De Leon, Darlene D. – AP1A​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Prof.

Andrea Natasha Kintanar

-​ However, humans did not evolve from monkeys
but share a common ancestor with apes.

What Makes Us Human Evolution is not a linear process of stages or

steps but a branching process where different
Video – Arkiyoloji at Kasaysayan
species diverged over time. Emphasizing this
distinction helps clarify that humans and
Introduction
monkeys evolved from a shared ancestor, not

👋 Introduction -​
directly from each other.

-​
-​
Discussion guided by Andre Kasalan
Focus on evolution and its key concepts
4.​ 🏆 "Survival of the fittest means the strongest survive."
-​ "Fittest" = best adapted to the environment, not the
-​ Reminder to keep an open mind even if it challenges
strongest.
personal beliefs

💡 Discussion Prompts: ➔​ Ex. Wooden shape sorter analogy:

○​ Environment = holes
1.​ What is evolution?
○​ Organisms = shapes
2.​ What key concepts, keywords, or imagery do you
○​ Best fit = best chance to survive and reproduce
associate with evolution?
3.​ What sets humans apart from the rest of the animal
➔​ Environmental changes affect survival:
kingdom?
-​ New "shapes" (adaptations) become necessary

📝 Activity -​
when the environment changes.
Genetic diversity increases adaptability.
1.​ Arrange the following crania from oldest to youngest.
2.​ Guess which one is Homo sapiens.
○​ ✅ Homo sapiens: Number 6 ➔​ Ex. 🦠 COVID-19 pandemic:
○​ ✅ AER: Number 1 -​ Genetic diversity in immune responses helped
some individuals survive.

🤔 Reflection Questions: -​ Virus adapted and mutated to persist despite

vaccines.
➔​ What was your basis for arranging them?
-​ Shape? Size? Other factors? ●​ 🦒 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Theory
-​ French naturalist’s idea of inheritance of acquired
Misconceptions About Evolution traits.

❌ "Evolution is just a theory."

➔​ Ex. Giraffes
1.​ -​ Long-necked giraffes survived better because
-​ A theory refers to a rigorous framework of testable they could reach food.
predictions that accounts for all known evidence. -​ Over time, this trait was passed on.
There are numerous tested hypotheses before -​ Lamarck’s theory was oversimplified but illustrates
something reaches the level of a theory. natural selection.
-​ The nature of science is not to find "the truth" but to ➔​ Modern understanding: Traits are passed through
look at the best explanation given the available genetic mutations and natural selection.
evidence and circumstances at a given moment.
🔄 "Evolution no longer happens."
🌍 "Evolution explains the origin of life."
5.​
2.​ -​ Evolution is ongoing and continuous.
-​ We have to recall that evolution does not necessarily ➔​ Ex. Sickle cell anemia
explain the origin of life. Instead, it tries to account for -​ Prevalent in malaria-prone areas of Africa.
or explain the diversity and variability of different -​ Sickle cell trait offers resistance to malaria.
creatures on Earth—plants, animals, etc.—and how ➔​ Ex. COVID-19
these changes occur over time. -​ Virus evolved to produce new variants.

🐒 "Humans evolved from monkeys."

-​ Human immune systems adapted over time.
3.​
-​ The biggest misconception about evolution is the 6.​ 🚀 "Evolution leads to perfection."
idea that humans came from monkeys. When -​ Evolution is not about progress or reaching a "perfect
Charles Darwin introduced this idea, people form."
reacted strongly, struggling to accept that ➔​ Evolution results in branching patterns:
humans could be linked to monkeys, which are -​ Some species thrive, others go extinct.
often seen as playful and unintelligent. Editorial -​ Mutations are random and may or may not be
cartoons at the time reflected this beneficial.
misunderstanding. ➔​ Better analogy:
De Leon, Darlene D. – AP1A​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Prof. Andrea Natasha Kintanar
-​ Evolution is a family tree with multiple branches, ●​ Australopithecines may have also used tools.
not a straight line. ●​ Homo habilis likely advanced tool-making further.
-​ Adaptation depends on environmental
pressures, not achieving perfection. 🔥 Homo Erectus: The Longest-Surviving Hominin
-​ Lived between 2 million years ago to 110,000 years ago.
A Brief History of Humankind -​ Survived longer than modern Homo sapiens.
-​ First hominin to migrate out of Africa and expand into
➢​ Human evolution is a topic that many have learned about Asia and other regions.
in primary, secondary, or college education. This section -​ Developed advanced stone tools with symmetry.
provides an overview of our earliest ancestors and how -​ Credited with the first controlled use of fire—a major
they fit into the evolutionary tree. milestone in survival.

