UNIT 2

LIBERAL REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY,

PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY,
DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY
LIBERAL REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY

• Liberal representative democracy is a form of government in which citizens elect

representatives to make decisions on their behalf. It is based on the principles of liberalism,
which prioritise individual rights, freedoms and democracy and emphasises the importance of
popular participation and consent in government.
• The rights and freedoms protected by the constitutions of liberal democracies are varied, but
they usually include most of the following rights to due process, privacy. Property and equality
before the law and freedoms of speech, assembly and religion. In liberal democracies, these
rights, also known as liberal rights, may sometimes be constitutionally guaranteed or are
otherwise created by statutory law or case law, which may in turn, empower various civil
institutions to administer or enforce these rights.
Liberal democracies also tend to be characterised by tolerance and pluralism. Widely differing
social and political views, even those viewed as extreme or fringe are permitted to co-exist and
compete for political power on a democratic basis. Liberal democracies periodically hold
elections where groups with differing political views have the opportunity to achieve political
power. In practice, these elections are nearly always won by groups who support liberal
democracy, thus, the system perpetuates itself.
The term ‘liberal” in ‘liberal democracy’ does not imply that the government of such a democracy
must follow the political ideology of liberalism. It is merely a reference to the fact that the initial
framework for modern liberal democracy was created during the Age of Enlightenment by
philosophers advocating liberty. They emphasised the right of the individual to have immunity
from the arbitrary exercise of authority. At present, there are numerous different political
ideologies that support liberal democracy Examples include conservatism, Christian democracy,
social democracy and some forms of socialism
• A liberal democracy may take the form of a constitutional republic or constitutional monarchy. Liberal
democracies usually have universal suffrage, granting all adult citizens the right to vote regardless of
ethnicity, sex, property ownership, race, age, sexuality, gender, income, social status or religion.
• Origins and Development
• it was not until the Enlightenment Era of the 17th and 18th centuries that the principles of liberalism and representative
democracy began to take shape. This was a time of great intellectual and social change with philosophers such as John
Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau developing ideas about individual rights, social contract and role of government. In the
late 18th and early 19th centuries, liberal representative democracy began to take hold in Europe and North America.
The American Revolution and the French Revolution established democratic governments based on the principles of
liberalism and representative democracy. In the United States, the Constitution established a federal system of
government with a separation of powers, while in France the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen guaranteed
individual liberties and popular sovereignty.
• Since then, liberal representative democracy has become the most widely adopted form of government
in the world. However, its implementation and practice vary widely depending on the cultural, political,
and economic context of each country.
• Features of Liberal Representative Democracy
• Constitutionalism - Constitutionalism is a modern concept that promotes a political order
governed by laws and regulations. It stands for rule of law i.e. Supremacy of the law and not rule of
individual.
• Separation of powers- Liberal representative democracies typically have three branches of
government the executive, legislative and judicial. This separation of powers ensures that no branch of
government becomes too powerful and that there are checks and balances on the exercise of
government authority.
• Free and fair elections Liberal representative democracies are based on the principle of popular
sovereignty, which means that ultimate power rests with the people. This is achieved through free and fair
elections, where citizens can choose their representatives through a democratic process.
• Protection of individual rights and freedoms Liberal representative democracies prioritise
individual rights and freedoms, including freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and freedom of the
press. These rights are enshrined in the Constitution and are protected by the courts.
• Rule of law Liberal representative democracies are governed by the rule of law, which means that all
citizens, including those in government, are subject to the same laws and regulations. The courts are
responsible for upholding the law and ensuring that everyone is treated equally under the law.
• Types of Liberal Representative Democracy There are several different types of liberal
representative democracy, each with its own unique characteristics and features. Here are
some of the most common types:
• Presidential democracy In a presidential democracy, the head of state (the President) is also
the head of government and is elected separately from the legislative branch. This type of
system is used in the United States and many countries in Latin America,
• Parliamentary democracy In a parliamentary democracy, the head of government (the Prime
Minister) is elected by the legislative branch (the Parliament). This type of system is used in
countries like the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada and Australia.
• Constitutional monarchy In a constitutional monarchy, the head of state is a monarch who
serves as a ceremonial figurehead, while the head of government is a democratically elected
leader. This type of system is used in countries like the United Kingdom, Sweden, Norway,
Denmark and the Netherlands.
• Federal democracy In a federal democracy, power is divided between a central government and regional
or state governments. This type of system is used in countries like the United States, Germany, Canada,
Australia and Switzerland.
• Semi-presidential democracy A semi-presidential system is republican system of governance that
combines elements of presidential democracy with parliamentary democracy. This type of system is used
in country like France
• Strengths of Liberal Representative Democracy
• Protection of individual rights and freedoms
• Political stabilityLiberal representative democracies are typically stable and predictable, which provides a
secure environment for economic growth and development.
• Accountability In a liberal representative democracy, the government is accountable to
the people through regular elections and other mechanisms of democratic oversight. This
ensures that government officials are responsive to the needs and concerns of the
citizens they represent.
• Checks and balances The separation of powers and system of checks and balances in a
liberal representative democracy ensure that no branch of government becomes too
powerful, and that there are mechanisms in place to prevent abuses of power
• Weaknesses of Liberal Representative Democracy
1. Slow decision-making The democratic process can be slow and cumbersome, which can make it
difficult to address urgent issues or respond to crises in a timely manner
2. Majority rule While liberal representative democracy is based on the principle of popular sovereignty,
this can sometimes lead to the tyranny of the majority Minority groups may be marginalised or
ignored, and their rights may be trampled upon.
3. Voter apathy: : In many liberal representative democracies, voter turnout is low, which can undermine
the legitimacy of the democratic process. This can lead to a situation where a small minority of the
population wields disproportionate power
4. Money in politics The influence of money in politics can be a problem in liberal representative
democracies. Wealthy individuals and corporations may be able to use their financial resources to
influence elections or the policy- making process.
 5. Polarisation and gridlock: In some liberal representative democracies, polarisation and gridlock can make
it difficult to pass legislation or address important issues. Partisan politics and ideological differences can
prevent compromise and consensus-building.
Various Philosophers’ Views on Liberal Representative Democracy
John Locke is one of the founders of liberalism, and his views on government influenced the development of
liberal representative democracy. According to Locke, the purpose of government is to protect the natural
rights of individuals, including the rights to life, liberty, and property. He believed that individuals have the
right to govern themselves and choose their own representatives through free and fair elections. Locke
argued that if the government fails to protect the rights of the people, the people have the right to revolt
and form a new government. This idea of the right to revolution influenced the American Revolution and
the development of the United States as a liberal democracy.
• John Stuart Mill was a philosopher who believed in individual freedom and the importance of democracy. He argued that representative
democracy was the best form of government because it allowed for the greatest amount of individual liberty while still protecting the
rights of minorities. Mill believed that the role of government was to protect the individual’s freedom to pursue their own interests, as
long as they did not harm others. He also believed in the importance of education and public debate in ensuring that individuals were
informed and could make rational decisions in the political process.
• Robert Dahl, a contemporary political theorist, also had a positive view of liberal representative democracy. He argued that democracy
was essential for the legitimacy of government and that the government should be accountable to the people through free and f air
elections. Dahl believed that democracy was more than just a political system, but also a way of life that encouraged the active
participation of citizens in the political process. He also emphasised the importance of institutions and rules that protecte d the rights of
minorities and prevented the concentration of power in the hands of a few.

