisation.

Besides the composition of the Gurus, significant poetical work propagating the Sikh faith
was done by Bhai Gurdas (1559-1637) who displays a mastery of metres. His work is
followed by devotional poetry enriching the Punjabi or the Gurumukhi language.

Apart from poetry, a number (?_f prose writings, mainly biographies called Janam Sakhis
and expositions of the principles and tenets of the Sikh faith, emerged. In the secular field, a
number of romances derived mainly fro111Muslim writers called 'Qissa' came to prevail.
The most popular among these were the romance of Hir and Ranjha, and Mirza and Sahiban.
The best exponent of the Hit and Ranjha story is Waris Shah. The latter was a gifted poet
.-
with a good command over writing dialogues with tragic traits. This finds special appeal in
his rendition of the sequel where the hero and heroine bob die.

The best version of Mina-Sahiban romance is to be found in the writing of Peelu, who
brings out the psychological conflict of the heroine Sahiban, caught as she was between
loyalty to her family and her love for Mirza.

A Hindu poet Aggara composed the saga or Var of Haqiqat Rai, a Sikh Hindu youth
martyredat Lahore during the reign of Shah Jahan for his faith

The contribution of Sufi poets to the development of Punjabi literatwe is considerable. The
best known among these are Sultan Bahu (1631-91), a dervish who belonged to the Jhang
region and expressed himself through intense poetry on renunciation and spiritual devotion.

Shah Husain (1553-1593) was a mendicant, who roamed the countryside. He was greatly
loved by the people. He wrote passionate lyrics set to music. This genre is known as Kafi
and accepted by most of the Sufi poets, serving both as a musical measure as well as a lyric.
The best known of the Sufi poets was Bulhe Shah (1658-1758) who wrote about ecstasy,
love and renunciation of material things. His works specially emphasize the spiritual aspects
of life, but his meraphors are derived mainly from the rural life of Punjab. Bulhe Shah's
I
works have passed into f~lkloreand form a rich part of Punjab's literary tradition.
I a
Check Your Progress 2

1) Discuss the contribution of Bhakti movement to Hindi literature.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 M a h m 16th to
Mid 18th Ccotnm

2) Discuss the contribution of Deccani kingdoms to the growth of Urdu literature.

3) Give a brief account oE

a) 'Adi Granth'
b) Sufi poets writing in Punjabi

31.5 WESTERN INDIA

In this sections we will discuss the literatweproduced in Marathi and Gujarati languages.

31.5.1 Gujarati *

The beginning of the 16th century marks the onset of a new phase in the history of Gujarati
literature. Tbis pihase, properly called the second phase, lasts for almost two centuries before
being taken over by modem Gujarati. Like several other languages, the major stfain in the
literature of this period is religion and mysticism. At the beginning of the 16th century
Vaishnava Bhakti movement had become the dominant social theme in Gujarat Therefore
most of the litexatme of this period relates to the Bhalrti tradition.

Tbe major poets of this peaiod in Guj'arat are:

Nimimha Mehta (c. 1500-1580)

Akho

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU Of these, Narsimha Mehta exeicised great influence on later poets. On account of the
richness of his imagination and he variety of his creative activity, he is considered the father
of Gujarati poetry. Bhalana was more of a classical poet. His poetry is rich in content and *"~oagcs@dUtemtm
expression, and he is rated as the first artist in Gujarati verse. Akho banked more on his
innate genius and keen spiritual and social insight. He was no scholar but sang with fervour
to bring about spiritual and social reform.

AAer the end of the 17th century, decadence set in the lituaturebf gujarati. mere was.
-
however, a great variety in the literary works c r W at this time w'e have devotional,
didactic, quasi-metaphysical and secular forms of literature. ,

31.5.2 Marathi
The Marathi literature of 16th and 17th centuries is characterised by two main trends -
religious and secular. The landmarks in the religious poetry of the period are:
Khavista-Yurana of Father Thomas Stephens, (1549-1619) written in the vein of
Gyaneshwar.
-7
poetic narratives of Muktesvara, echoing the events of his age through the episodes of the
Ramayana and the Mahabbarat.
Abhanga of Tukaram, making direct appeal to the people through the intensity of its
physical quality.

The secular literature of this period has the poetry of Ramdasa, the great saint-preceptorof
Shivaji and the works of Vaman Pandit (1615-1678). Ramdasa combines the spirit of
liberation and national reconstruction with devotional and religious fervour. The approach
of Vaman was academic and literary. Therefore,his works are in an ornate Sanslaitized
style. His famous work is a commentary on Gita where he advocated the path of knowIedge
against the path of devotion.
/

Another kind of secular poetry of this period found expression in the Povadas and the
Lavnis of the Senvis. The Povadas were a kind of ballad brisk in movement and vivid in
diction. The Lavnis were romantic in character with a deep colouring of the sensuous
sentiment.

31.6 EASTERN REGION

Bengali, Assamese and Wiya were the major languages in which literature was produced in
eastern India.

31.6.1 Bengali

In the East, Bengali language and literature flourished after the advent of Sri Chaitanya The
Vaisnava poets, inspired by the saint's mystic preachings, composed a number of lyrics in a
new literary language with a blend of Maithili and Sanskrit This is known as Brajaboli and
the lyrics -Padavali. A new genre of Vaisnava biographies came into being. Though the
earliest biography of Sri Chaitanya was written in Sanskrit by Murari Gupta, this was
followed quickly by the contemporary accounts of Brindabandas in Bengali. Brindabandas's
Chaitanya Bhagavata or Chaitanya Mangal was probably composed within a decade of
the saints' death and is considered to be the most authentic account of the social conditions
of his time.

The next important account is the Chaitanya-Charitamritaby Krishnadas Kaviraj. Though

shrouded in controversy regarding its date of composition, the work serves as the first
philosophical treatise which elevated Sri Chaitanya into an incarnation of Sri Krishna and
laid the philosophical foundation of Gaudiya Vaisnavism.

Among a large number of biographies of Sri Chaitanya which followed, Gouranga Vijay by
Chudamanidas, two works both named Chaitanya Mangal by Jayananda and Lochandas
deserve to be mentioned. The latter is however best known for introducing a new style of
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
folk songs called Dhamali, dealing exclusively with the love affairs of Krishna.
 Indla fmm 16th to The lyrics known as Padavali cxstitute mother important branch of Vaisnava literature.
, Md 18th Century
Here, the many moods of amour termed iiasa'in Sanskrit literature was incorporated as the
main nonn for the conswction of the 'Padas' (verse). The romance of Radha and Ktishna
formed the major tbeme, though all major worRS began with an eulogy to Sri Chaitanya who
was hailed as the united manifestation of both Radha and Krishna. A large number of
narrative poems were written on the legends of Ktishna, particularly the portion
immortalised in theBhagavat dasam skandha as the Vrindaban leela.

While Vaisnava literaturebegan to be patronised by Hindu zamindars and Muslim

governors, another group of narrative poems known as 'Mangal kavyas' became popular.
The themes propagated the importance of the local cult-deities like Chandi, Manasa Dhanna
and transformed the Puranic gods l i e Siva and Visnu into household deities where they
assume the garb of the Bengali peasant or artisan. The namtive form of the Mangal
Kavyas were derived from the Puranas. The narration of certain myths upholding the
manifest powers of a siqgle cult-deity was repeated even in the local versions of the Bengali
Mangal Kavyas. Rut as the Bengali poetv observed the effect of the Puranic writers, tbey
inculcated into the narratives their own experience: hence, the fearsome Bhairava Siva, the
killer of demons in the Puranas, has his trident recast into agricultural implements and
assumes the appearance of an absent-minded mal yogi. A syncretic feature developed
through the Dharma-mangal Kavyas where the Buddhist Dhanna merged with the
P u b i c Narayana and the Muslim Pit comes to be known as Satyapir or Satyanarayana.
A number of Muslim writers w&te in Ben@. The first notable writer Dauht Qazi was .
from Arhkan. This was dm to the close association that existed between Bengd and Arakan
evex since Atakan had been freed from Burma. The Maga ruler of Arakan had been forced
to take shelter in Bengal where he lived for 26 years. It was mainly due w. this event that
Bengali had virtually become the court language of Arakan.
Daulat Qazi rendered into Bengali a number of popular romances prevalent in the
Gujarat-Rajastban area such as Laur-Chandrani or Mayna Sati. It is said that Laur
Clmdmd was completed after his deatb by a poet who was even mare talented Alaol.-
Alaal, the son of a Muslim governor of lower Bengd, was captured by the Portuguese pirate
and sold as a soldier for Arakan army. His talents as a musician and poet endeared him to
Sulairnan, a minister at the kakan court and also the king's foster nephew Magan Thakw.
These well-placed friends at the court freed Alaol from his bondage. He rendered into
Bengali Malik Mohammad Jayasi's Padmavat, the Persian romance
Saifulmulkbaduijjamal,and also two works of Niami. Alaol through his translations of
Persian poetry and other romances into Bengali instilled a secular theme in Bengali
literature.
A number of Muslim wrim flourished in Bengal from 16th century onwards and though
they wrote mainly on secular theme (Sabii wtcte a version of the Vidya Sundar), they also
wrote on the tragedy at Karbala. A mixed theme often overlapping the frontiers of the two
religions were to be found in such works as Sayid Sultan's Resularjay which included some
Hindu gods, or it was found in the works like Yuga Sambad or Satya Kali Vivadsambad
written by his disciples.

31.6.2 Assamese
As in Bengal, Assamese literature also developed in response to the Bhakti movement. It
was Sankaradeva who ushered in Vaisnavism and, being a good pet, he also introduced into
Assamese a rich crop of poetry. He was followed by his disciple Madhavadas whose
principal works were mainly the Bhakti-ratnavalidealing with diffemt aspects of bhaktl, a
handbook consisting of a large number of hymns, the Baragitas depicting the life of I(rishna
in Vrindavan and another work also dealing with the childhood of Krishna. The particular
characteristics of Vaisnava poetry in Assam that sets it apart from those of Bengal and
Gujarat is the lack of eroticism usually found in the themes of Radha and Krishna. In the
Valsnava poetry of Assam, the amorous love-play of Krishna is avoided, the emphasis being
laid only on his childhood.
Translations from the epics and Puranas also foimed a part of the literary projects of the
Assamese writers. While Rama Rarasvati translated parts of the Mahabharata for his patron
tbe king of Coo& Bihar; similarly, Gopal Chandra Dvija wrote the story of Krishxia as told
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
in the Bhagavata and Vishnn Purana.
 Assamese prose developed M n l y through the compilation of historical chronicles known as Indian Langu~esand Ute'
Buranjis. 'These were written at the command of the Ahom kings wbo overran Assam and
continued to rule the country fighting off the Mughals when necessary. The Sino-Tibetan
dialect of the Ahoms is known to have greatly influenced Assamese prose just as it gavea
cultural identity to the people.

31.6.3 Oriya
Oriya literature in this modwas still under the spell of Sanskrit. A number of Kavyas
were composed on Puranic themes by Madhusudana, Bhima, Dhivara, Sadasiva and Sisu
Isvaradasa. Romaces on non-Puranic themes were composed by Dhananjay Bharya. An
interestingpoetical experiment is seen in the work Rasa Kallol which deals with the love of
Radha and Krisbna, where every h e begins with the letter "E". Among other notable
works of this genre are UshabhUasa of Sisu Sankara Dasa, the Rahasyarnanjari of
Deva-Durlava-Das and the Rukminlbibha of Kartik Dasa.

*It was in the 17th centby when Ramachandra Pattanayaka wrote his Haravali (in which the
hero is an ordinary man and the heroine is the daughter of a farmer) that Oriya literature
developed a popular base. 'Ibough these show an interesting innovation, Oriya poem in .
general followed the main stmm of derivations from Sanskrit literature. Vaisnava works
like Prema-Panchamriteby Bhupaii Pandita opened the path of theology through poetry
imbued with religious devotion. His richness of language has often been comnparedto
~ -

Jayadeva.
-
'Though the Oriya poets generally wrote irr the conventional language derived from Sanskrit,
an -cia1 style came to be established in the 18th century marked by an overt eroticism '
txxpressed through verbal jugglexy. 'Ibe greatest exponent of this new style was the poet
Jpendra Bhanja (1670-1720) who ushered in a new era in Oriya literature that continued'till
the 19th kntury.

Check Your Progress 3

1) How did Chaitanya tradition enrich Bengali literature?

2) Write a brief note on Assamese literature of the period under study.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 Indla Itom 16th to
Mld 18th Cmtuy 31.7 SOUTH INDIAN LANGUAGES
The important South Indian languages in which literature was being written.wereTamil,
Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam.

31.7.1. Tamil
In Tamil literature of the period we find a number of philosophical works, commentaries,
literary texts and ranas. A large number of works are related to Shaivism and
"a,
Vaishnavisrn. Hari a a Vaishnava poet, wrote Irusamaya-vilakkam (an exposition of
Saivism and Vaishnavism). Another Tamil work of significance was Sivadarumothram
(1553) written by Marainanarbandar. The book having 1200 verses deals with chronology,
temples and their constitution and theology. Saiva-Samayaneri (the path of Saiva creed) by
the same author is a work on daily religious observance of Saivas. Kamalai .Nanaprakami
wrote a Purana on Tirumaluvadiand a number of manuals on Saiva worship. Niramba
Alagiya Desikar and his disciples also enriched the Purana literature. Desikar wrote
Setu-puranamand Puranas on Tirupparangiri and Tiruvaiyaru. One of his disciples
composed Tiruvalturpuranam (1592).