➔​ Overview of our earliest ancestors and their evolutionary 🌍 Regional Variations:

significance: ●​ Homo ergaster – African populations of Homo erectus
1.​ Australopithecines ●​ Homo erectus – Populations found in Asia
2.​ Homo Habilis ●​ First explorers of the hominin lineage.
3.​ Homo Ergaster (Africa)
4.​ Homo Erectus (Asia)
5.​ Homo Georgicus (Georgia)
🌍 Homo Georgicus: The Variable Hominin
-​ Fossils discovered in Georgia (Eurasia).
6.​ Homo Heidelbergensis -​ Lived around 1.8 million years ago.
7.​ Homo Neanderthalensis -​ Shows mixed traits between Homo habilis and Homo
8.​ Homo Sapiens erectus.
-​ Suggests early humans had a more complex migration
pattern than previously thought.

🧠 Homo Heidelbergensis and Neanderthals

Homo Heidelbergensis
-​ Lived between 700,000 to 200,000 years ago.
-​ Believed to be a direct ancestor of Neanderthals and
modern humans.

Homo Neanderthalensis (Neanderthals)

👣 Early Hominins: Paranthropus and -​

-​
Existed between 400,000 to 40,000 years ago.
Overlapped with early Homo sapiens.
Australopithecus ➔​ Key traits:
-​ Represent some of the earliest hominins, dating back 3 to ●​ Stocky bodies adapted for cold climates
4 million years ago. ●​ Used tools and fire
-​ Helped establish the foundation for later human ●​ Developed symbolic culture (e.g., burial practices)
evolution.
🧬 Neanderthal DNA in Modern Humans:
➔​ Key Traits: -​ Genetic evidence shows interbreeding between
●​ Strong evidence of bipedalism (walking on two legs) Neanderthals and Homo sapiens.
●​ Early tool-making abilities -​ Some European populations today still carry Neanderthal
DNA.
-​ While they were not direct ancestors of modern humans,
they played a significant role in the broader evolutionary 🌿 Evolution is not linear:
timeline. -​ Evolution is a branching process with overlaps and dead

🔨 Homo Genus and the Development of Tool Use

ends.
-​ Multiple hominin species existed at the same time.
-​ The Homo genus includes direct human ancestors and
reflects significant evolutionary advancements. 🌍 Homo Sapiens and the Out-of-Africa Theory
🖐️ Homo Habilis ("The Handy Man")
-​ Modern humans (Homo sapiens) evolved in Africa around
300,000 years ago.
-​ Lived between 1.5 to 2.5 million years ago.
-​ Name means "handy man" because it was originally ●​ Out-of-Africa Theory
thought to be the first hominin to use tools. -​ Africa = "Cradle of humanity"

➔​ However, newer research suggests:

De Leon, Darlene D. – AP1A​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Prof. Andrea Natasha Kintanar
-​ Fossils of early ancestors (Ardipithecus,
Australopithecus, and Paranthropus) are found in
Africa.
-​ Homo erectus was the first to migrate out of Africa.
-​ Later, Homo heidelbergensis gave rise to
Neanderthals in Europe.
-​ Homo sapiens evolved in Africa before spreading
worldwide.
-​ Homo sapiens expanded across the globe, adapting to
various environments and outcompeting other hominins.