• In conclusion, the views of philosophers on liberal representative democracy vary, but all recognise the importance of indivi dual rights,
democracy and accountability in government. John Locke believed in the right to self-governance and the importance of protecting
individual rights, John Stuart Mill emphasised individual freedom and the importance of education, while Robert Dahl emphasised the
importance of institutions and rules to protect minority rights and prevent the concentration of power. These differing views on liberal
representative democracy have shaped our understanding of democracy and the role of government in modern societies
PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY

• Participatory democracy is a form of democracy that emphasises the active participation of citizens in the
decision-making processes of government. In a participatory democracy, citizens can shape policies and
programs, rather than simply electing representatives who make decisions on their behalf
• Participatory democracy can take many forms, ranging from town hall meetings and citizen juries to more
complex mechanisms such as participatory budgeting and deliberative polling. The common thread that ties all
these forms together is the idea that citizens should have a direct role in shaping the policies and decisions that
affect their lives
• One of the key benefits of participatory democracy is that it can help to create a more engaged and informed
citizenry. When citizens are actively involved in the decision-making process, they are more likely to understand
the issues at stake and to feel a sense of ownership over the policies and programs that are implemented. This
can help to increase political engagement and foster a greater sense of community and civic responsibility.
 Importance of People’s Participation in a Democracy
1. Good governance People’s participation is essential for good governance and is the backbone of the democratic process.
When people express their views and opinions, it becomes possible for a government to effectively execute various welfare
measures listening to people’s grievances. It is significant in various policy and decision-making processes undertaken by the
government
2. Feedback mechanism People’s participation helps the government understand the viewpoints of citizens and gather feedback.
This helps them to make policy implementation better and plug various loopholes regarding various welfare measures
3. Better policy implementation Without people’s participation, any effort made for their welfare does not give the desired
results. People’s participation is important, especially when a policy seeks to make a behaviour change. For example,Swachh
Bharat Abhiyan and Beti Bachao, Beti Padao are made successful due to the drive to involve people at a local level.
4. Accountability People’s participation makes the government accountable to them. It creates a 2-way mechanism in which the
government understands the issues of citizens better and people learn about government efforts in a better way, thereby
removing misunderstandings and making the government accountable and answerable to people. For example, RTT has
increased accountability in government due to increased participation of citizens
• Ways to Enhance People’s Participation
1. Media Media is always connected with people. Strengthening media’s freedom and safety can help better involvement of
people. The Prime Minister’s “Mann Ki Baat initiative has enabled Indian citizens to directly connect with him. Social media is
another new platform that is transforming governance and government services. For example. Twitter is being used
excessively nowadays by railways, and municipalities to solve various issues
2. Connectivity The Internet is an enabler as it connects citizens directly to the government. For example, mygov.in, is a
platform of government that helps it to connect with people and get various inputs regarding important national issues and
policies.