Madai Tiruvengadanathar an officer of the Nayak of Madura was an important literary figure
of the 17th century. He wrote an exposition of Advaita Vedanta in a long Tamil poem. .
Other important works of the period in religious and philosophical fields are
Cidambarapuranam (1508) by Purana Tirumalainathan, Ariccandira puranam (1524) by
Nallur Virakavirayer,Sundara pandiyan of Anadari (1580). Kandapuranam (1625) of
Kacciyappa Saivacarya and Palanittalapuranam (1628) by Balasubramanya Kavirayar.
~ l l G Navalar
a (C. 1542-80), a vellala poet of Tanjore, wrote an excellent Kovai on
Tiruvarur around the same time. A Pandyan King Ativirarama of Tenkarsi wrote a
celebrated work Naidadem. He also translated a number of popular Sanskrit works into
Tamil.

Among the works of grammar, Lidambarapattigal by Paranjoti, Maran-Alankaram by

Kurugai Perumal Kavirayar and Ilakkanavilakkam of Vaidyanatha Desikar are important.

Nigandu-cudamoni by Jaina scholar Mandalapurushe,Kodayram by Kayadarar are

important lexicons of the period.

31.7.2 Telugu
Telugu as a language has affmities with Tamil and Kannada, but literary idioms depended on
Sanskrit.

During the period of our study, the most glorious phase of Telugu literature was during the
reign of Krishandeva Raya (1509-1529) of Vijaynagar. He himself was an acclaimed
scholar. His Amuktamalyada is considered one of the great Kavyas in Telugu literature.
The most celebrated poet at his court was,AUarraniPeddana. He was given the title of
Andhrakavi Tepitarnha (grandfather of Telugu poetry), Svarocisha Samhhava or
Manucarita is his most known work. Nandi Timmaba, another poet at Krishnadeva Raya's
court, wrote Paruatapaharana in verse which is an episode of Sri Krishna's lifc.

Bhattumurti, better known as Rama Raja Bhushan, is known for his vasucaritra (a work of
poetry based op one episode of Mahabharata). Another work Hariscandra --
Nalopakhyanam is a poem in which each verse has two meanings: it tells the story of Nala
as well as Raja Harishchandra Pingali Suranna wrote Raghavo-Pandaviya, capturing the
stories of both Ramayana and Mahabharata. Kumara Dhirjati wrote his fmous work
Krishnadevaraya Vijaya around the end of 16th century in a poetic form narrating the
victories of the famous king.

The most popular figureof Telugu literature is Tenah Ramakrishna. fie is remembered as a
willing and humorous man. His Panduranga Mahatmya is one of the great works of
Telugu poetry. Molla, a poetess,'whois said to have belonged to low caste, wrote the
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU popular Telugu version of the Ramayana.
 !
i
Quli Qutb Shah (1550-83) also was a patron of Telugu literature. Addanki Gangadhara and
Ponnaganti Telengana dedicated their books Tepatisamvaranopakbyaba and
Llteratom

1 Yayatricaritva to the Shah.

Manumanci Bhatta's Hayalakshana, a work on horses and their training, belongs to the 16th
century.

With the fall of the Vijaynagar empire, patronage to Telugu literary figures of the 17th
cmtury was given by smaller states like Gadikota, Nellore, Sidhavatam, Gingee, Tanjore and
Madurai. Malti Ananta of Sidhavatam wrote Kakusthavijayam (1590-1610), Pushpagiri
T i a n a of Nellore translated Bhartnihari's Nitisataka. The king of Tanjore Raghunatha
Nayayka wrote one of the earliest works of prose, the Valmikicaritram

31.7.3 Kannada
Most of the early Kannada works were Mitten by the Jainas; their contribution to the
Kannada literature continued during the 16th and 17th centuries.

Vadi Vidyananda of Geroppa compiled Kavyarasa in 1533 which is an anthology of

prominent Kannada poets. Another Jaina scholar Salva (c. 1550) w t e a Jaina version of
the Bharata Ratnakaravarhi and produced a number of important works in the second half
of 16th century like Trilokararara (on Jaina cosmology), Aparajitasataka (on philosophy)
and Bharataesvaracarita ('he story of the famous King Bharata). Many of his songs are
still sung by the Jains and are known as Annagalapada.

The important work of Lingayat literature is C e ~ Basava

a purana. Its hero, Cenna
Basava, is considered an incarnation of Siva. The work contains a number of stories df
saints. Prandharayacarita of Adrisya (c. 1595) is another important Lingayat work.

Some important Saiva works of the period are Sidhesvara-purana of Virakta Pantadarva
and Viveka-cintamani (c. 1560). Siva yoga pradipika of Niagunna-siva-yogi, Bhava
cintaratna and Virasaivamrita or Mallanarya Guibbi, and Sarvainapadagalu of
Servainamurti.

During the same period, Vaishnavita literature was also Mitten. It is also in the form of
translation of Sanskrit works into Kannada. A part of Mahabharata was translated by
Kumaraa Vyasa, and the rest by T i a n n a around 1510. Lakshmira composed Jarnini
Bharata.

Another form of ~aishnavi&literature was the popular songs of clasas (mendicant singers).
According to Nilakanta Sastri, these were inspired by Madhavacarya and Vyasaraya.
Chaitanya's visit to the South in 1510 did much to stimulate the growth of this popular type
of song. Purandas Dara (d. 1564) is the most famous in this line of singers.

Among the works on Kannada grammar the Karnataka abdanisant i1604) of Bhattakalanka
Deva is the foremost.

31.7.4. Malayalam
Malayalam originated as a dialect of Tamil in the Odeyar region. By the fourteenth century,
it acquired an independent status. A certain tradition of poets (coming from N i a m in
Travancore) from the 15th century onwards contributed greatly in developing Malayalam
style of poetry. Rama Panikkar was one of the important of this tradition. Some of his
prominent works are Bharata Gatha, Savitri Mahatmyam, Brahmandepuranam and
~ha~avatarn

L Cherruseri Nambudiri, a great poet of 16th century, is credited for developing modem
Malayalam literature. His famous work Krishnagatha is a beautiful poetic narration of
Krishna's life. Thc sixteenth century Malayalam literature produced a number of popular
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
songs and ballads like Anju's Tampuren pattu and E~avikuttipillapattu.
 India f'mm 16th to Tuncat Ramanujam Eluttaccan's works covered Hindu mythology, religion and philosophy.
II Mid 18th Century
I
I His famous works are Adhyatma Ramayanam Kilipattu, Bharatam Killipattu and
Harinamakirtanarn

A popuiar form of dance-drama literature called Attakatha or Kathakali also seems to have
originated during 16th century. Kaman Attam is one of the earliest Attakatha. A large
number of new Kathas enriched Malayalam literature.

Check Your Progress 4

1) Write brief comments on

a) Tamil Literature on Saiva tradition.

b) The literary works produced in Telugu. during the rule of IWhnadeva Raya (1509-1529).

2) Discuss the contributionaf Jain scholars to Kannada literature.

..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................

3) a) wdo is credited with the development of mcda%Malayalam literature?

b) What is Attakatha?
.......................................................................................................................................
I

.................................................................................. .....................................................
. ,

. .
c) Who was Tenali Ramkrishna?

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 After going through this unit, we came to know that a rich corpus of literature was produced
in Indii during
-. the period of our study.

The Mughal court extended its patronage to not only Persian language and liteiature but also
to ~ d tHindi , and a few others. Other kings, chiefs and even nobles patronised literary
activities. The most notable feature of the period is the developmentof popular literature
written chiefly outside the royal patronage. This was mainly devotional or bhakti poems
written in Hindi and in almost all regional languages.

The literature of almost all languages had a heavy content of religion and mythology. Logic,
philosophy and grammar were also the subject-matkr of a number of works. Another
notable feature is the large-scale translation of works from one language into other.
Especially translation of Sanskrit works into a number of popular languages made them
more accessible to the common people.

31.9 KEY WORDS

Champu Kavya : A literary form where poetry and prose were mixed.
Diwan : -4do~ectionof poems of a poet, e.g. Diwan-Ghalib.
Elegy : Songs of mourning, sad poems. In Urdu literature it was a
separate form of poetry called marsiya.
Ghazal : A popular form of poems which primarily were love poems
but gradually other subject-matter was also included. The
most peculiar featureof yhazal is its fragmentariness. Each
line stands by itself -a self-contained unit.
Khamrh : a stanza of five lines '
Lexicon Mahakavya : a dictionq epic
Mathnavi (Masnavi) : a poem written in rhymed couplets generally used for
descriptive and narrative verse.
Prasasti : a piece of writing or poem written in praise of somebody.
Qasida : An ode or poem written in praise of somebody.
Qita' : a small part of a long poem.
Ruba'i : a short poem of four lines, the first, second and fourth ones,
rhyme, but the third line does not. t

Slesh kavya : a form of figure of speech which is a poem and the w ~ r is

d
used to convey two messages.
Tarji-band : kind of verse in which the same line recurs at stated
intervals.
Tarkib-band .: akindof poetry.
I

I 31.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) See Section 31.2.
2) See ~ection'31.3.

Check Your Progress 2

1). Discuss the literary works written by Bhakti saints. See Sub-section 31.4.1.
2) In the early skge Urdu as a literary language flourished in Deccan. See Sub-section 31.4.2. Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

3) See sub-kction 31.4.3.

 Indls from 16th to Check Your Progress 3
Mld lMh Centuy
1) Sri Chaitanya inspired a number of poets on Bhakti tradition. See Sub-section 31.6.1.
2) Assamese literature during this period was inspired by Bhakti tradition. See Sub-section.
. 31.6.2.

Check Your Progress 4

1) a) A number of Tamil works were written in Saive tradition. See Sub-section 31.7.1.
b) Krishnadeva Raya himself was a poet and writer and encouraged and patronised a
number of poets of the period. See Sub-section 31.7.2.
2) The early Kannada literature was greatly enriched by Jain scholars. See Sub-section
31.7.3.
3) a) Cherriseri Nambudri.
b) A popular dance-dramaliterature in Malaydam.
c) He was a Telugu literary figure well-known for his wit and humour.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 UNIT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
I
i
Structure
32.0 Objectives
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Science
32.3 Agricultural Technology
32.4 Textile Technology
32.5 Military Technology
32.6 Shipbuilding
32.7 Metallurgy
32.8 Glass Technology
32.9 The Printing Press
32.10 Time-Reckoning Devices
32.11 Miscellaneoi~s
32.12 Let Us Sum Up
32.13 Key Words .
32.14 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

32.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit you will:
read about the main developments in the various sectors of science and technology during
the Mughal period, and leam the nature of response of the Indians to European science
and technology.

32.1 INTRODUCTION
I
I
In course EHI-03(Block 6, Unit 22). you were offered glimpses of technology in India
during the Dehi Sultanate. The emphasis in the above course was on the introduction of
new crafts by the immigrant Muslims. In the present Unit, focus will be on the new articles
of technology and agricultural crops and fruits, etc. brought by the Europeans during the
I
16th and 17th centuries. We will also give you a brief statement on the state of science
during this period.

32.2 SCIENCE
No breakthrough was made scientific studies concerning physics, astronomy, chemistry
medicine, geography and mathematics. The traditional knowledge continued to be taught,
discussed and re-written in the form of commentaries without adding anything worthwhile.
The Indian and the Greco-Arabic views on scientific issues held sway. A French traveller,
Careri, observes about the Muslim scholars in India:
"As for sciences they can make no progress in them for want of Books; for they
have none but some small manuscript works of Aristotle and Avicenue in
Arabick.''

But we should not deny the fact that there were some very learned and able scientists during
the period of our study. One of them was Mir Fathullah Sbirazi who joined Akbar's court at
Aga in 1583 (d. 1588). Abdul Fazl opines that "If the old books of wisdom had
disappeared, he could have laid a new foundation [of knowledge] and would not have
wished for what had gone". Akbar mourned his death in these words: "Had he fallen in the
hands of the Franks [Europeans], and they had &manman&d all my treasures in exchange for
h i , I should gladly have entered upon such profitable traffic and bought that precious jewel
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
cheap." He is credited with having invented some mechanical devices (see Sections 32.5
and 32.1 1-vi) and also the introduction of a 'true' solar calendar (called Ilahi) at Akbar's
 India from 16th to order in 1584. But he did not propound any new scientific theory or fonnula distinct from
Mid 18lh Century
the traditional ones in India at that time.

Indians were exposed to European learning. Abul Fazl W ~ aware

Q of the discovery of
America by Europeans: he gives the Persian term alanz n;lu for the "New World". But this
knowledge does not appear to have become a normal part of the teaching of geography in
India. Galileo's discovery (in contrast to Ptolemy's world-view) that it is the Earth that
moves round the Sun did not reach the Indian scientists. Similarly, Newton's three Laws of
Motion as well as his Law of Gravity were unknown in India at this time, Bernier, a French
physician, who came to India during the second half of the seventeenth century, claims to
have been in the company of a Mughal noble Agha Danishmand Khan for five or six years,
to whom he used to explain the new discoveries of Harvey and Pecquet concerning
circulation of the blood. .Bemier held a very poor opinion of the Indias' knowledge of
anatomy. Our hakims and vuids did not show any interest in Harvey's discovery.

32.3 AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

We do not find any radical change during the Mughal period in sofar as the plough, iron
ploughshare, irrigational devices, methods of sowing, harvesting, threshing and winnowing
are concerned (for details see course EHI-03, Block 6, Unit 22): However, for sowing, apart
from broadcasting and seed-drill, we get evidence for dibbling also. This method was
employed especially for cotton cultivation; a whole was made into the ground with a pointed
leg, the seed was put into it and covered with earth. As for threshing, besides using oxen,
corn ears were also beaten with stocks.

One ramarkable development during this period was the introduction of some iiew crops,
plants and fruits. Many of these were brought by Europeans, especially the Portuguese. The
Muglial elite had started growing Central Asian fruits in India from the days of Babur.