Sites in the Philippines

📍 Major Paleolithic Sites in the Philippines 🧬 Homo Luzonensis: A New Species

-​ In the 2000s, Dr. Armand Mijares discovered a third
➔​ When studying the Philippine Paleolithic period and early
human presence in the archipelago, these three major metatarsal bone (foot bone) dated to 67,000 years
sites are essential: ago—older than the remains found at Tabon Cave.
1.​ Rizal, Kalinga -​ Initially thought to belong to Homo sapiens, but further
2.​ Callao Cave analysis confirmed it belonged to a different species.
3.​ Tabon Cave -​ Excavations uncovered teeth, thigh bones, hand bones,
-​ Each site offers unique evidence of early human activity and foot bones, leading to the identification of a new
and adaptation in the region. species: Homo luzonensis.
-​ Homo luzonensis was small-bodied, similar to Homo
🦴 Tabon Cave (Palawan) floresiensis (the "Hobbit") found on Flores Island,
Indonesia.
-​ One of the most significant Paleolithic sites in the
Philippines, located within Lipuun Point, part of the Tabon -​ 11 more human remains.

Caves Complex.
-​ Named after the Tabon bird (Philippine Moundbuiler),
which disturbs the cave floor by digging to lay eggs.

🔎 Discovery of Human Fossils

-​ In the 1960s, archaeologists discovered a skull cap
(frontal bone) initially dated to 22,000–24,000 years
ago—once considered the oldest evidence of modern
Homo sapiens in the Philippines.
-​ In the 2000s, further excavations led to a revised dating
of 16,500 years ago—younger than previously thought.
-​ Discovery of a tibia (shin bone) at the same site, dated to
47,000 years ago, made it the oldest evidence of modern
Homo sapiens in both the Philippines and Island 🌍 Island Dwarfism
Southeast Asia. -​ The small stature of Homo luzonensis is explained by
island dwarfism—a process where limited resources and
environmental pressures lead to reduced body size over
generations.
-​ This pattern is seen in other island species, including
early humans.

🏞️ Rizal, Kalinga (Cagayan Valley)

➔​ Located in the Cagayan Valley region, known for
numerous discoveries of stone tools and fossils of large
prehistoric mammals, including:
●​ Rhinoceros
●​ Elephants (Stegodon and Elephas)
-​ Similar fossils and tools were found in Indonesia

🦶 Callao Cave (Cagayan Province) alongside Homo erectus fossils, suggesting early
hominins coexisted with these animals in the Philippines.
-​ Located in Northern Luzon (Cagayan Province), part of a
-​ However, no early human fossils had been found in Rizal,
protected cave complex that includes a church within the
Kalinga—only tools and bones.
cave system.
De Leon, Darlene D. – AP1A​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Prof. Andrea Natasha Kintanar
●​ Bipedalism – is one of the most compelling arguments for
human uniqueness.
-​ While other animals (including primates) may walk on
two legs occasionally, humans and hominins are obligate
bipedal—walking upright as a primary mode of
movement.

💀 Skull and Spine Adaptations

➔​ The foramen magnum (the hole where the spinal cord
connects to the skull) is key to understanding bipedalism:
●​ Gorilla – positioned toward the back.
●​ Chimpanzee – positioned toward the back.
🚨 Groundbreaking Discovery in 2018 ●​ Human – positioned in the center, allowing for
-​ In 2018, archaeologists announced the discovery of upright posture.
indirect evidence of early humans in the Philippines
dating back 700,000 years. ➔​ This positioning influences spinal alignment and posture:
➔​ Excavations (2014–2015) led by Thomas Ingicco a.​ In primates, the spinal orientation causes a slouch
uncovered: when walking on two legs.
●​ Stone tools associated with a rhinoceros skeleton. b.​ In humans, the central foramen magnum supports an
●​ Cut marks, percussions, and butchery marks on the upright stance.
bones, indicating that early humans processed the
animal for food. ⚖️ The Role of Gravity and Structure
-​ This confirms that early humans were present in the ➔​ The human body is structured to counteract gravity:
Philippines as early as 700,000 years ago. ●​ S-shaped spine – curved to help distribute weight
evenly.
❓ Who Were These Early Humans? ●​ Shorter, rounded pelvis – supports joint stability and
-​ In Indonesia, Homo erectus was responsible for similar balance when standing upright.
stone tools and butchery marks. ●​ Trade-off – more prone to back pain due to the
-​ The presence of Homo floresiensis and Homo luzonensis spine’s shape and alignment.
in the region suggests that an unidentified hominin
species may have been responsible for these early
activities in the Philippines.
🤰 Trade-Offs of an Upright Posture: Childbirth
➔​ Adaptations for bipedalism complicated childbirth:

🌍 Significance of Findings ●​ Chimpanzees – wider pelvic inlet, allowing for easier

birth.
➔​ The discoveries at Tabon Cave, Callao Cave, and Rizal, ●​ Humans – narrower pelvic inlet, requiring the baby’s
Kalinga provide valuable insights into: head to twist during birth.
●​ Early human migration patterns -​ Evolutionary changes in pelvic structure increased birth
●​ Evolutionary adaptations difficulty in humans.
●​ The diversity of hominin species in Island Southeast
Asia 🦶 Evolutionary Adaptations in the Legs and Feet
➔​ Studies show key structural differences between humans
Humans and Animals and other primates:

🧠 What Sets Humans Apart from the Animal

●​ Valgus angle – Human knees angle inward,
improving joint stabilization.
Kingdom? ●​ Center of gravity – Humans’ center of gravity
-​ What are elements or attributes that are unique to supports better balance while standing upright.
humans? ●​ Foot structure
➔​ Key questions often debated when defining human -​ Toes are shorter and non-opposable.
uniqueness: -​ Arched foot reinforces shock absorption and
○​ What is culture? upright walking.
○​ What is language? -​ These adaptations support upright movement over long
○​ What is communication? distances.

👣 Fossil Evidence: The Laetoli Footprints

○​ What is a tool or technology?
-​ These elements are central to cognitive and social
distinctions between humans and other animals. -​ Location: Laetoli, Tanzania

🦴Biological Evidence: The Argument for Bipedalism

-​ Age: ~3.6 million years ago
-​ Two sets of footprints—one larger, one
smaller—captured in volcanic ash.
De Leon, Darlene D. – AP1A​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Prof. Andrea Natasha Kintanar
-​ Evidence that early hominins (likely Australopithecus
afarensis, like Lucy) were walking bipedally.

🧠 Increasing Cranial Capacity Over Time

➔​ Fossil evidence shows a gradual increase in brain size:
●​ Australopithecus afarensis – smaller cranium
●​ Homo sapiens – larger, rounder cranium
-​ A larger brain doesn’t guarantee survival.

➢​ Unlike animals that rely on: Claws, fangs, and fur

➢​ Humans relied on: Tool use, socialization, and culture

🍖 The Role of Diet in Brain Growth

➔​ High-fat diets contributed to brain development:
●​ Bone marrow
●​ High-fat foods
●​ Cooked food – increased nutrient absorption
-​ These dietary changes supported larger brain
development and higher cognitive function.

🏺 Homo Sapiens and Cognition

-​ Neanderthals and archaic Homo sapiens had larger brain
cases than modern humans—but didn’t survive.
-​ Homo sapiens = “wise man” or “thinking man”
➔​ Survival depended on:
a.​ Social behavior
b.​ Communication
c.​ Adaptability

🌐 Cognition and Human Identity

➔​ Beyond physical traits, cognition plays a crucial role in
defining human uniqueness:
a.​ Language – complex and symbolic communication.
b.​ Technological behavior – tool-making and
problem-solving.
c.​ Social structures – cooperation, leadership, and
shared norms.
d.​ Abstraction and symbolic thought – artistic and
symbolic expression.
e.​ Culture – traditions and collective knowledge.
-​ These cognitive and social traits distinguish humans from
other species.

👣 Defining Human Attributes:

●​ Bipedalism – Primary mode of movement is upright
walking.
●​ Increased cranial capacity – Larger brain case (but
intelligence matters more than size).
●​ Cognitive and social skills – Language, tool use, and
culture define human identity.

💡 Final Thought:
-​ The combination of biological adaptations (bipedalism,
spinal structure, brain growth) and cultural advancements
(language, communication, tool use) defines what makes
humans unique.