3. Incentives Monetary incentives attract people from every sphere. Government can provide incentives to people to get
involved and work with it for good governance. For example, government efforts to create various competitions like logo
design contests help people to participate actively in government activities.
• Critics of Participatory Democracy
• One criticism of participatory democracy is that it is not practical on a large scale. In a society with millions of
citizens, it may not be possible for everyone to participate in the decision-making process. This is especially true
in complex policy areas, such as foreign policy or economic policy, where specialised knowledge is necessary. In
such cases, it may be necessary to delegate decision-making to experts or representatives who have the
necessary knowledge and expertise .
• Another criticism of participatory democracy is that it can be time-consuming and inefficient. In participatory
democracy, decision-making can be a slow and deliberative process that involves extensive consultation and
debate among citizens. This can lead to delays in decision-making and can make it difficult to respond quickly to
urgent or unexpected events. Additionally, the process of consultation and debate can be resource-intensive,
requiring a significant investment of time and resources..
• Critics also argue that participatory democracy can be divisive and polarising. In a participatory democracy,
citizens are encouraged to express their opinions and engage in debate with one another. However, this can
lead to the formation of factions and interest groups, which can become entrenched and resistant to
compromise. This can make it difficult to reach a consensus and can lead to political gridlock and instability
• Critics also argue that participatory democracy can lead to a tyranny of the majority. In participatory democracy, decisions are
often made through direct democracy, such as referendums or public meetings. However, in such cases, the majority may be
able to impose its will on minority groups, without considering their interests or concerns. This can lead to the marginalisation
of minority groups and can undermine the principles of democracy, which should be based on respect for individual rights and
freedoms
• Various Philosophers’ Views on Participatory Democracy
• Plato: Plato believed that participatory democracy would lead to chaos and disorder. According to him, people are irrational,
and they lack the necessary knowledge and expertise to make informed decisions.
• Aristotle: Aristotle was more open to the idea of participatory democracy than Plato. He believed that democracy could work,
but it required the participation of all citizens. According to Aristotle, the key to a successful democracy was a well-educated
citizenry. He believed that citizens needed to be knowledgeable and virtuous to make informed decisions that were in the best
interests of the community
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau was a strong advocate for participatory democracy. He believed that people were naturally
good and their collective will was always in the best interests of the community. According to Rousseau, democracy should be
based on direct participation, with citizens coming together to make decisions collectively. He believed that this would lead to a
more just and equal society, where the needs of all were considered.
• John Stuart Mill: Mill believed in representative democracy, but he also believed that citizens should have a
greater say in the decision-making process. He believed that democracy should be based on the principle of
maximum participation, where all citizens had an equal opportunity to participate in the decision-making
process. According to Mill, this would lead to a more informed and engaged citizenry, which would lead to
better decisions being made.
• Hannah Arendt: Arendt was a strong advocate for participatory democracy, and she believed that the key to a
successful democracy was active citizenship. According to Arendt, democracy was not just a system of
government, it was a way of life. She believed that citizens needed to be engaged in public life to participate in
debates and discussions, and to take an active role in shaping the policies and decisions that affect their lives.
Arendt believed that participatory democracy was the only way to ensure that citizens remained free and equal
• . Amartya Sen: Sen believed that participatory democracy was essential for ensuring that all citizens had a voice
in the decision-making process. According to Sen, democracy was not just about electing representatives, it was
about citizens having an active role in shaping the policies and decisions that affect their lives. Sen believed that
participatory democracy was the best way to ensure that the needs and concerns of all citizens were
considered
• Carole Pateman one key concept in Pateman’s work is the idea of the “participatory paradox.”
She argues that liberal democracy, which is based on the principles of equality and freedom, fails to
address the unequal distribution of power in society. According to Pateman, traditional liberal
democracies emphasize formal political equality (equal voting rights) but neglect the substantive
equality necessary for meaningful political participation.