Tobacco, pineapple, cashew-nuts and potato were the most important crops and fruits that
came from America. Tobacco led to huqqa-smoking (liubble-bubble). Besides, tomato,
guava and red chillies were also brought from outside. Maize is not listed in Abul Fazl's
Ain-i Akbari. It seems that this, too, was introduced by Europeans from Latin America.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

Tobaccn Smoking : Iluqqa
' h e seeds of numerous varieties of melons and gapes gown around Aga were brought Science and Tdnology
from Central Asia. Chemes were introduced in Kashmir duringkkbar's reign.

Fmits of better quality were grown by seed propagation. It is doubtful whether the art of
W n g in horticulture was extensively practised during the Delhi Sultanate. P.K. Gode
thinks that grafting became prevalent in India only afw A.D. 1550. This sl@ was well
known in Persia and Central Asia. However, mangoes of the best quality were exclusively
produced in Goa through grafting by the Portuguese. Some European travellers to India paid
glowing tributes to the delicious mangoes of Goa called Alfonso, Our Lady, Joani Perreira,
etc. Alfonso is still a celebrated variety in India.

Among the Mughal Emperors, Shah Jahan alone takes the credit for getting two canals dug
(nahr faiz and Shah nahr).

Check Your Progress 1 "

1) What is dibbling? Discuss its use.

..............................................................................................................................................

2) Discuss the new crops and fruits introduced in India during the 16th-17thcenturies.

32.4 TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY

You have read in some detail about the textile craft in course EHI-03,Block 6. Unit 22.3.
The section took note of numerous processes, e.g., ginning, carding, spinning, weaving,
dyeing, painting and printing. You also know now that spinning-wheel was brought to India
by the Turks. In fact, no radical addition or improvement seems to have been made during
the seventeenth century. However, two devel~pmentsmdst be highhghted; fust,
carpet-weaving under Akbar's patronage at Lahore, Agra and Fatbpur-Sikri; and second,
production of silk and silk fabrics on a large scale.

The Europeans did not bring their own textile techniques to India, at any rate during the first
half of the seventeenth century. Actually, they did not possess any superior technology in
this area during this period, except pkrhaps to the English Company to send silk dyers,
throwsters and weavers to Qasimbazar in Bengal. Italian silk frlatms were introduced into
.
India in the 1770s.

32.5 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY .

You have read in course EHI-03, Block 6, Unit 22.6 that stirrup, horseshoe and bwnpowder
were introduced into India by the Turks. Firearms were used spom&callyfor the fist time
during the second half of the 15th century in some regions of India like Gujarat, Malwa and
Deccan. But fire-arms ofi a regular basis developed through the agency of the Portuguese
tiom A.D. 1498 in Soutb India, and by Babur in the North in A.D. 1526. Babur used guns Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
and cannons in baules against the Rajputs and Afghans.
 These guns were actually matchlocks. Europe knew of two more devices to f i e a gun:
wheel-lock (1520s) and flint-lock (1620s) in which matchcord was dispensed with. Abul
Pan Fazl claims the manufacture of handguns without matchcord in /&bar's arsenal, but he is
Flint I silent on the alternative mechanism. This could be a flint-lock because wheel-lock eyen in
Europe was employed for pistols. At any rate, these handguns (flint-locks) were produced
on a limited scale, most probably for Akbar's personal use only because we are told that
Indians in North India were scarcely familiar with this technique during the early decades of
the seventeenth century. In fact, Mughid-paintingsregularly depict matchlocks down to
Aurangzeb' s times.

FLINTLOCK
European pistols were availableat Burlna~npurfor sale as early as A.D. 1609. Sometimes
Europeans gave pistols in gifts to Indians. But the'lndhns did not learn the lirt of
wheel-lock. Cannons of various sizes were manufactured in India for the Indian rulers.

Use of Cannons : Siege ofChi[[or

We need not go into details abwt the numerous traditional weapon -offensive and
defensive -like s w ~ p e a r sdaggers,
, bows and arrows, shields and armours, etc. It is
interesting to know that the Indians in general preferred curved swords, in contrast to the
European's straight double-edged rapiers. The Marathas. however, late in the seventeenth
centurv took a liking to European swords.

For cleaqing gun-barrels, Abul Fazl writes:

"Formerly a strong man hadto work a long time with iron instruq~entsin order to
clean matchlocks, Yis Majesty [Akbar], from his practical knowledge, has
invented a wheel, by the motion of which sixteen barrels may be cleaned in a very
short time. The wheel is turned by a bullock."

At another place, once again, Abul Fazl credits Akbar with the invention of a mechanism by
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU which seventeen guns were joined in such a manner as to be able to frre them sirn~llraneously
I 24 Medieval Swords with one matchcord.
 1 '
Science and Technology
4
! ,
32.6 SHIPBUILDING
.I{ The entire vessel in medieval times everywhere was co~N.n~cted of wood. Various methods

1 i
i
were employed to join the planks. One of these was rabbeting which was widely practised in
India. This was basically on the tongue-and-grooveprinciple: the 'tongue' of one plank was
titted into the 'groove' of another. The next step was to smear the planks wiih inhgenous
pitch or tar, and lime with the double purpose of stopping up any fissures and preserving the
i ;
timber from sea worms. Fish-oil was also used for doubing the planks. The Indians did not
adopt tile European method of caulking -a technique for making joints or seams of the
planks tight or leakproof by forcing oakum (made of loose fibre or untwisted old ropes, etc.
'i mixed with melted pitch) between parts that did not fit tightly. The reason was caulking did
not have any technical superiority over the indigenous method for performing the same task.
'1
!I Moreover, caulking was more expensive than the Indian practice.
!jl
Prior to the European advent, the planks of ships and boats were joined together by stitching
or sewing them with ropes made of coir, or sometimes with wooden nails. The Europeans
were using iron nails and clamps which made their vessels stronger and durable. The
i Iildialls lost no time in adopting the new technique. Around A.D. 1510, Varthema noticed
4 "an immense cjuantity of iron d s " in Indian ships at Calicut. Abul Fazl (A.D. 1593-94)
i informs us that for a ship of Akbar 468 mans (maund) of iron were used. Some Mughal
j
: paintings establish the presence of iron nails, strips and clamps for constructing vessels.
;I
j
:
Similar positive response u, Enropean iron anchors is evidenced'during*theseventeenth
century. Earlier, arichors were made of big stones.

Iron Anchor

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 lndin I'rc~nl16th to
Mid 18th Cer~tury
The Indians used buckets to bail out the leaked water in the ships. However, the European
iron chain-pumps started to be used in India, though not widely, during the second half of
the seventeenth century. But these were not manufacturedin India: they were purchased or
borrowed from Europeans.

Use olBuckets In Bailing out Water

Check Your Progress 2

1. Discuss the mechanical devices used in guns during the 16-17th centuries.
..............................................................................................................................................

2. What are rabbeting and caulking? Why Indians showed no preference to adopt caulking
technique in shipbuilding.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 Sdellce aod Tecl~uology
32.7 METALLURGY
We give below the main features of metallurgical practices in India:
i) The fuel for smelting consisted of wood charcoal (coal was not known). Thus, smelting
was generally carried out at places which were near the source of wood supply.
ii) The smelters used small furnaces which perhaps did not have refractory or heat-resistant
clay.
iii) The' bellows were ribless and small which did allow efficient air-blast to generate very
high temperature in the furnaces to reduce the ore to a totally liquified state.
iv) In case of iron and bronze, the metal was melted in diverse small furnaces (sometimes
eight in nutnber) wherefrom the molten material went to the mould. Since the quality of
the molten metal in each furnace was not necessarily the same, the fabricated ob.ject
could not have always been of high quality.

Processing of M e t a l : Smelting : Use of Charcoal: Furnaces: Bellows (Ain -i Akbari)

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 India fro*~16th to Abul Fazl describes the technique of rriaking iron c:mnons and handgun barrels at Akbar's
Mid 18th Century
arsenal. Perhaps these techniques were newly invented. We do not know whether
improvements were made during the subsequent period. Cannons were inade of broiize,
brass and iron.

Zinc metallurgy seems to have started in India somewhere aroJnd twelfth century A.D. Abul
Fazl mentions Jawar (modem Zawar) in Rajasthan where zinc was procurable.
Archaeological studies near Z ~ w a have
r revealed the presence of sealed clay retorts for zinc
distillation (which, condensedJcooled, yielded the metal).

Copper mines were located at Khetri in Rajasthan. Tin was not a natural product of a
country: it was imported from other Asian regions. Bronze was in use right from the days of
the Indus valley culture. Alloys like brass (coper and zinc or tin) were fabricated in India.

One must meillion here the production of the true "wootz" iroll in India from c. 400 B.C.,
especial1y in Andhra Pradesh. Probably "woolz' ' is a corruption of Lhe Telugu word
"ukku". It was exported to centres of swordmaking like Damascus in Syria (called
Damascen~swords).

32.8 GLASS TECHNOLOGY

Glass is a complex artificial industrial substance. We should not confuse it with crystal,
quartz, obsidian glass, glaze and faience. That glass was not scarce in India has been ably
shown by M.G. Dikshit (History of Glass), but he admits that Indian glass objects "did not
range or go beyond the manufacture of tit-bits like beads and bangles"

With the arrival of Muslims, pharmaceutical phials, ,jars and vessels of glass cane to India
from the Islanic countries, but there is no evidence to show that Indians had started
fabricating these obiects in imitation.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, a variety of glass articles were brought to India by the
Europeans. All these were new for us: for example, looking-glasses (mirrors made of glass).
We know how to inake mirrors of metals (bronze and copper) but not of glass. Another
object was spectacles made of glass lenses. The Europeans gave these things to Indians as
gift and, sometimes, they also sold them (but the market was very limited). Thus, the
Indians started using European glass articles without manufacturing them during the period
under study.

Reclangular Looking Glasses

Spectacles

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

I
It seeins that the technque of fabricating sand or hour-glass was known in India during the SciellceandTeclll1~log~
15Ul.century,but the Mugl~alpaintings exhibit Europe:u~-madesand-glasses only, which
were brought to India by the Europeans. However, the positive evidence for iis iw~ufacture
in India coines from tlie second hdf of the seve~~teentll
century.

Apart from these, we got from Europe drinking-glasses,magnifying or burning glasses and
prospective glasses (telescopes). Since the latier were made of glass lenses like the
spectacles, there was no question of their indigenous m.nufacture during the seventeenth
century.

I1
32.9 PRINTING PRESS

It is 'mazing that the Chinese knowledge of wooden-block printing did not evoke even a
ripple of response in India in spite of frequent communication between the two countries in

j
i
the past. European movable metal types were brought to Goa around A,D. 1550 by the
Portuguese. Tlie latter started printing books on Christian.saints, Sermons, grammars and
voc;~bulariesin the Marathi and Koi~kanilanguages and dialects, but in Roman script rather
than in the Devanagari script. .

1 Emperor Jahangir is once reported to have expressed doubt about types belng cast in Persian
I or Arabic scripts during a discussion with tbe Jesuits, whereupon the latter promptly showed
\. \I h ~ ma copy of the Arabic version of the gospel, probably printed at Vatican in A.D. 1591.
This topic was not brought up again by Jahatng~r.

In A.D. 1670s, Bhimji Parak, the chief broker of the English Company at Surat, took a keen
interest in this technology. Aprinter was sent to India in A.D. 1674 atBhunji's request,
along with a press at the latter's expense. Bhimji intended to contrive types in "banian
characters after our English manner", but it could not be feasible since the English printer
did not know type-cutting and founding. No type cutter was sent from England to assist
Bhimji. Nevertheless, Bhimji persisted in this endeavour to realize his dream of a
printing-press with Devanagari fonts. He employed his own men, obviously Indians, to do
the job. The English factors at Surat testify (A.D. 1676177) that, "we have seen some paper
printed in the banian character by the persons employed by Bhimji which look very well and
legible and shows the work feaqible". But then, at that crucial moment, Bhimji lost heart
a ~ abandoned
~ d the project midway.

Check Your Progress 3

1. List the maill glass items which the Europeans brought to India in the 17th century.
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................

.. Write a note on Bhimji Parak's efforts to start printing-press in Devanagari characters.

..............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
 Ilnlla fro11116th to
Mld 18U1 Century 32.10 TIME-RECKONING DEVICES
The history of horology unfolds a vmiety of devices adoptcd by mankind in different
countries. Among them, gnomons, sundials, clepsydras (water-clocks), sand-glasses,
lnechanical clocks and watches stand out as the most significant contrivances for
time-reckoning with varying degrees of accuracy.

Sand Class

In India, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, clepsydras of the sinking-bowl
variety appear to have been the most commonly used device for measuring time, at any rate,
in urban centres. The Persian term for the bowl was tas, while tas gharial - denoted the
whole mechanism (bowl and gong). The Indian word ghurial is derived fidni the gong that
was struck with a mallet to announce the time indicated by the sinking-bowl. Water-clock is
mentioned during the Delhi Sultanate in Afifs Tarikh-i Feroze Shahi which related the
installation of a tus ghurial by Sultan Feroze Shah Tughlaq at Ferozabad during the second
half of the fourteenth century. Babur also describes the mechanism in the Baburnama.
Abul Fazl, too, takes note of the details.

Much before the Mughals, the Europeans had invented the two most essential feattlres of an
-
ordinary mechanical cloclr the weight-drive and escapement. Europeans' clocks anti
watches were often given in gift to Indians, especially the elite groups (Jabangir was
pfe~enteda watch by Sir Thomas Roe, but the Emperor's memoirs does rlat illention this
fact). The Jesuit church at Agra had a public clock-face with a bell whose "sound was
heard in every part of the city". Notwithstanding the exposure of a substantial cross-section
of Indians to Europeian mechanical clocks and watches for a long time, there is no evidence .
to indicate its acceptance among any social group of Indian society for general use. These
were mere toys, and novelties for the Indians who received them "diplomatic" or ordinary
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
gifts. Tho one important reason for non-acceptance wao the incompatibilify of the Indian
time-reckoning system with that of Europe at that time. In Eurvpc, the system of twelve
equal double-hours prevailed, while the Indian system ccinsisted of 4 quarters (pahr) in the
Further, each pahr was divided jnto gharis of 24 minutes each. Thus, the Indian system had Sd"'eandTdllw1low
60 "hours" (of 24 minutzs) to the full day, and the European consisted of 24 hours of 60
minutes each.

32.11 MISCELLANEOUS
i) True Arch, dome and lime-mortar were already introduced i n t ~
India by the Turks (See.
course EHI-03, Block 6, Unit 22.4). No significant development took p l a e in building
tech~~ology during the seventeenth century. However, we may take note of one practice,
that is, preparation of a sort of "blue print" of the building to be constructed. This was
cdled tarh (outline) in Persian which consisted of drawing on a thick sheet of paper by
employing "grid of squares" (graph sheet) for indicating proportions. We may also
inention that Indian buildings did not have window-panes and chimneys which
Europeans used back home.
ii) The Indians did not employ metallis (copper) boilers to refine saltpetre like the
Europeans; tlle former continued with earthen pots to do the job.
iii) Oxen-&awn carts were in common use, especially for transporting commercial goods.
Horse-drawn carriages were very rare: they were meant only lor passengers. Sir Thomas
Roe presented to Jahangir an English coach drawn by four horses. The Emperor enjoyed
a ride in it (he called it rath furangi). The sovereign, and some nobles got such coaches
built by Indian carpenters for their use. But this interest was short-lived; it did not catch
on during the seventeenth century.

Horse Dram Carrlage

iv) One chemical discovery was made in the early years of Jahangir's reign. It was the
rose-scent ('itr Jahangir). The Emperor records in his Memoirs (Tuzuk-i Jahangiri):
This 'itr is a discovery which was made during my reign through the efforts of the
raother of Nur Jahan Begum. When she was making rose-water, a scum (charbi) Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
i'ormed on the surface of the dishes into which the hot rose-water was poured firom the
 India from 16th to jugs. She collected this scum little by little; when much rose-water was obtained a
Mid 18th Century
sensible portion of the scum was collected. There is no other scent of equal excel!ence
to it. In reward for that invention, I presen'ted a string of pearls to the inventress Salima
Sultan Begum... gave this oil (roghan) the name of 'itr Jdiangiri.
v) Another chemical discovery was the use of saltpetre for cooling water. Abul Fazl
comments that saltpetre, which in gunpowder produces the explosive heats, is used as a
means for cooling water. He also gives the details of how to do so.
vi) Emperor Akbar is reported to have invented an oxen-drawn cart which, when used for
travelling or for carrying loads, could grind con) also. For the latter purpose, however,
watermill was scarcely used in India under the Mughal rule. One Mughal painting (A.D.
1603) depicts an undershot watermill to illustrate a story set outside India proper. Even
windmill (asiya-i bad; pawan chakki) for grinding corn was very rare; one was erected at
Ahmedabad in the seventeenth century whose partial remains could be seen there.
Ordinarily, handmills made of two stones were used for this purppse. It was a very old .
practice.

Check Your Progress 4

1. Why Indians showed reluctance to adopt the European time-reckoning devices.

- 2. Fill in the b l e s :
i) Itr Jahangiri was invented by
ii) Saltpetrewas used for
iii) Indian buildings did not have and in their houses.
iv) Indians used boilers to refine saltpetre.

32.12 LET US SUM UP

This Unit introduced you to several aspects of Science and Technology in India during the
Mughal rule. The treatment of the subject-matter was on two levels: (a) indigenous
development, and (b) Indian fesponse to European Science and Technology.

No noteworthy contribution was made by the Indians in Science in this period. As for
technology, you must have noticed that some inventions were made and new methods
employed, especially in the military sector. In the chemical sector, too, rose-scent and the
use of saltpetre for water-cooling were entirely new discoveries.

The most important and interesting aspect of this Unit is the exposure of the Indians to
European Science and Technology. The Indian response in this rsspect was not uniform.
For example, while in shipbuilding we come across some positive responses it was not so
with regard to glass technology. Positive, negative and indifferent responses varied from
one technology to another due to diverse valid reasons. As for Science, the Indians do not
appear to have profited from the European experience.

32.13 KEY WORDS

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOUClamps : a device designed to bind or constrict or to press two or more parts
together so as to hold them firmly in their relative position
 --

Faience : earthenware decorated with opaque coloured glaze Science and ~ e c l ~ ~ w l o g y

Filatures : reeling of silk from cocoons
Fissures : crack of some length and considerabledepth usually occurring from
, some breaking; a narrow opening
Flint(s) lack : a lock for gun used chiefly in the 17th and 18th centuries having a
flint fixed in the hammer that on striking the battery of the pan
ignited the priming which communicated its fire to be the charge
through,the touchhole
, l'onts : the act or process of casting or founding; a set of any sort of
typological material
Founding : the act of melting and casting
Gnomons : pointer on a sundial; an object that by the position or length of its
shadow serves as an indicator especially of the hour of the day
Mallet : a hammer thgt has a cylindrical typically barrel-shapedbead of wood
or of other soft material
Obsidian : volcanic glass that is generally black, banded or spherulitic and has a
marked coi~choidalfracture, a bright lustres, and a composition
similar to rhyolite but usually with more water
I'hials : a sinall glass bottle for medicine
Rapiers : a straight two-edged sword especially of the 16th and 17th centuries
with a narrow pointed blade used chiefly for thrusting and heavier
than the 18th century small sword.
Throwster : one who throws silk or synthetic filaments
Wheel-lock : a gunlock in which sparks are struck from a flint.
Wootz : Kanarese ukku steel; a steel made in India by crude methods in
small crucibles according to the old process for making fused steel

32.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1. See Sec. 32.3. Define dibbling. Mention that it was a new agricultural device used for
sowing the seeds.
2. See Sec. 32.3. List the new crops and fruits introduced during the 16th and 17th
cei~turies.Also discuss from where these were transported and by whom.

Check Your Progress 2

I . See Sec. 32.5. AnalySe that guns used were mainly inalchlocks. Discuss that mostly
wheel and flint locks were used. Also elaborate that the use of these techniques was
quite limited.
2. See Sec. 34.4. Define both the techniques. Discuss that caulking was neither
technologically superior nor cheap than the indigenous techniques that is why 111dia.n~
hardly showed enthusiasms to adopt the alien technique.

Clleck Your Progress 3

1. See Sec 32.8.
2. See Sec. 32.9. Discuss that Bhimji established his own press in Gujarat. He succeeded in
his efforts only to a limited extent. He left Ihe pro.ject midway.

Check Your Progress 4

1. See Sec. 32.10. Discuss that Indians were aware of the European mechanical clocks, but
they had different time-reckoning system. Elaborate it.
2. i) Saliina S I I ~ Begum,
I ~ U ~ ii) Cooling Water, iii) Window panes, chimneys, Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
iv) Earthcn
 111dlafrom 16th to
Mid 18th Century UNIT 33 ARCHITECTURE '

Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Beginning of Mughal Architecture
33.2.1 Buildings of Babur
33.22 Buildings of Humayun
Interregnum: The Sur Architechlre
Architecture Under Akbar
33.4.1 S t r u ~ ~ rFonn
al
33.4.2 Building Projectp
Architecture Under Jahangir and Shah Jahan
33.5.1 New featues
33.5.2 Major Buildings
The Final Phase
33.6.1 Buildings of Aurangzeb
33.6.2 Safdar Jang's Tomb
La u s Sum up
Key Words
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

33.0 OBJECTIVES
The establishment of Mughal rule in India in 1526 (Block 2) revitalised Indo-Islamic
architecture. The new mlers effected an amalgam of the prevalent architectural forms and
techniques with those brought from Central Asia and Persia. The result of their efforts was
the emergence of one of the most splendid buildings in India.

After reading this Unit you will'know about:

new structurpl forms and techniques in ~ ~ f harchitecture;
a l
major buildings of this period; and
elements of decadence in Mughal architecture towards the close of the period.

33.1 INTRODUCTION
The Mughal rulers were men of acute aesthetic awareness and, as patron of art and culture,
they built beautiful cities and buildings in India. The foundation of a new style of
architecture in India had already been laid in the thirteenth century with the introduction of
the arcuate technique where spaces were covered with domes and entrance$ were made with
the help of arches. The Mughals carried this tradition and created a synthesis of the
pre-Turkish technique, viz., trabeate with the arcuate. The final result, however, of all this
blending was the emergei~ceof a distinct style of their own.

Babur did not have enough to devote to big architectural projects. He, nevenlieless, laid out
several gardens in India on the pattern of his culture-area In his memoires (Bahurnarna) he
claims credit for some pavilions also. Unfortunately very few of his buildings survive today.

Humayun, Babur's successor, was plagued by continuously eroding political authority.

Within a decade of his assuming power, he was dethroned and sent into exile in Persia. The
buildings dating from this period, therefore, do not show any distinctiveness. Humyun
survived for only one year after his return to India in 1555. However, the impact of a long
contact with the Persian culture can be seen in the designing and execution of his
Y
mausoleum under the supervision of wife H h i d a Banu Begum.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU The flowering of the Mughal architecture in reality took place uhder Akbar. He encouraged
a hybrid style, containing foreign ah well as indigenous elemenh. Akbar particularly
appreciated the resources of the indigenous artisans and got them translated in the buildings
of Fatehpur Sikri.

Akbar's son Jahangir was not a notable builder, but Jahangir's son Shah Jahan was one of
the greatest pamn of the building art. Some of India's finest monumental heritage dates
from Shah Jahan's reign. Marble replaced red sandstone as the principal building material,
and the decorative art of inlaying achieved distinction with the introduction of semiprecious
stones as inlay material, called piem dura (prachin kari). Sbah Jahan also introduced the
bulbous domes and convoluted arches in his buildings.
Aurangzeb's temperament did not r e s p d to the style prevailing from his father's reign.
His buildings, therefore, show a change: they are austere in both mate@ and style.

33.2 BEGINNING OF MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

The history of architecture during the 16th-18th centuries is in fact an account of the
building activities of Mughal Empexors, except for a brief interregnum of a decade and ahalf
when Surs ruled in Delhi.
It is true that the Mughal style of architecture took a concrete form during the reign of
Akbar, yet the basic principles of Mughal architecture were provided by Babur and
Humayun, the two predecessors of Akbar.
I

33.2.1 Buildings of Babur

Babur had a short reign of five years, most of which was spent in fighting battles for the
consolidation of the newly born Mughal state. He is, however, known to have taken
' -
considerable interest in building secular works. It is unfortunate that very little of this work
is extant today. The ody standing structures of Babur's reign are two mosques, built in
1526, at Panipat and Sambhal. But both these structures are common place, and possess no
architectural merit.

Babur's secular works mainly comprise the laying of gardens and pavilions. In one of the
miniatures, he has been depicted inspecting the layout plan of a garden of Dholpur. Today,
only the excavated ruins of this garden axe visible. Two more gardens, Ram Bagh and Zahra
Bagh at Agra, are &so attributed to him. But the present layout of these gardens seems to
have undergone many alterations. None of Babur's pavilions have been noticed as surviving
today.

33.2.2 Buildings of Humayun

The surviving buildings of Humayun's reign have the same inconsequential character as that
of Babur. The Mughal domination over India was too unsettled for the production of any
great work of architecture. Moreover, Humayun had to spend fifteen long years of his life in
exile in Persia during the ascendance of the Sur dynasty in Delhi. However, two mosques
from among several other buildings erected during the fmt phase of his reign survive. One
of these lies in ruinous condition at Agra. The other is at Fatehabad (Hissar). But both these
structures are devoid of any architectural distinctiveness much in the same manner as the -,

mosques of Babur.
Humayun's return to Delhi in 1555 was shortlived. There are in fact no notable buildings of
this time. -Mentionmay, however, be made of Humayun's tomb as a structure which was
inspired by the Persian culture imbibed by Humayun during his exile. This building is in
fact a landmark in the development of the Mughal style of architecture. The construction
began in 1564 after Humayun's death under the patronage of his widow, Hamida Bano
Begum. The architect of the building was Mirak Mitza Ghiyas, a native of Persia. He
brought many Persian craftsmen to Delhi to work on the structure and their skills and
techniques were liberally employed. The tomb has thus become representative of an Indian
rendition of a Persian concept. It may be noted that Humayun's tomb, sCrictly speaking, is a
building df Akbar's reign. But because of peculiar features, it has been treated separately.
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
Humayun's tomb is one of the earliest specimens of the garden enclosure and is raised high
on an arcarid sandqtone olatforrn. The tomb is octagonal in ~ l a and
n is crowed bv a hi&
 111dia&or. 16tL to
Mid 18th Ceritury

dome, which is actually a double dome. It has two shells, with an appreciable space in
between. The inner shell fonns the vaulted ceiling to the inner chambers, and the outer shell
rises like a bulb in a proportion with the elevation of the main building. To the centre of
each side of the tomb is a porch with a pointed arch providing entrance to the main chamber.
The interior of this building is a group of compartments, the largest in the centre conhning
Ihe gave of the Emperor. The smaller ones in each angle were meant to house U I Sraves~ of
his family member. Each room is octagonal in plan and they are connectcd by diagona!
passages. A,

A double-dome is built of two layers. There is one layer inside which

provides ceiling to the interior of the building. The other layer is the
outer one which crowns the building. The devices of double dome
enables the ceiling inside to be placed lower and in better relation to the
interior space it covers. 1%$ is done without disturbing the proportions
and the effect of elevation of the exterior. The method of making double
dome was practised in Western Asia for quitc sometime before it was
imported into India.