• Pateman suggests that true political participation requires active involvement in decision-making
processes, not just the act of voting. She criticizes representative democracy, arguing that it often
the results in the delegation of power to a few representatives, creating an elite class that controls
political decisions. Pateman is particularly critical of the way representative democracies often
marginalize certain groups, such as women and minorities, leading to their exclusion from the
decision-making process.
DELIBERATIVE DEMOCRACY

• Deliberative democracy is a theory of democracy that emphasises the importance of informed and
inclusive public deliberation in decision-making processes. It is a political philosophy that seeks to deepen
democratic practice by expanding the role of public deliberation and conversation in the formation of
public policy. The basic idea behind deliberative democracy is that decisions should be made through a
process of reasoned discussion and debate, in which citizens exchange ideas, hear different perspectives,
and consider a range of options before arriving at a collective decision.
• At the heart of deliberative democracy, the idea of democracy that it is not simply about electing
representatives who make decisions on behalf of the people, but rather about creating a more direct and
participatory form of democracy in which citizens have a say in shaping the policies that affect their lives. In
this sense, deliberative democracy is a response to the limitations of representative democracy, which
often results in decisions that do not reflect the interests or values of the people.
• Deliberative democracy can take many forms, from small-scale deliberative forums to
large-scale public consultations. It can also be used in a variety of contexts, from local
community decision-making to national or even global governance. One example of a
deliberative process is the Citizens’ Assembly which is a group of randomly selected
citizens who come together to discuss and deliberate on a particular issue or policy. The
goal of the Citizens’ Assembly is to generate informed and considered recommendations
that can be used to inform public policy.
• Deliberative democracy can be practised by decision-makers in both representative
democracies and direct democracies.
 Key Features of Deliberative Democracy

1. Inclusivity Deliberative democracy seeks to include all members of society in the decision-making process,
regardless of their social status, ethnicity, or gender. The aim is to create a level playing field in which all voices are
heard, and all perspectives are considered.

2. Reasoned discussion The focus of deliberative democracy is on reasoned discussion and debate, rather than on
emotional or ideological appeals. This means that participants in a deliberative process are expected to provide
evidence-based arguments, listen carefully to others and be willing to revise their positions in light of new
information or insights.
3. Equality of participation Deliberative democracy seeks to create a level playing field in which all participants have an
equal say in the decision-making process. This means that the power dynamics between different groups and
individuals are minimised, and that no one person or group dominates the conversation.
4. Respectful dialogue Deliberative democracy emphasises the importance of respectful dialogue, in which participants
listen to and value the perspectives of others, even if they disagree with them. This means that personal attacks or
insults are not acceptable and participants are expected to maintain a respectful tone throughout the deliberative
process.
5. Deliberative capacity Deliberative democracy requires that participants have the
necessary information, skills, and resources to engage in informed and reasoned
deliberation. This means that participants must have access to relevant information, be able
to analyse and evaluate complex arguments, and have the time and resources to participate
fully in the process.
• There are several benefits to deliberative democracy. First, it can lead to better decision-
making by ensuring that decisions are well-informed, and well-reasoned. And reflect the
interests and values of all members of society. Second, it can promote greater civic
engagement and participation by giving citizens a greater sense of ownership and
investment in the decisions that affect their lives. Finally, it can help to build social
cohesion and trust by creating opportunities for people from different backgrounds to
engage in dialogue and exchange ideas.
• Despite its benefits, deliberative democracy also has its limitations and challenges. One challenge is that it can be time-consuming
and resource-intensive, which can make it difficult to implement it on a large scale or sustain over time. Another challenge is that it can
be difficult to ensure that all voices are heard and all perspectives are taken into account.
• Various Philosophers’ Views on Deliberative Democracy

• Jürgen Habermas is considered one of the most important proponents of deliberative democracy. In his work. Habermas emphasises
the importance of communicative action and rational discourse in democratic decision-making. He argues that for democratic decision-
making to be legitimate, it must be based on free and open communication among citizens who can engage in rational dialogue. According
to Habermas, the ideal of deliberative democracy is a society in which all citizens have an equal opportunity to participate in public
discussions and influence political decision- making.

• Habermas believes that communication is the foundation of democratic legitimacy because it allows individuals to express their opinions
and engage in critical discussions with others. For communication to be effective, it must be free from domination and manipu lation. This
means that citizens must be able to express their opinions without fear of coercion or repression, and that they must be able to engage
in a dialogue that is free from manipulation by thosel with more power or influence.

• John Rawls “Rational people having different comprehensive doctrines can arrive at ‘overlapping consensus.’

• Aristotle – “Ordinary people deliberating can arrive at better decisions than experts acting alone”

• Amartya Sen Gives the concept of ‘public reasoning’. Public debate is necessary for making sound public policy