33.3 INTERREGNUM: THE SUR'ARCHITECTURE

---
The Mbghal rule in India was interrupted by Sher Shah Sur in 1540. For the cext fifteen
years the Empire came under the sway of the Surs who embarked on profound architechural
projects. Their buildings, in fact, laid the ground Work on which the Mughals built.
r.L
Thc architectural heribge produced under diverse conditions and in two separate localities
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU of the Surs may be divided into two separate and distiyct periods. The first phase emeged ait
Sasaram (Bihar) under Sher Shah between 1530 and 15&0. Here a group of tornbs was built
illuskatin,: the final fulfilment of ;!lt Lodi-style (for details, see course EHI-03, Block 8 ) by
I
which it has becil inspired. The second phase lasted from 1540 to 1545 when Sher Shah had Arclbitccture
I
I
wrested control of the Empire from Humayun. Under his patonage, several architectural
innovations were adopted which got reilected in mature fonn in the consequent Mughal style.
i
1I The first phase is represented by a group of tombs, three belonging to the ruling family and
one to Aliwal Khan who was the architect of these loinbs. Tile buildings reflect the ambition
of Sher Shah to create inonurnents grauder than anything round in Delhi. The first project bf
this scheme was the construction of the tomb of Hasan Khan, Sher Shah's father, in 1525.
But this was a conventional exercise in Lodi design. The inajor representative of this group
waq the tomb of Sher Shall (Sawram), a11architectural masterpiece. Here the xhitect
caisiderably enlarged the normal proportions of the earlier building and set it in a beautiful
tank approached by a causeway. In addition to this, he increased the number of stories thus
producing a beautiful pyramidical structure in five distinct stages. This monument was
constructed of the finest Chunar sandstone.

Sher Shah's tomb s m d s on a stepped square plinth on a terrace appreciated though a

gatcway via a bridge placed across the tank. There is an error in orienting the lower
platfoim of the tomb on the main axis. But it is corrected by skewing the axis of the
superstructure built over the lower platform. The maill building comprises iul octagonal
.chamber surrounded by an arcade. There are domed canopies in each corner of the platform.
The proportioils of diminishing stages and the harmonious transition from square to octagon
iuid to sphere are elements which speak highly of the capabilities of the Indian architect.

m e second phase of development took place in Delhi. Sher Shah built the Purana Qila
intended to be the sixth city of Delhi. Today, only two isolated gateways survive. Far more
important, however, was the Qilsi Kuhna Masjid ,built about 1542 inside the Purana Qila
citadel. In the architectural scheme of this mosque, the facade of the prayer hall is divided
inlo five arched bays, the central one larger than the others, each with an opcn archway
recessed within it. The facade is richly carved in black and white marble and red sandstone,
;uld the central arch is flanked by narrow, fluted pilasters. The rear carriers of the mosque
have,tive stair turrets with rich windows carried on brackets.

One notable feature in this building is the shape of the arches - there is a slight drop, or
flatness, in the curve towards the crown. It is indicative of the last stage before the
development of the four-cenued "Tudor" arch of the Mughals.

s -
Sher S I I ~ I 'T~IIIII
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
 Ilwlie f r u l ~16tl1
~ to
Mrl 18th Century

Qila-i Kuhoa Ma~Jld

Check Your Progress 1

1. Match the following:

d i) RamBaghandZahrdBagh a) Harnida Bano Begum
a ii) Humayun's tomb b) Tomb of Sher Shah
b iii) Sasaratn c) Sher Shah
c iv) Purana Qila d) Babur

2. Discuss the characteristic features of Humnayun's tomb in 60 words.

33.4 ARCHITECTURE UNDER AKBAR

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
&ar's reign can be taken as the formative period of Mughal architecture. It represents the
finest example 01' the fusion of Indo-Islamicarcl~itecture.
33.4.1 Structural Form
The architecture of the reign of Akbar represents encouragement of the indigenous
techniques and a selective use of the experiences of other countries. The chief elements of
the style of architecture that evolved under Akbar's patronage c& be listed thus:
a) the buildings mainly used red sandstone as the building material;
b) a widespread use of the trabeated construction;
c) the arches used mainly in decorative form rather than in structural form;
d) the dome was of the 'Lodi' type, sometimes built hollow but never technically of the true
double order;
e) the sl~attsof the pillars were multifaceted and the capitals of these pillars invariably took
the form of bracket supports; and
1') the decoration comprised of boldly carved or inlaid patterns complemented by brightly
coloured patterns on the interiors.

33.4.2 Building Projects

Akbar's buiding projects can be divided into two main groups, each representing a different
phase. The first group comprised buildings of fork and a few palaces mainly at Agra,
Allahabad atid Lahore. The second group related basically to the construction of his new
capid at Path-pur Sikri.

a) The First Phase

011eof the earliest building prqjects of Akbar's reign was the construction of a fort at Agra,
coi~ceivedactually as a fortress-palace. Its mawive walls and battlements convey a11effect
of great power. Inside the fort, Akbar had built inany structures in the styles of Benyal and
Gujarat. Except the Jahangiri Mahal, however, all the other structures were demolished by
Shah Jahan as part of a later phase of remodellihg. Today the Delhi Gate of the fort and
,Jallangiri Mahal are the only representative buildings of Akbar's reign.

The Delhi Gate of Agra Fort probably represents Akbar's earliest architectural effort. It
fonned the principal etltratlce to the fort.- Tbe architecture of the gate shows an originality
sigililjling the slat of a new era in the building art of India. The gate follows a simple plan;
thc different components are:
a front coilsisting of two broad octagonal lowers by thesides of a central archway;
a back having arcaded terraces topped by kiosks and pimcles; and
an ornamentation consisting of patterns in white marble inlaid against the red sandstone
background.

The Jahangiri Mhhal was built by Akbar and is conceived.as a robust building in red
sandstone. It i's the only surviving example in the fort of the domestic requirements of the
ruler and is a fine specimen of the h i o n of the Hind6 and Islaqic building designs. It is
planned in the form of an asyi~unetrical range of apartments. The facade on the eastern side
has an cnlttance gateway leading to a domed hall with elaborately carved ceiling. As one
crosses this hall one reaches a central open courtyard. On the north side of this courtyard is
a pillared hall with a roof supported on piers and cross-beams with serpentine brackets. The
southern side, too, has a similar hall. 'This syminetry is, h~wever,broken on the east side by
a set of chamhers that lead to a portico facing the river Yamuna. The entire consmction is
mainly in red sandstone with the combination of beam and bracket fonnitlg its principal
structural system.

The same style is manifested in the other'palace-fomessesat Lahore and Allahabad. Only
the fort at Ajlncr represents a different class. Since it spearheaded the advancing frontier of
the Empire, Ihe walls of the tort were thickly doubled.
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
 India Iron1 16th to
Mid 18th Century

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 h) The Seconcl I'hase
The sccond phase of Akbar's architectural scheme coincicles wilh Illc conception and
creiition of a ceremonial capitid for the Empire at Sikri, nearly forty kilometres west of Agra.
The new capital was named Fathpur.

11 is one of the most remarkable monuments in India. In its design and layout Fathpur Sikri
is a city where the public areas like tlle courtyards, Diwan-i Am and Jami Masjid form a
coherenl group around the private palace apartments. The city was built in a very short span
of time (1571-1585) a ~ as d :;uch does not follow any conscious overall plan. The buildings
were sited lo relate to each other and to their sm~oundings.An asymnetry seem to have
been deliberately incorporated illto the setting-out and dcsign of the complex. All the
I hulldings are in characteristic rich red sandstone, using traditional traheate construction. The
pillius, lintels, brackets, tiles and posts were cut froin local rocks and =sembled without the

t!
The buildings in Fathpur Sikri may be resolved into two categories: religious and secular
chiuacter. The religious buildings comprise (a) the Jami Masjid; (b) the ;Buland
Darwaza; imd (c) the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chishti. The buildings of secular nature are
Inore varied and thus numerous. These can be grouped under (a)'palms; (b) administrative
buildings; and (c) structures of miscellaneous order. It is a curious fact that the religious
hr~iltlingsare invariably built in the arcuate style while in secular buildings dominates the
(rahcate order.

The Jami Masjid uses the typical plan of a mosque -a central courtyard, arcades on three
sides and domed skylinc. The western side has the prayer hall with three separate enclosed
~iulcLui~ie~, each surmoullted by a dome and linked by 'arcades. The usual entrance to the
mas.jid is irom tile east where stands the structure of a big gateway prqjected in the form of a
h:df hexagonill porch.

In 1596, h e southern gateway w:iv replaced by Akbar with a victory gate, the Buland
Darwaza. It is co~lstructedin red and yellow sandstone with white marble inlay outlining
the span of the arches. The loftiness of the structure is enhanced by a flight of steps on the
oulslcle. The enuance has been formed by a piercing huge central arch which is crowned by
an array of domed kiosks. The Buland-Darwaza was built to commemorate Akbar's
conquest of Gujarat in 1573.

The tomb of Salim Chishti stands in the courtyard of the Jami Masjid in the north-western
quarter. It is all architectural masterpiece as it exhibits one of the finest specimens of marble
work in hidia. The structure was completed in 1581 and was originally faced only partly in
marble. The serpentine brackets supporting the eaves and the carved lattice screens are
reiniukable features of structure.

The palace complex in Fathpur Sikri comprises a number of aparbnenb and chambers. The
largest of these buildings is known as the Jodh Bai palace. The palace is massive and
austere in character. The wall outside is plain with principal buildings attached to inner side,
id1 Pacing an mterior courtyard. On the north side is an arcaded passage and a balcony.
There are rooms in the upper storey in the north and south wings. They have ribbed roofs
covered wilh bright blue glazed tiles from Multan.

A unique building of the palace complex is the Panch Mahal, a five storeys structure,
locatcrl south-east of the Diwani KhW. The size of the five storeys successively diminishes
as one goes upwards. At the top is a small domed kiosk. Some of the sides in this building
were originally enclosed by screens of red sandstone. But none remain intact now. An
interesting feilture is that the columns on which the tive storeys have been raised are all
dissimilar in design. Of the administrative buildings, undoubtedly the most distinctive is the
Iliwani Kl~as.The plan of this building is in the form of a rectangle and is in two stories
Irom oulsides. It has llat terraced roof with pillared domed kiosks rising above each comer.
Inside, Lhcre is a magniticent carved column in the centre, having a huge bracket capital
supporting a circular stone platform. From this platform maate four railed 'bridges' along
catch diagonal oi'the hall to connect the galleries surrounding the upper portion of the hall.
The maill architectural object in this interior is the central column. The shaft is variously
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
patterned and branches out, at Ule top, into a series of closely set voluted and pendulous
brackets whid~support Ule cenual p l a t h .
 Iitdln Du~n16th to
Mld 18th Caltuy

Punch Mohvl

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

Atlother notable building of the same chtegory is the Diwani Am. It is a spaciolls Architecture
rectangul~ucourtyard surrounded by colonnades. The Emperor's platform is towards the
western end. It is a prqjecting structure with a pitched stone roof having five equal
openings. The platfonn is in three parts, the CHI tre probably used by the Emperor and
beparated from the other two sides by fine stnne screens pierced with geometric patterns.

Buildings of miscellaneoiis character are scattered all over the cily complex:
i) Two caravansarais, one located insid? the Agra Gate, immediately to the right; and the
other, the larger structure, is ourside the Hathi Pol nn the left side;
ii) Karkhana building located between the Diwani Am and Naubat Khana, having a
series of brick domes of radiating rather than horizontal courses; and
iii) The water-works, opposite the caravansarai near Hathi Pol, comprising a single deep
haoli flanked by two chambers in which a device was used to raise the water for
distribution in the city.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 M i a from 16th to Check Your Progress 2
Mid 10UI Cfntury
1. Tick mark right (4)and wrong (X) against the following statemenk:
i) Akbar used white marble as building material in most of his buildings.
ii) Akbar's buildings never used double dome.
iii) Akbar's architecture is a combination of trabeate and arcuate styles.
iv) Akbar used corbelling to cover the spaces.

2. Write a note on the important secular buildings at Fathepur Sikri.

3. Name the last of the religious buildings at Fathepur Sikri and write two lines on that.

33.5 ARCHITECTURE UNDER JAHANGIR AND

SHAH JAHAN
Akbar's death in 1605 did in no way hamper the development of a distinctive Mughal
architecture under his successors. A secure Empire and enormous wealth in legacy in fact
permitted both Jahangir and Shah Jahan to pursue interest in the visual arts.

33.5.1 New Features

In the sphere of the building art, Jahangir and Shah Jahan's reigns were an age of marble.
m e place of red sandstones was soon taken over by marble in its most refined form. This
dictated significant stylistic changes which have been listed below:
a) The arch adopted a distinctive form with foliated curves, usually with nine cusps;
b) Marble arcades of engrailed arches became a common feature;
c) The dome developed a bulbous form with stifled neck. Double domes became very
common;
d; Inlaid patterns in coloured stones became the d0mjnar.t decorative form; and
e) In the buildings, from the latter half of the Jahangir's reign, a new device of inlay
decxation called pietra dura was adopted. In this method, semi-precious stones such as
lapis lazuli, onyx, jasper, t6pa.z and comelian were embedded in the marble in graceful
foliations.

33.5.2 Major Buildings

The account of the major buildings of this period begins with a remarkable structure, mat IS,
the tomb of Akbar, located at Sikandra, eight kilometers froin the Agra on Delhi road. I t
was designed by Akbar himself and begun in his own lifetime hut remained incomplete at
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU the time of his death. Subsequently, it was completed by Jahangir with modifications in the
original design. As it stands today, the entire complex is a curious mix of the architectural
schemes of both Akbar and Jal~anglr.
The scheme of this complex envisages the lo~ati011of tomb in the midst of an enclosed Architecture
garden with gateway in the centre of each side of the enclosing wall.

The tomb building in the centre is a square structure built up in three stories. The first storey
is in fact an arcaded platform making the basement. Within the platform, vaulted cells
surrounded the mortuary chamber and a narrow inclined comdor in the south leads to the
grave. The middle portion is in tluee tiers of red sandstone pavilions trabeated throughout
The to storey, of white marble in contrast to the red sandstone elsewhere, has an open court
surrounded by colonnades with screens. The tomb is linked by causeways and canals to the
gateways in the enclosure wall. But it is the one in the south which provides the only
entrance, the other three being fdse gateways added for symmetry.

The southem gateway is a two-storey structure with circular minarets of white marble rising
above the comers. The entire structure of the gateway is ornamented with painted
stuccocoloured stone and marble inlay. Interestingly, the decorative motifs include, besides
the traditional floral designs, arabesques and calligraphy, gaja (the elephant) hamsa (the
swan) padma (the lotus), swastika and chakra.

The architectural importance of Akbar's tomb at Sikandra can be gauged from the fact that
several mausoleums built subsecluently reflect the influence of this structure to varying
degree. Parlicular mention may be made of the tomb of Jahangir at Shalladara near Lahore
and of Nur Jahan's father Mirza Ghiyas Beg at Agra.

The tomb of Itimadud Daula, built in 1622-8 by Nur Jahan on the grave of her father Mirza
Ghiyas Beg marks a change in architectural style from Akbar to Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
The transition from the robusmess of Akbar's buildings to a more sensuous architecture of
the later period is evident in the conception of this structure.

The tomb is a square structure raised on a low platfonn. There are four octagonal minarets,
at each comer, with domed roofs. The central chamber is surrounded by a verandah
enclosed with beautiful marble tracery. The main tomb is built in white marble and is
embellished with mosaics and pietra dura. The central chamber contains the yellow marble
tomb of Itimadud DauIa and his wife. The side rooms are decorated with painted floral
motifs. Four red sandstone gateways enclosing a square garden, provide a splendid foil for
the white marble tomb at its centre.

It sl~ouldbe noted here that J b g i r was a much greater patron of the art of painting. His
love of tlowers and animals as reflected in the miniature painung of his period, made him a
great lover of Ihc art of laying out gardens rather than building huge monuments. Some of
the famous Mughal gardens of Kashmir such as the Shalimar Bagll and the Nishat Bagh
stand as kstimony to Jabangir's passion.

Maill Building

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 Indio fro11116111 to
Mid 18L Ceiltury

La1 Qila

In conrrast to Jahangir, his son at~dsuccessor Shah Jrhan, was a prolific builder. His reign
was marked by a extensive architectural works in his favourite building material. the marble..
Some of these were:
a) the palace-forts, e.g, the La1 Qila a1 Delhi;
b) the mosques, e.g. the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort and the Jami Masjid at Delhi; and
c) the garden-tombs, e.g., the Taj Mahal.

We shall describe here only the more important and representative buildings of Shah Jahan's
reign.

The La1 Qila is a regular rectangle with the nor^ wall following the old course of the
Yamuna river. There are two gate-ways -- the Delhi and Lahore Gates, and massive round
bastions at regular intervals along the wall. The gates are flanked by octagonal towers with
blind arcades and topped by cupolas. A nioat runs all along the fort wall except the river
side. Inside, there are several notable bulldngs of which particular mention play be of
Diwani Am, Diwani Khas and Rang Mahal. The rliwani Am and Rang Mahal are
arcaded pavilions with sandstone columns in pairs, plastered with powdered marble. In the
eastern wall of the Diwani Am is built the throne platform for the Emperor having curved
corniced roof in the style of the Bengal architecture. Behind this structure on the eastern
side is located the Rang Mahal fronted by an open courtyard. Further north, in alignment
with the Rang Mahal is the Diwani Khas. All of these buildings have floral decorations on
the walls, columns and piers.

In the Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort, Shah Jahan made experiment with an alternative
scheme-an open arcaded prayer hall. Moreover, in this mosque the designer has also
dispensed with the minarets. In their place, chhatris have been uscd on all four comers of
the prayer hall. There are three bulbous domes rising over a cusped arcades. The entire
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
building has been built in white marble with blackmarble calligraphy, heightening the
elegance of the structure.
 Thc Jarni Masjid at Delhi is an extended aid larger version of the Jami Masjid at Fatelipur Atcllitecture
Sikri and thus becomes the largest building of its kind in India. It is built on a raised
platfonn surrounded by arcades that have been left open on both sides. The main entrance is
011 the eastern side with an ascending flight of steps increasing h e effect of loftiness. There
are two smaller gateways in the middle of the nortlie~naid soutllem wings. Within, the
mosque follows a plan similar to the Jami Masjid at Fathpur Ski--colonnades running
along die three sides and sanctuary on the fourm side. Three bulbous domes in white marble
rise above the sanctuary. The building material used here is red sandstone with white marble
for revetments and for inlaying tlie frames of panels.

The Tqi MMahal is undoubtedly Shah Jahan's grandest and most well known project. The
consrruction work began in 1632, and most of it was completed by the year 1643. The plan
of the complex is rectangle with high enclosure wall and a lofty cnuance gateway in the
middle of the southern side. There are octagonal pavilions, six in all, at the comers and one
1 e;lcli in the eastern and western sides. The main buildi~~g
of the Tqi stands on a high marble
plalfonn at the northern end of b e enclosure. To the west of this structure is a mosque with
a replica on the east side retaining the effect of symmesy.

The Tai Mahal is a square building with deep alcoved recesses in each side and its four
comers bevelled to form an octagon. Above this structure rises a beautiful bulbous dome
topped with an inverted lotus finial and a melallic pinnacle. At the four coniers of the
plalfonn rise four circular minarets capped with pillared cupolas. The interior resolves itself
into a central hall with subsidiary chambers in the angles, all connected by radiating
passages. The ceiliiig of die main hall is'a semi-circularvault forming the inner shell of the
double dome. The decoralive features of the building consist of calligraphy aid inlay work
in the exterior and pietra dura in the interior. Marble, the main building material, is of the
iinest quality brought from Makrana quarries near Jodhpur. The garden in front of the main
structure is divided into four quadrants with two canals running across, fo~mingthe
quadrants. The cenotaph in the main hall was ei~closedoriginally with a screzn in golden
Uaccry. But it was later replaced by Auraigzeb witli a inarble screen.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 India Trol~~
16t11lo
Mid 1Xll1 C a ~ l u r y

T n j I\l:il~al

Check Your Progress 3

1. Mark right (4)and wrong (X) against the following statements:

The characteristicfeature of Jahangir and Shall Jahan's architecture is:

i) red sandstone is replaced by marble as building material.

ii) use of multi-foliated curves in arches.
iii) double dome replaced by the single one.
iv) inlay work is replaced by tine carvings and geometrical designs.
v) introduction of pietra dura.

2. Write a note on the architecture of the Taj Mahal in about 60 words.

33.6 THE FINAL PHASE

t deals with the building
This section is divided into the two sub-sections. The f ~ sone
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU activities of Aurangzeb reign; the second tells us about the buildings of the post-Aurangzeb
period.
33.6.1 Buildings of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb had none of his father's passion for architecture. Under him, the generous
encouragement given by his predecessors to the arts was almost withdrawn. The
iuchitectural works during the reign of Aurangzeb were less numerous and of a lower
standard than those executed under any previous Mughal ruler. In Delhi itself, the capital
city of the Empire, very few buildings are associated with his name. The major buildings
include the mausoleum of his wife Rabla ud Dauran in Aurangabad, the Badshahi Masjid
in Lahore and the Moti Masjid at Lal Qila, Delhi. The Badshahi Masjid is comparable to the
Delhi one in size and architectural composition. It has a vast court, a free standing prayer
hall and minarets at each comer of the hall. There are four smaller minarets at each angle of
the sanctuary. The cloisters run on the both sides with arched entrances at regular intervals.
There is only one portal. Tbe building material is red sandstone with the use of white marble
as a relief to the red sandstone. Atop the prayer hall, three bulbous domes in white marble
rise beautifully.

Tile olher important building of this period is the Moti Masjid in the Lal Qila, Delhi. The
marble used in its consauction is of a very fine quality. The plan is similar to the Moti
Masjid built by Shah Jahan in Agra fort; only the curves are more prominent. The lhree
bulbous domes cover tbe prayer hall which is designed in the form of three cupolas in the
same alibmment.

The mausoleum of his wife at Aurangabad, is an attempt at emulating the Taj Mahal. But a
serious miscalculation on the part of Aurangzeb's architects in providing the comers of the
mwsoleum, too, with minarets upsets the harmony of the entire building. These minarets, ,

which are superfluous in the overall scheme of the building, are the only major deviation in
copy from the original scheme of the Taj Mahal.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 India from 16th to
Mid 18U1 Century
33.6.2 The Safdar Jang's Tomb
After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the collapse of the Empire was oilly a matter of time. The
few buildings that were built during the first half of the eighteenth century <amplytestify the
decadent conditions that ensued.

The Safdar Jang's tomb at Delhi is the most important building of this period. It is located
amidst a large garden and copies the plan of the Taj Mahal in the same manner as was done
in the Rabia ud Dauran's tomb. One major change in the design, however; is that the
minarets rise as an adjunct to the main building and not as indepcndent structures. The main
building stands on an arcaded platform. It is double storeyed and is covered by a large and
almost spherical dome. The minarets rise as turrets and are topped by domed kiosks. The
building is in red sandstone with maible panelling. The cusps of the arches 2e less cdxved,
but synchronke well with the overall dimensions of the building.

Safdar .lang's Tomb

Check Your Progress 4

1. Discuss the architectural activities during Aurangzeb's reign.

...............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
 2. Write a note on the Safdx Jang's tomb.
..............................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................

LET US SUM UP
Babur and Humayui~were too busy to tackle the political problems to pay much attention to
the building activities. However, Babur himself was a deep lover of gardens and he laid out
a number of gardens in India during the short span of his reign. The main Mughal
architectural activities tool place under Akbar. His buildings are mostly of red sandstone.
Akbar's buildings show a fine blend of trabeate and arcuate forms. Jahangir was more
interested in paintings rather than architecture. However, his interest in paintings, animals
and floral designs affected the contemporary architecture as well and a new decorative
style-pietro-dura was introduced during his reign. During Shah Jahan's reign the Mugld
architecture reached its zenith with the prodominant use of marble. Shah Jahan
immortalised the Taj Mabal, a pure white marble structure. Its double domes, minarets,
multi-foliated arches, etc, -all speak of the perfection and the climax. His successor,
Aurat~gzeb,had little time for building activities, and very few buildings were, therefore,
constructed during his reign. The post-Aurangzeb's period can also be termed as period of
decline. Owing to disturbed political scenario later, the Mughal Emperors could hardly yay
my attention to huge buiiding projects. The only monument of note that cat] be identified is
the Safdau Jang's tomb at Delhi.

33.8 KEYWORDS
Alcove a vaulted recess
Arc!rde a range of rooted arches
A rcli a self-supporting structure made of bricks or of stone blocks and
capable of carrying a superimposed load over an opening
Ilaoli Step-well
Bay deep recess
Bevel a slopping surface
Bracket a support projecting from a wall
Cenotaph co~nmemnorativebuilding
Corivoluted arch An arch that is cusped inside. *
. Colonnade a row of columns
Ciruseways passage across water
Cupola a domical roof over a polygonal space.
Dome a convex roof built over a square; Octaganal or circular space in
building
Eaves slight prqjection of roof
Engrailed arches foliated arch
Facade a course of bricks or stones projecting from a wall as a continuous
structure.
Finial : the top of a pinnacle
Kiosk : an open pavilion having roof supported by pillars
I'ier : a mass of sione or brick which supports a vertical load
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
I'ietra DUI-u : a1 on~amei~~al mosaic of lapis lazuli, marble etc.
 I~ullufro11116th to
MI^ I nth Centurg Post : long timber supporting vertical thrust of some part of a building
Portal : frontage
Reventments : supportivejoints
Stucco : o r n a k n ~ t i o ndone by carving lime plaster
Trabeate : an architectural form in which the main openings are made by
beams supported on pillars
Turrets : side minarets attached with the building.

Engrnllcd Arch (ShnllJahnn)

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 Alcove

33.9 YOURPROGRESS
ANSWERSTOCHECK
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1. i)dii)aiii)biv)c
2. See Sub-sic. 33.2.2

Check Your Progress 2

2. See Sub-sec 33.4.2.Discuss the general characteristic features of Akbar's building at

Fathpur Sikri- the style adopted, building material used, decoration, carving etc.
3. See Sub-sec. 33.4.2

Check Your Progress 3

1. i) 4 ii) 4 iiij X iv) X v) 4
2. See Sub-sec. 33.5.2.

Check Your Progress 4

1. See Sub-sec. 33.6.1. Discuss that Aurangzeb was hardly interested in the building
activities and very few buildings were consaucted during his reign. Describe these
buildings and their characteristic features.
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
2. See Sub-sec. 33.6.2.
 UNIT 34 PAINTING AND FINE ARTS
Structure .

34.0 Objectives
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Antecedents
34.21 Painting in the 15th Century
34.22 Painting under Early Mughlas
34.3 Evolution of Mughal School under Akbar
34.3.1 Establishment of Royal Atelier
34.3.2 Style and Technique
34.3.3 Distinctive Features
34.4 Development under Jahangir and Shahjahan
34.4.1 Introduction of New Styles
34.4.2 Thematic Variation
34.4.3 Final Phase
34.5 European-Impacton Mughal Painting
34.6 Painting in the Deccan
34.6.1 Court Pauo~mge
34.6.2 Style and Theme
34.7 Rajput Painting
34.7.1 Style and Theme
34.7.2 Main Centres
34.8 Fine Arts under Mughals
34.8.1 Music
34.8.2 Dance and Drama
34.9 Let Us Sum Up
34.10 Key Words
24.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

34.0 OBJECTIVES
Cultural values are often reflected through the medium of paintings and tine arts. After
going through this Unit, you will be able to know the following:
the development of painting' during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries;
the various styles and techniques of painting;
the thematic variations in the paintings in different regions, and
the development of fine arts viz., music, dance and theatrical in the &urts of the
Mughals and other regional kingdoms;

34.1 INTRODUCTION
The sixteenth century, especially its second half, marks a watershed in the developmeilt of
the art of painting and music in India. Akbar gave liberal patrollage to the growth of fine
arts during his rule. His successors also showed great interest in these ps,so that by the
end of the seventeenth century painting and music in the Mughal court'reached unparalleled
height.

Simultaneously, in the Deccan, was evolving another peat tradition d painting and music
solrlewhat independent of the Mughal influence. Later, in the eighteeiltll century, the
patronage to painting shifted from the Mughal court to regional kingdoins, such as RajGthan
and Punjab.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU In the following pages you will read details of the emergence of these various traditions of
painting along wiih the growth of other fine arts.
 /
Paintlng and Fine Arts
34.2 ANTECEDENTS
In this section we will discuss the development of painting in the pre-Mughal period.

34.2.1 Painting in the Fifteenth Century

Until recently it was believed that the art of painting did not flourish during the rule of the
Delhi Sultans a d that the illuminated manuscripts of the Mughals were, in facl n revival of
painting after a lap& of several centuries from the end of the tenth. I ~ t e l yhowever,
, enough
evidence has come to light suggesting the existence of:
a lively tradition of murals and painted cloth during the 13th and 14th centuries;
a simultaneous tradition of the Qur'anic calligraphy, lasting upto the end of the 14th'
century, and
a tradition of illustrated Persian and Awadhi manuscripts, originating pr~bablyat the
beginning of the 15th century.

Of this last trad.i.tion, a notable number of illustratedmanuscripts firom thk periodbetween

the 15th and 16th century have become known. Some of these works were commissioned by
independent pawns in the Sultanatelocated outside the court. From the former category
mention may be made of:
a) the Bostan of S'adi, illustrated by the artist Hajji Mahmud, and
b) Ni'mat Nama (a book on cookery)
c) Miftah a1 Fuzala by Muhammed Shadiiadi

Tliese manuscripts were illustrated at Mandu (Malwa) during tbe second half of the fifteenth
century. A fine example of the latter category is the illustrated manuscript of Laur Chanda
(in Awadhi) executed for a patron seemingly not related with the court.

It is, thus, evident that at the time of the advent of the Mughals in Indii there did exist a live
tradition of painting focused mainly on illuminating manuscripts, made possible by the use
of paper as the new material.
,I
34.2.2 Painting Under Early Mughals
Babur, the founder of Mughal rule in Indii (in 1526),ruled for four years only. He was not
tible to contribute anything to the growth of painting. His successor Humayun was mostly
engaged irr containing his rivals till be was forced out of India by Sher Shah in 1540. It was,
however, during his refuge at tbe court of Shab Tahmasp of P q i a that Humayun acquired
love of the art of painting. Humayun was so influenced by the art practiced there that he
commissionedMir Syed Ali and Khwaja Abdus ~ b d dtwo , Persian masters, to illustrate
~nanuscriptsfor hi. These two paintersjoined Humayun's entourage on his triumphant
return to India. .
Humayun's contribution to tbe evolution of Mughal paintins is very important. Thm are
several importaut features of the Mughal school which seem to have originated in the
paintings done during Humayun's period. An important painting from Humayun's period is
titled 'Princes of the House of Timur' and dated c. 1550. It has been executed on cloth, quite
large in size, measuring approximately 1.15m. square. Such a large format is unusual even
for paintings in Persia, and it has been suggested that it probably relates to tbe Mongol
tradition of having paintings in their tents.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 Boston olSa6adl

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

Nimat Narna
 AKBAR
The emergence of the Mughal School of painting as distinct from all otha styles was mainly
due to the deep intercst Akbar took in the promotion of this art.

-.
Akbar's views on 'Ibe Art of Painting
Drawing the 1il;encss of anything is called tasvir. His majesty, f2om his earliest youth, has
ahown a gnat predilectionfor thla art, and givcs it evay encouragement,as he loakR upon
it as a s s , both of study and amusement. Hmcc the art flourishes, and
have obtained great reputation. 'Ibe works of all painters arc weekly laid before
by the Daroghas and the cl&; he then confers rewards a c c d n g to wrcellmcc of
worlmamhip, or in- the monthly salaries. Much progress was made in the con-
modities required for painters, and the correct prices of such articles wem carefully amz-
tained. 'Ibe mixtme of colours has especially been improved. 'Ibe pictures thus received a
hitherto unknown fmish. Most excellent painteas are-now to be found, and masterpieces,
worthy of a Bihzad, may be placed at the side of the wonckrful works of tbe European
paintem who have attained world-wide fame. 'Ibe minutmess in detail, the general fmish,
the boldness of execution, etc., now-observed m pictures, are banparable; even inanimate
objects look as if they had life. More than a h u n M painters have become famous masters
of the art, whilst the number of those who approach perfection, or of those who are middlitg,
is very large. This is especially true of the Hindus; their pictm slapass our conception of
things. Few, indeed, m q e whole world are found equal to them
-Ain Akbari

34.3.1 Establishment of Royal Atelier

'Ibe first major project undertaken during Akbar's regime was that of illustrating the Hamza
I Nama. It began m 1562 for which several artists were employed at the court.

The place where the painters worked was known as Tasvir Khana. Although Abul Fazal
enumerates the names of only seventeen artists, we now know that the number was very
large. S.P. Verma (Art, Material Culture m the Paintings of Akbar's Court, Vikas, New
Delhi, !978) has prepared a list of 225 artists who worked at Akbar's atelier. These artists
belonged tr, different places, but among them the majority were Hindus. Interestingly,
seveaal low caste people, due primarily to their artistic skill, were also raised to the status of
royal arti$t. The case of Daswant, who was the son of a Kahar (palki-bearer), may be
especially cited. The painters were assisted by a set of gilders, linedrawers and pagers. 'Ibe
artists were salaried employees. SP. Verma opines that the lowest paid worker in the atelier
received an amount between 600 to 1200 dams. (40 dams = one rupaya).

There are paintings which bear the names of two artists. Sometimes even three artists
worked on a single painting. On one paintingfrom Akbmama four artists have worked.
The painting was thus a collaborative team work, The sketching of figures and colouring
were done by a team of two different artists. In cases where three artists have worked the
outlining was done by one artist, the other artist coloured the facesand a third one colouted
the remaining figure. It is however not known to us as to how was such a complex
I mangeanent worked out Probably in such a team work the &etching and colouring were
done by separate artists. (Cf. S.P.Verma,op. cit.)
I
As has been noted above, the atelier was supervised by daroghas with the assistanceof
clerks. They were responsible for making materials of painting easily available to the artists
and to oversee the progress of tbeir work. They also arranged for periodicalpresentation of
the artists' works before the Emperor.

34.3.2 Style and Technique

I

The illustration done at Akbar's court are considered as representative works of the Mughal
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
art. Notably, however, in these paintings, there is evident a gradual evolution in tbe style
i
 WIIIfrom 16th to and technique. The illustrations of the early phase are cle&ly influencedby the Persian
Mld 18th C e t uy tradition, the identifying features of which are listed below:
symmetrical compositions;
1 restricted movement of figures;
fineness of the lines of drawings;
flat depiction of architectural columns; and
profuse embelbhnent of buildings in the manner of jewels.

Later, the paintings acquired a distinctive character of their own. They assumed a more
eclectic character composed mainly of the Persian and Indian traditions with touches of
European influence.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

34.3.3 Distinctive Features ~atnttngpmlm~~rb

Tbr Mughal style became recognisable within a span of fifteen years since the setting up of
royal atelier under Akbar. In the next decade or so, i.e. by about 1590 it acquired a
distinctive form which was markedby:

clothing objects of daily use assuming Indian forms.

picane space havmg subs^ scenes set in 6ackgmund
exh- vigor of action aud violent movement
luxuriaut depiction of foliage & brilliant blossoms

It should be emphasizedhere that the identity of the Mughal paintings h d e r Akbar was as
much made of an original style as a fusion of the Persian and Indian tr$ditions. Specific
mention may be made here of the depiction of action and movement which is not tq be found
in either the pre-Mughal art of India or the art of Persia (S.P. Verma in Art & Culture, eds.
A.J. Qaiser & S .P. Venna ,Jaipur, 1993).

Painting under Akbar's m o d distinguish%itself as a tradition from Persiaa painting as well ,

as from Indian styles particularly by the prc& of historical subject matter. The two most
commonly used themes apt:
daily events of the court, and
portraits of leading permdities

While portrait painting was known in Ptrsia,painting as a chnicle of actual events was
certajnly a new emphasis. Painters used familiar form& for hunting or battle scenes
regardless of the fact that the literacy reference for the sceae was historical or purely
imaginary. M m v e r specific events illustrated are frequently reworkings of scenes
'recording%quite d i f f d t events in the earliest known historicalmanuscript of this period,
the Timur Nama of about 1580 AD.Possibly, painm conceived scenes according to a
repertoire of types e.g. the seize of a fot.rress,crossing a river, an audience or battle scene. In
the working of whole volumes such as the Akbar Nama, the artiststseemto have reworked or
adapted these campositional types. Painters usually mated new compositionsonly when no
prototypes existed, and only a few artists were capable of such invention.

We have listed below, in chronological order farnos illustrated manuscripts of this period
Manuscript Date

Anwar-i Suhaili 1570

Tutinama c. 1570-1580
Tarikh-i Khandan-i Timuriya c. 1570-1590
Rabumama c. 1570-1590
Akbalt~ma C. 1570-1600
Tarikh-i Alfi c. 1570-1600
Razmnamx 1582

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 Rezm Name :Pendeve Const

Akbar Nama :M m r ln&dlng tho BPlldlng

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
 Check Your Progrek 1

1) Wrik a note of 50 words on the art of painting under early Mughals.

2) How did the concept of teamwork operate in the Royal Atelier?

3) List four distinctive features of Mughal School of painling.

..........................................................................................................................
J....,..............

34.4 DEVELOPMENTS UNDER JAHANGIR AND

SHAHJAHAN
During Jahangir and Shahjahan, Mughal painting achieved its zenith. Jahangir took a deep
interest in pai~~tingeven as a prince. He maintained his own studio apart from Akbar's large
atelier. Jahangir's preference was for paintings of hunting scenes, birds and flowers. He
also co~~tinued the tradition of pomailure. Under Shab.j&an the colours of the paintings
b e w e more decorative and gold was more frequently used for embellishment. In the
following sub-sections, we shall study the introduction of new styles and thematic variations
in Mughal paintings during Jabangir & Shahjahan's reigd.

34.4.1 Introduction of New Styles

In the period of Jahangir's rule (1605-27), manuscripts &cane less important than
individual pictures. Milo Cleveland Beach (Mughal and Rajput Painting, Cambridge
University Press, 1992) is of the opinion that Jahangir, with his personal involvement, may
have functioned effectively as rl~ehead of the rvyal studio. Therefore, artistic decisions were
e
m d e by the Emperor himself consequently i~ltroduciughis own stylistic preferences in the
piinthgs. Two important new elements in the style of ~ u g h apainting
l during the fvst half
of the seventee~~th century have been identitied as below:
i Jahulgir's paintings seeh to accentuate a formalist stjlle, i.e., making the work realistic
and preferring the precise recording of contemporary reality.
n e paii~tingsof this period have broad ~nxginswhich are gorgeously decorated with the
depictio~lof flora and faces of human figures, etc. designs from plant motifs.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 N.~.km:z.t.byMnrr

34.4.2 Thematic Variations

Jahangir was a keen mimalist. Whenever he came a m a strange animal or bird, his artists
painted the same immediately. We have paintings of birds and animals in the most realistic
fashion.

Shah Jahan was a great patron of architecture, but he did not neglect the painting. Under
him,the yevious tradition of doing portxaits, preparing albums, and, illustrating books, was
continued Additionally we frnd the @mtings depicting charming love scenes and portfaits
of female members. Another important theme chosen for painting was super imposition of
animals and the scenes of performing acrobats.

34.4.3 Final Phase

-',
Aurangzeb, who succeeded S h a h j h , had begun his rule on a bitter note by executing his
brothers and imprisoning his fatber. The arts were ignored during his regime. Painting did not
stop altogether, though it list the patronage of the Em- and became umfmed to the studios
of the nobles. Tbexe exist some commissioned portfaitsof the nobles and their relations from
the c m of the Rajput principalitits.*Large number of karkhanarecords (on paintings) are
located in the Rqasthan Stah?Archives, Bikaner. There also exist a few interesting pictures of
the emperor himself during his W g n s . The skill of the paintem is evident, though the
paintings are more fonnal and seem to have lost their earlier liveliness.

Lam, under Muhammed Shah (1719-48), interest got renewed in depicting pleasure loving
Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU scenes. But by this time many of the painters of impe.tial studio had begun migrating to
urovincial c m . The loss of the Mughals, thus, was the gain of the provincial styles.
I
t The electic ilittute of the Mugha1 School of Painting has been discussed in the Unit earlier.
I 111 its later phase:$,i:spcially during the Seventeenth Caltury, the Mughal painting was
iafluenced by the European arc. Some of the themes of European art were incorporated by
Mughal painters and they also adopted a few of the techniques of European artists.
According to A.J. Qaisar a large number of European paintings were either ~opiedor
adapted or even reinterpreted, sometimes, by Mughal painters. At the same tme many
original prints from Europe were collected and preserved in the albums of Jahangia meE Dat"::
Shikoh and several Mugbal nobles. (A.J. Qaisar, Indian Response to European
Technology dk Culture, Oxford, 1982).

Tlie contact Mughal court painters had wilh European paintings ,prompted thein initially bo
rnake exact copies in their own hands. Such imitations, as noted by contempor~aqEuropeai.. .
travellers, were impeccably done. But Mughal painters also ma& experiinents Sy makil,g
new paintings on the subjects chosen from European paintings.

Emropeas Impact

One import-antfeaturr: that becomes noticeable in some Mughal paintings is the attempt to
make hein b e e dimensional. Clearly it speaks of Ule impact of European technique.
Another Eurbpean convc~~tion acceptable to Mughal painters was the effect of light and
shade, mvstly utilized in fight scenes. The depiction of motifs like 'hals', winged angles and
roaring clouds in Mughal paintings was again under the influence of European paintings.
One important technique that of oil painting from Europe, somewhat did not attract Ule
Mughals. There is no work from this period that was executed in oil.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

 Check Your Progress 2
1) What important thematic variations became noticeable in Mughal painting in the
seventeenth Century?

.
2) Name two memba of Mughal ruling class who made collections of European paintings
in their albums.

3) Which Eurc- In motifs were incorporated by Mughal painters?

34.6 PAINTING'INTHE DECCAN

..
- --

A distinct style of painting emerged in the kingdoms of Ahmadnagat, Bijapur and Golconda
in the Deccan in the late 15th centmy and predates-theMughal painting. But the greatest
p m n a g e to painting in these icingdams was given in the sixteenth century and the Decanni
style reachedits zenith in the seventeenth century under the rmpact of the Mughal W t i o n .
Here we shall trace the developments in the Deccan painting during the 16th-17th centuries.

34.6.1 Court Patronage

The successor states of the Balmmi I(iogdom zictively patronised painting. The earliest
hown painting from these states is dated between 1565-69. It is an illustrated manuscript of
Ta'rif-i Husain Shahi composed arid illustrated at Ahmadnagat. About 1570,a second
Deccani manuscript waq composed and illustrated, this time at Bijapur. This was the
Nujum-ul-Ulum In all probability h i s work was commissioned by Ali Adil Shah who had
several painters working at his court, But the peatest of the Bijapur line, and perhaps of all
the rulers of the successor states, was lbrahim Adil Shah (1580-1627) who was an
accomplished painter and a digraphist. Towards the close of the 16th century, there had
emaged a new tradition of painting in Ahmadwdgar and Bijapur, hown as the Ragamala
painting. Under Ibrahim's patronage this tradition reached the highest point of its growth.

There is another category of paintings in the Deccan style vihich depict the pomp and
grandeur of the royal processions. Several paintings of this type have come down to us from
the reign of Abdulla Qutb Shah (1626-72) of Golkonda.

In the 18th Century patronage of painting in the Deccan passed t the Asaf Jahi dynasty of

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

d
Hyderabad. The painting of Azam S ah returning from bird-shooting and approaching his
pleasure garden at the foot of the lconda fort, and the album of Himmatyar Khan, a noble
of the Nizam's court, are some of important surviving examples of the Deccani painting
from Hyderabad.
 34.6.2 Style and Themes Pahung a d Fine Arts

Numerous influences seem to have affected the formation of the Deccani tradition. Many of
the rulers of Deccan kingdoms were connoisseurs of Persian painting and built up good
collections of miniatures and manuscripts. The influence of the Persian tradition is thus
evidcnt in llle paintings done at their courts. It should, however, be noted that this
a~similationis oot precise and disciplined. Consequently, m y of the features have been
liken over without the refinement of the Persian paintings. Another significant influence on
the Deccan painlings is that of the Mughal school. Contacts between Decani and Mughal
Lradilions developed in m y ways. There were exchanges of artists between the two court
us also gifts of paintings.

But the Deccan paintings cannot be analysed primarily on the b a i s of various derivative
intluences. The best speciinens of Deccan paintings creatively reshape extraneous
suggestions and becoine aesthetically original. Thus the features typical of Deccan paintings
I are:

I hierarchical scaling, i.e., the principal figure being bigger than the subordinate figures;

I rich~~ess
of tl~epalette, in which white and gold are used as they are in no other Indian
miniatures;
typical Jewelry, e.g., plaque of the necklace;
exaggerated swirl of the girdle and stole, especially in the case of feminine tigures, and .
,

intersection of diagonals so as Lo form an arch around the principal figures.

I
34.7 RA.IASTHAN1 PAINTING
I
The Rujasdlani paintings have a distinct aesthetic quality. The emergence of this style, in the
ooiaion of Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, from the earlier pre-Turkish traditions reached its
consummatio~larouild 1600. In its early phase, it showed a greattigour, though ~tabsorbed
Mughad inlluence later. After the collapse of the Mughal power, it reemerged and flourised
under the patronage of different Rajput kingdoms. In the following sub-sections we shall
i discuss the main style and themes of the R!iasthani schools as also the main cenues where
I Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
the art flqurished in the 17th and 18th centuries.
i
 lrnlio fru~n16th to
Mid lR(11 Century 34.7.1 Style and Themes
Rajasthani painting, since its beginning, adopted nature a the maill theme. The illustrations
are almost like landscape paintings where human figures seem to play only sbbordinate
roles. Some of the main elements of nature depicted in these paintings arc:
a variety of tree forms;
a dense foliage;
singing birds and frolicking animals;
rivers full of lotus blossoms; and
drops of rain falling from deep blue clouds.

The Rajasthani miniatures are also known for the intensity of colours used. Deep blue for
clouds, streaks of gold showing flashes of lightening, and emerald green for foliage are some
of the most prominently used colours. The major themes selected by painters of this g e m
are:
' hunting scenes;
portraits, and
musical seasons.

Another characteristic of the Rajasthani paintings, particularly of the 17th century, is the use
of compartmei~talpictures in which space is dividcd into bends and rectangles and used as
liames for figures and groups.

34.7.2 Main Centres

(a) Mewar School: The house of Nisar Din (1606) stands out as the earliest known gropp of
Rajasthani painters. Subsequently the s m e tradition was canied further by Sahib Din, who
worked from 1627 to 1648. Thk phase represents the Mewar School at its height The
illustrated series ran into hundreds covering a very wide range of life, including mythology.
Under the patronage of Jagat Sing I (1628-52). a long series of illustrations&led
Nayakabheda was executed by a number of painters in a poetic and sentimental style.
However, in the subsequenthalf-a-century period, the influence of the Mughal style
gradually weakened the viwity of the Mewar school, and it gradually became more and
more subdued.

M m r School

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

(h) Iiundi School: Ir,has w ahnost parallel history, except h a t here seem to have been two FilleArts
P"illLill~alld

unportant periods in it, viz., 1620-35 and 1680-1700. During the 18th century, Lhe Bundi
school took a new turn. While retaining its originality of expression, it followed the Mughal
scllool in subject-matter and technical details, The main emphxsis now was on the display of
feminine grace in which it seemed '.o excel.

Rundi School
(c) Kishangarh School: The Kishangarh style was lyrical and sometimes sensuous. It was
encouraged by Maharaja S ~ w a nSingh,
t popularly known as Nagari Das at the turn of the
18th century (1699-1764). Although Mughal secular influence in pantlng ai'uected every
court in Rajasthan, in Kishangarh deep Hindu devotionalism seems Lo have survived. Under
Sawant Singh's patronage, there was a spurt in the art ofpai~itingbased on Lhe love-lore of
Radha and Knshna. The Kishangarh paintings are mostly the work of the talented artist
Nihal Chaid. The elegant forms of the Kishangarh females, with Iheir sharp noses, almond
eyes and arched mouths, set up a new tradition in Rajaslhani painting.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

Klshangarh School
 111diafro11116Ul.O
Mld 18111Cenfury 34.8 FINE ARTS
Fine arts durir ..the.l6th-l8th century seem to have developed more in the.regional
kingdoms than in the Mughal state. However, historical information on the development of
tine arts is scanty, and the following narrative is based on piecemeal records.

34.8.1 Music
Centres of musical study and practice, as stated above, were located in regional kingdoms.
In the South, a system of parent and derivative modes, i.e., Janaka and Janya ragas, existed
around the middle of the 16th century. The earliest treatise which deals with this system is
titled Swaramela Kalanldhi. It was written by Ramamatya of Kondavidu (Andhra Pradesh)
in 1550. It describes 20 janak and 64 janya ragas. Later, in 1609, one Somanatha wrote
Ragavibodha in which he incorporated some concepts of the Nortb Indian style. It was
sometimes in the middle of the 17th century that a famous treatise on music,.called
Caturdandi-prakasika was composed by Venkatamakhin in Thanjavur (c. 1650). The
system propounded in the text has come to form the bedrock of the Carnatic system of music.

The development of music in North India was largely inspired and sustained by the bhukti
movement. The compositions of the 16th and 17th century saint poets were invariably set to
music. In Vrindavan, Swami Hatidas promoted music in a big way. He is also considered to
be the teacher of the famous Tansen of Akbar's court. Tansen himself is considered one of
the great exponents of North Indian system of music. He is given ckdit for introducing
some famous mgas viz., Miyan ki Malhar, Miyan ki Todi and Darl~ari.Raja Mansingh
of Gwaliar (1486-1517) played a distinguished part in the growth and perfection of Dhrupad,
a variant style of the North Indian music.

In the 18th century, music in North Indian style received great encouragement at the coun of.
the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. Sadaranga and Adaranga were hvo great composers
of Khayal pyaki at his court- Several new forms of music such as Tarana, Dadra and
Ghazal also came into existence at this time. Moreover, some folk forms of music were also
incorporated in the courtly music. In this category mention may be made of Thumri,
employingfok scales, and to Tappa developed from the songs of camel drivers of Punjab.

Jn passing, it should be noted that while ih the South the texts of music enforced a stricter
science, in the North the absence of texts permitted geater liberty. There were thus several
experiments in mixing the ragas carried out in the North. A loose code-ofNorth India11 style
of music is a feature that has continued to the present day.

34.8.2 Dance and Drama

Evidence on dance and drama in the medieval period is scattered. The more important
sources are the texts on music, dance and drama, and the creative works of literature in the
different languages of India.

The textual material is mainly from Orissa, South India and from the court of the Mughal
Emperor Muhammad Shah. Ahhinaya Chandrika by Mahesvara Mahapatra and Sandt
Damodara by Raghunatha are the two 17th century texts on dance and drama koin Orissa.
From South India we have Adi Bharatam, Bharatarnava, Tulajaraja's (1729-1735)
Natyavedagama and Bahrdvarman's (1753-1798) Balaramabbaratam. There is the
Sangita Malika treatise on dance and music from the court of Muhammad Shah.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Write a note of 50 words on the main themes shown in Deccan paintings.

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU

2) Write three elements of nature depicted in Rajasthani paintings.
..............................................................................................................................................

3) Give names of two main centres of patronage of Rajput paintings.

34.9 LET US SUM UPc

We hsve seen how painting and kine arts came to prosper under the M u m . The keyword
i11 the development of these arts during this period was eclecticism. Painting assimilated
indigenous traditions as we8 as from Persia. In the seventeenth century another significant
intluence, that from Europe, made an impact on Mughal paintings.

Music and dance, and the theatrical arts were the other subjects that received royal
patronage. Tansen adorned the court of Akbar and propelled music to unprecedented
hcighls. In comparison dance and Lheaue remained only at the initial stages of development

34-10 KEYWORDS
Accentuate : intensify
Atelier : workshop or studio of artists
Calligraphy : The art of decorative writing
Embellish : beautify
Gilder : artist marking with golden colour
Mural : wall painting
Palette : flat board used by painter to arrange and mix colours for painting
Portra-it : painting of the face or bust
SketcK : linedrawing
: drama

34-11 ANSWERS TO C$ECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1. See Sub-sec. 34.2.2.
2. Sec Sub-sec. 34.3.1.
3. See Sub-sec. 34.3.3.

Check Your Progress 2

1. See Sub-sec. 34.4.2.
2. Jahangir and Dara Shikoh. See Sec. 34.5.
? Halo, Winged Angels and Roaring Clouds. See Sec. 34.5. Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
 Ikon1 16th lo
I~lcli;~ Check Your Progress 3
hlid 18th Co~lury
1. See Sub-sec. 34.6.2. .
2. See Sub-sec. 34.7.1.
3. E.g. Mewar and Bundi. See Sub-sec. 34.7.2.

SOME USEFUL BOOKS FOR THIS BLOCK -

AL. Bashan (ed.) : Cultural History of India

K.A. Nilkanth Sastry : History of South India
K.M. Jhaveri Milestones in Gujarati Literature,
History of Marathi Literature, Sal~ityaAcademy, New Delhi
Percy brow^^ Indian Architecture (Islamic Period)
Percy Brown Indian Pau~tings
M.C. Beach Mughal Architecture
M.C. Beach Mughal and Rajput Pailltin@
S.P. Venm Art and Material Culture in the Paintings of Akbar's Court
A.J. Qaisar Indian Response to European Technolog

Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU