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Blue and Green Cities
The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure
in Managing Urban Water Resources
Robert C. Brears
Second Edition
Blue and Green Cities
 Robert C. Brears

Blue and Green Cities

The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing
Urban Water Resources

Second Edition
Robert C. Brears
Founder of Our Future Water
Christchurch, Canterbury,
New Zealand

ISBN 978-3-031-41392-6 ISBN 978-3-031-41393-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41393-3

1st edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018
2nd edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: Howard Kingsnorth

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Paper in this product is recyclable.

 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I wish to thank Rachael Ballard, a truly wonderful

commissioning editor and visionary who enables books like mine to come
to fruition. Second, I would like to express my gratitude to my mum,
who has a keen interest in environmental matters and has supported me
in this journey of writing the book. Lastly, I want to extend a special
acknowledgement to Kate, my love, who enriches my life in countless
ways and has been an inexhaustible source of inspiration and motivation
during the creation of this work.

v
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
2 From Traditional Grey Infrastructure to Blue-Green
Infrastructure 5
3 Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water
Resources 43
4 Adaptive Management and Blue-Green Infrastructure 61
5 Amsterdam Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 99
6 Copenhagen Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 115
7 Melbourne Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 133
8 New York City Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 155
9 Philadelphia Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 175
10 San Francisco Becoming a Blue-Green City Through
Blue-Green Infrastructure 195

vii
viii CONTENTS

11 Singapore Becoming a Blue-Green City Through

Blue-Green Infrastructure 219
12 Best Practices and Conclusion 237

Index 249
 List of Figures

Fig. 4.1 General process for adaptation planning 66

Fig. 4.2 Components of the adaptive management decision-making
framework 75

ix
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Change in watershed characteristics after urbanisation 7

Table 2.2 Effects of pollutants from road runoff 9
Table 2.3 Climate change risks to cities 10
Table 2.4 Barriers to the implementation of blue-green
infrastructure 22
Table 3.1 Stormwater detention or retention system-specific
benefits 45
Table 3.2 Green roof-specific benefits 48
Table 3.3 Rainwater harvesting-specific benefits 50
Table 3.4 Pervious pavement-specific benefits 52
Table 3.5 Benefits of planting trees 54
Table 4.1 Residential stormwater rates 77
Table 4.2 Framework for establishing stormwater fee discounts
and credits 78
Table 4.3 Stormwater credit categories 80
Table 4.4 Green stormwater infrastructure project selection 83
Table 4.5 Clean water partnership goals and key performance
indicators 85
Table 4.6 Green roof requirement 90
Table 5.1 Subsidy per measure 104
Table 5.2 Case study summary 111
Table 6.1 BGI creating synergies with existing green infrastructure 118
Table 6.2 Economic benefits of climate adaptation measures 118
Table 6.3 Case study summary 131
Table 7.1 Water-sensitive urban design options 139

xi
xii LIST OF TABLES

Table 7.2 Multiple co-benefits of greening city laneways 143

Table 7.3 Case study summary 150
Table 8.1 Green roof reimbursement schedule 160
Table 8.2 Green infrastructure practices available to meet
the urban stormwater rule 163
Table 8.3 Case study summary 170
Table 9.1 Benefits of green stormwater infrastructure to manage
stormwater 177
Table 9.2 Above-ground green stormwater infrastructure 179
Table 9.3 Below-ground green stormwater infrastructure tools 180
Table 9.4 Triple bottom line benefits of green stormwater
infrastructure 182
Table 9.5 Rain check subsidies 186
Table 9.6 Case study summary 192
Table 10.1 Urban water assessment steps 197
Table 10.2 Green infrastructure grant programme co-benefits 200
Table 10.3 Watershed Stewardship grants evaluation criteria 202
Table 10.4 Urban Watershed Stewardship grant awards 202
Table 10.5 Green infrastructure monitoring project results 209
Table 10.6 Case study summary 214
Table 11.1 Holistic stormwater management 221
Table 11.2 ABC waters certification points 225
Table 11.3 Case study summary 235
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 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Cities are home to half the world’s population and serve as global
economic hubs, generating 80 per cent of the world’s GDP. With cities
facing extreme weather events and rapid urban growth leading to the
overuse of natural resources and creating environmental degradation,
urban centres around the world need to become more resilient to climate
change, and reduce their ecological footprints.
Green Cities are concerned with designing the whole city more
sustainably, efficiently, adaptive, and resiliently. Green Cities recognise
connections between different sectors and support development strate-
gies that fulfil multiple functions and create benefits for society and urban
ecosystems. For example, in urban water resource management, a Blue-
Green City calls for the holistic planning and management of water,
wastewater, and stormwater across the whole city to ensure that popu-
lations are resilient to climate change and extreme weather events while
ensuring the health of aquatic ecosystems.
Traditionally, urban water managers have relied on grey infrastructural
solutions, including dams and levees, to mitigate risks—with numerous
environmental and economic consequences. For instance, traditional
stormwater drainage systems, designed to prevent localised flooding,
have created downstream flooding risks and stormwater overflows into
waterways. At the same time, traditional systems have impacted the

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2023
R. C. Brears, Blue and Green Cities,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41393-3_1
2 R. C. BREARS

local hydrological cycle with less groundwater recharge and lower base-
flows of waterways, impacting the availability of water for humans and
nature. In addition, traditional systems are inadequate to deal with climate
change-related extreme weather events, with systems unable to cope
with sudden large volumes of precipitation. Finally, traditional systems
also impact water quality, with runoff washing pollutants into nearby
waterways. Furthermore, runoff causes turbidity and thermal pollution,
impacting drinking water quality. In addition to climate change impacting
water quality and quantity, urbanisation results in environmental degra-
dation. Finally, cities face regulatory challenges in managing floods while
restoring waterways’ health.
In a Blue-Green City, Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) involves the use
of natural or human-made systems to enhance ecosystem services in the
management of water resources and increase resilience to climate risks.
BGI solutions can also be used to support the goals of multiple policy
areas. For example, green spaces and restored lakes and wetlands can
reduce flooding risks to neighbourhoods while supporting urban agri-
cultural production and wildlife and providing recreational and tourism
benefits. In Blue-Green Cities, urban water managers also use various
innovative fiscal and non-fiscal tools to encourage the implementation
of BGI on public and private property to manage water resources and
increase resilience to climate risks sustainably.
Nonetheless, our understanding of urban water managers’ role in
implementing BGI to mitigate climate risks while reducing environmental
degradation lags significantly behind engineering knowledge on water
resource management. As such, there is minimal literature on executing
innovative urban policies that foster the use of BGI projects to miti-
gate climate risk, restore ecosystems, and enhance the numerous benefits
they offer. In addition, because the application of BGI requires holistic
planning, little has been written on how innovative policies have been
developed to ensure BGI water projects fulfil multiple functions and
policy goals and create multiple benefits for society and urban ecosystems.
This book provides new research on urban policy innovations that
promote the application of BGI in managing water resources sustain-
ably. In particular, the book contains case studies that illustrate how
cities of differing climates, lifestyles, and income levels have implemented
policy innovations that promote the application of BGI in managing
water, wastewater, and stormwater sustainably to enhance resilience to
climate change and reduce environmental degradation. The seven case
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

studies review cities implementing various fiscal and non-fiscal policy tools
to encourage the implementation of BGI on both public and private
property to reduce stormwater runoff volumes, enhance the health of
waterways, enhance resilience to climate change, and meet regulatory
requirements.
The book will introduce readers to the adaptive management frame-
work that guides cities in implementing BGI to increase resilience to
climate change and reduce environmental degradation. In the context of
climate change, adaptive management is a process where decision-makers
take action in the face of uncertainty. Society can decide how to manage
climate risk by quantifying and acknowledging the uncertainty. Adaptive
management also seeks to improve scientific knowledge, develop practices
considering future possibilities, and even take advantage of unanticipated
climatic events. In natural resource management, adaptive management
hypothesises how ecosystems work and modifies management decisions
to achieve environmental objectives through improved understanding.
Adaptive management can be used to restore or enhance ecosystems
damaged by the impacts of urbanisation as the framework recognises that
resource systems are only partially understood and that there is value in
tracking responses of natural resources to management decisions. In Blue-
Green Cities, adaptive management relies on monitoring, investigating,
and researching to build knowledge on waterways and understand the
outcomes of management decisions on the environment and the effects
of climate change.
In the operationalisation of BGI, Blue-Green Cities use various fiscal
tools to encourage implementing BGI practices on public and private
property, including new and existing developments. Fiscal tools are easy to
implement and provide decision-makers with the flexibility and creativity
to meet specific priorities and the opportunity to pilot new incentives
before citywide application. Meanwhile, non-fiscal tools encourage the
implementation of BGI on both public and private property and allow
policymakers to test and refine BGI programmes that could one day
become mandatory requirements.
The synopsis of the book is as follows:
Chapter 2 introduces traditional grey infrastructure stormwater
systems, followed by a review of the impacts of traditional grey infras-
tructure on water quantity and water quality before discussing the
challenges posed by climate change, rapid urbanisation, and meeting
regulatory requirements. The chapter then introduces readers to BGI
4 R. C. BREARS

and its multiple benefits before finally discussing the barriers to its
implementation.
Chapter 3 discusses two types of BGI: natural and human-made water
features, which provide numerous multifunctional benefits in addition to
managing water quantity and quality.
Chapter 4 defines urban resilience and reviews the measures that can be
taken to increase it. It then introduces the concept of adaptive manage-
ment and how BGI can be operationalised using an adaptive management
framework. Finally, the chapter discusses how cities can use various fiscal
and non-fiscal tools to encourage the development of BGI.
Chapters 5–11 comprise case studies on the implementation of BGI,
as part of the process of becoming a Blue-Green City, in the following
cities: Amsterdam (Chapter 5), Copenhagen (Chapter 6), Melbourne
(Chapter 7), New York City (Chapter 8), Philadelphia (Chapter 9), San
Francisco (Chapter 10), and Singapore (Chapter 11).
Chapter 12 provides a series of best practices from the selected case
studies for other cities planning to implement BGI in an attempt to
become Blue-Green Cities, followed by the conclusion.
 CHAPTER 2

From Traditional Grey Infrastructure

to Blue-Green Infrastructure

Introduction
Traditionally, stormwater systems, comprising stormwater drainpipes,
kerb inlets, utility holes, minor channels, roadside ditches, and culverts,
are designed to remove stormwater from sites as soon as possible to a
main river channel or the nearest large body of water to reduce on-site
flooding.1
Despite traditional grey infrastructure systems quickly collecting
stormwater runoff and draining it from the city, the reliance on traditional
grey infrastructure has led to numerous unintended negative conse-
quences relating to water quantity and water quality, including increased
peak flows and total discharges from storm events, enhanced delivery
of nutrients and toxins degrading aquatic habitats in urban waterways,
and combined sewage overflows during wet conditions exposing urban
populations to health risks from waterborne pathogens and toxins.2,3,4
This chapter will first provide an overview of the two types of tradi-
tional grey infrastructure before discussing their impacts on water quantity
and water quality. Following this, the chapter will discuss the challenges
of climate change on grey infrastructure and the environmental impacts of
urbanisation. The chapter will then discuss the concept Blue-Green Infras-
tructure (BGI) in managing water quantity and improving water quality

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 5

Switzerland AG 2023
R. C. Brears, Blue and Green Cities,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-41393-3_2
6 R. C. BREARS

by restoring the hydrologic function of the landscape, all the while deliv-
ering multiple co-benefits. Finally, the chapter will review the barriers to
mainstreaming BGI across urban centres.

Traditional Grey Infrastructure

Many cities have implemented drainage systems as part of a larger sewage
system that regulates domestic and industrial wastewater and manages
stormwater. There are two types of sewage systems:

• Combined sewage systems : Wastewater and stormwater are collected in

one pipe network. Mixed water is then transported to a wastewater
treatment plant for cleaning before being discharged into a river or
large body of water
• Separate sewage systems : Wastewater and stormwater are collected in
two separate networks. The wastewater is directed to a wastewater
treatment plant while the stormwater pipe discharges to the receiving
water if it does not contain pollutants or is treated separately before
being discharged into a waterway5

Impacts of Traditional Grey Infrastructure on Water Quantity

There are numerous impacts traditional grey infrastructure has on water
quantity, including changes in hydrological cycles, increased peak flows
and downstream flooding risks, changes in groundwater and surface water
levels, and inadequate dimensioning resulting in increased climate change-
related flood risks.

Changes in the Local Hydrological Cycle

In natural settings, only a limited amount of surface area is covered
by impervious surfaces resulting in most rainwater replenishing ground-
water resources, filling rivers and lakes, and being taken up by plants and
trees. This is due to infiltration, rainfall interception, evapotranspiration,
and soil retention. In cities, sealed surfaces, including buildings, squares,
streets, and sidewalks, act as a barrier for water, and instead of infiltrating
through the soil, rainwater flows on the surface.6
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 7

Table 2.1 Change in watershed characteristics after urbanisation

Ground cover Evapotranspiration Runoff Shallow Deep infiltration

infiltration

Natural ground 40 10 25 25
cover
10–20% impervious 38 20 21 21
surface
35–59% impervious 35 30 20 15
surface
75–100% impervious 30 55 10 5
surface

Increased Peak Flows

Urban expansion, particularly in flood-prone areas, alters the natural path
of waterways, increasing impervious surfaces that reduce rainwater infil-
tration and increasing overland flows that are typically beyond the capacity
of drainage systems (Table 2.1).7,8

Downstream Flooding Risks

Traditionally, urban drainage systems are designed to prevent local
flooding by conveying stormwater away from vulnerable sites: the aim
being to drain stormwater as fast as possible out of the city. However,
if urban districts upstream drain stormwater too quickly, it may cause
urban flooding downstream.9 In addition, downstream flood risks may
be amplified due to ageing sewage systems that cause sewers to overflow,
block natural flow paths, and increase runoff.10 This issue is exacerbated
by many cities facing financial challenges of developing new infrastructure
while operating, maintaining, rehabilitating, and ensuring environmental
compliance with the current ageing infrastructure.11

Changes in Groundwater and Surface Water Levels

Stormwater systems can negatively impact the local climate as infiltra-
tion and evaporation are reduced, making cities’ climates warmer and
drier than the surrounding areas. Warmer, drier climates result in lower
groundwater recharge rates, limiting city drinking water availability. In
addition, lower groundwater levels will lead to lower stream base flows,
decreasing habitats, and cover available for stream inhabitants. Reduced
8 R. C. BREARS

flow, increased water temperatures, and lower dissolved oxygen levels will
likely cause additional stress to instream inhabitants.12,13

Increased Climate Change-Related Flooding Events

In many urban settings, stormwater drains are typically designed for a one
in 30-year flood occurrence. However, this dimensioning is likely inade-
quate with climate change and extreme weather events.14 For example,
heavy downpours have increased in frequency and magnitude in the past
50 years. They are expected to become more frequent and intense as
global temperatures rise, leading to unmanageable stormwater runoff. In
the United States, the average 100-year floodplain is projected to increase
by 45 per cent by 2100.15 Adapting to these changes will lead to higher
running costs and investments, placing capital budgetary pressures on
municipalities soon.16

Impacts of Traditional Grey Infrastructure on Water Quality

There are numerous impacts traditional grey infrastructure has on water
quality, including pollutants being easily flushed into waterways, urban
runoff lowering visual quality, and increased thermal pollution.

Pollutants Entering Waterways

When it rains, runoff from roads and highways frequently wash pollutants
into nearby waterways, including rivers, streams, and lakes. Common
pollutants include dirt, oil, grease, toxic chemicals, heavy metals, road
salts, nitrogen and phosphorous, pathogens and rubbish, a majority of
which are deposited on roads due to traffic activity, for instance, fluid
leakage and wear and tear of vehicle parts. For example, brake pad wear-
related deposits include copper and zinc, and wintertime salting and
sanding can cause chloride, sodium, and calcium deposits onto roads.
At the same time, fertiliser application on medium strips is a source
of nitrogen and phosphorous. In addition, roads degrade, generating
pollutants as the pavement degrades. There are numerous effects of pollu-
tants from road runoff that are harmful to both humans and ecosystems,
summarised in Table 2.2.17
 2 FROM TRADITIONAL GREY INFRASTRUCTURE … 9

Table 2.2 Effects of pollutants from road runoff

Pollutant type Effect

Suspended Small solid particles that remain in suspension in stormwater cause

solids issues including increased turbidity, decreased light penetration, and
toxicity to aquatic organisms
Pathogens Viruses and bacteria cause public health impacts when they are
discharged into waterways used for drinking water supplies or
recreational purposes
Nitrogen and Excess nitrogen and phosphorous can stimulate excess algae growth as
phosphorous algae die and decompose. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the
water decrease to low levels, a process called eutrophication
Heavy metals Heavy metals are toxic to aquatic life and can contaminate drinking
water supplies

Poor Visual Quality

Urban runoff often has poor visual water quality in waterways, with
outbreaks of blue-green algae, piles of foam, significant fish kill, and
cloudy and highly coloured water and oil slicks, all examples of visual
problems. In addition, floating inorganic debris and litter, for example,
drums, car tyres, bottles, and aluminium cans, raise community concerns.
Organic debris, including leaves, timber, paper, cardboard, and food, will,
in the short term, cause visual pollution. However, when this material
decays, it releases nutrients that can form rich organic sediment that can
cause algal blooms.18

Thermal Pollution
Urban stormwater runoff is a significant contributor of thermal pollution
to small waterways, which are highly sensitive to changes in temperature.
Increased temperatures can damage cold-water fish species numbers by
interfering with spawning and migration patterns. Meanwhile, warmer
temperatures can lead to harmful algal blooms that produce dangerous
toxins that can sicken or kill people, create dead zones in water, and raise
water treatment costs for drinking water and harm industries that rely on
clean water.19,20,21

The Challenge of Climate Change on Traditional Grey Infrastructure

Climate change and extreme weather will challenge the traditional grey
infrastructure for stormwater management. During wet weather events,
10 R. C. BREARS

heavier storms will mean increased water and wastewater in combined

sewer systems for short periods. As such, current designs, based on critical
‘design storms’ defined through analysis of historical precipitation data,
need to be modified. Meanwhile, during extended periods of dry weather,
soils dry up and shrink, resulting in the cracking of water mains and
sewers, making them vulnerable to infiltration and exfiltration of water
and wastewater. A combination of high temperatures, increased pollu-
tant concentrations, longer retention times, and sedimentation of solids
may lead to the corrosion of sewers, shorter asset lifetimes, more drinking
water pollution, and higher maintenance costs.22
In addition to extreme periods of wet and dry weather from climate
change, cities and their infrastructure are exposed to numerous other
climatic risks, summarised in Table 2.3.23,24,25 Overall, traditional grey
infrastructure is neither sustainable nor adaptable to changing climates.26

Table 2.3 Climate change risks to cities

Climate Description
change impact

Higher Higher ambient temperatures, which reduce snow and ice volumes and
temperatures increase evaporation rates from lakes, reservoirs, and aquifers, will
decrease the natural storage of water and increase water demand
Droughts Shifts in the timing of river flows, and more frequent or intense
droughts will reduce the availability of water, increasing the need for
artificial water storage
Flooding Heavy downpours have increased in frequency and intensity over the
past 50 years and are expected to become more frequent and intense
as global temperatures continue to rise. As such, flood risks to cities
are likely to increase
Contaminated Drier conditions will increase pollutant concentrations. This is a
water concern for populations that rely on groundwater sources that may
already be of low quality
Increased Increased stormwater runoff will increase loads of pathogens, nutrients,
runoff and suspended sediment
Urban heat Climate change will lead to more frequent, severe, and prolonged heat
island effect waves during the summer months
Coastal As global temperatures continue to rise, sea levels will likely continue
damage and to rise, storm surges will likely be amplified, and heavy storm events
erosion will occur with greater frequency and intensity, damaging infrastructure
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Other documents randomly have
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Denton Hall, 146.
Devil’s Wall in Germany, 96.
Down-hill, 156.
Drumburgh, 309.
Dykesfield, 307.

Earthenware, 445.
Ebchester, 341.
Edward I. at Bradley, 233.
Egyptian triple goddesses, 418.
Ellenborough, 361.
Emperors worshipped, 398.
Epeiacum, 342.
Epona, altar to, 415.

Fibulæ, 444.
Fisher’s-cross, 311.
Forest, primeval, 310.
Fortune, altar to, 403.
Fosse of the Wall, 51.

Gelt quarry, 385.

Genius, local, altar to, 399.
Genius of the Wall, 353.
Gildas’ account of the miseries of the Britons, 27.
Glass for windows, 222.
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Graham’s-dike, 97.
Great Chesters, Æsica, 254.
Grooves in thresholds of gates, 220.

Habitancum, Risingham, 329.

Hadrian arrives in Britain, 11.
Hadrian, death of, 391.
Hadrian slabs, 383.
Harlow-hill, 155.
Halton-chesters, Hunnum, 159.
Haltwhistle, 252.
Haltwhistle-burn-head, 254.
Hare-hill, 284.
Heddon-on-the-Wall, 149.
Hedley, Rev. Anthony, 105.
Hexham, 194, 339.
Historical testimonies respecting the building of the Wall, 372.
Hodgson, Rev. John, 106.
Horsley, biographical notice of, 103.
Horsley on Christian vows, 423.
Hospital, camp, 362.
Housesteads, Borcovicus, 214.
Hunnum, Halton-chesters, 159.
Hypocausts at Hunnum, 162.
Hypocausts, their probable use, 180.
Hypocausts at Chesters, 174.

Inscriptions, value of, 187.

Iron wrought by the Romans, 442.
Irthington, 295.
Itinerary of Antonine, 328.

Jarrow, 323.
Jupiter, altar to, 397.

Keep of Castle of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 135.

Kiln for drying corn, 223.
Kirk-Andrews, 302.

Lakes of Northumberland, 229.

Lamiæ, 418.
Langley castle, 231.
Lanchester, 342.
Lanercost priory, 284.
Lanx, the Corbridge, 334.
Lead wrought by the Romans, 442.
Legio XX. engaged upon the Wall, 247.
Limekiln, 327.
Limestone-bank, 195.
Lingones at Tynemouth, 108.
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Magna, Carvoran, 267.

Maiden-way, 269.
Malcolm Canmore, 321.
Mars, altars to, 401.
Maryport, 361.
Masonry of the Stations, 84.
Masonry of the Wall, 78.
Maximus, 319.
Middleby, 354.
Mile-castles, 67.
Mile-castle at Cawfield, 248.
Mile-stone, 239.
Mill-stones, 448.
Military-way, 69.
Milking-gap, 234.
Minerva, altar to, 402.
Mithras, altar to, 404.
Monument to Edward I., 306.
Moresby, 366.
Mortar, Roman, 86.
Mortaria, 445.
Mountain-god, 415.
Mumps-hall, 275.
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Names of stations ascertained, 61.

Naworth-castle, 284.
Netherby, 352.
Nether-hall, 362.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 121.
Nine-nicks of Thirlwall, 265.
North Shields, 321.
Nymphs, 414.

Old Carlisle, 360.

Old Town, 349.
Ouseburn mile-castle, 119.

Pap-castle, 366.
Passage of the Eden, 300.
Passage of the Irthing, 277.
Peel-crag, 243.
Peel-houses, 253.
Petriana, Cambeck-fort, 288.
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Plumpton, 358.
Pons Ælii, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 121.
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Quarry on Haltwhistle fell, 80.
Quarry, Roman, 292.

Rapishaw-gap, 230.
Richard of Cirencester on the building of the Wall, 390.
Risingham, Habitancum, 329.
Rochester, High, Bremenium, 325.
Roman emperors, number who visited Britain, 36.
Ruts in gateway of Birdoswald, 280.
Rutchester, Vindobala, 150.

Sacrifices, Roman, 396.

Samian ware, 447.
Sandals, Roman, 348.
Secondary forts, 315.
Segedunum, Wallsend, 105.
Sepulchral inscriptions, 424.
Severus lands in Britain, 15.
Severus, death of, 392.
Sewingshields farm-house, 200.
Shields’-lawe, 322.
Silvanus, altar to, 413.
Speaking pipes in the Wall, 76.
Stags’-horns, 269.
Stanwix, 299.
Stations, description of, 56.
Stationes per lineam valli, 60.
Steel-rig, 243.
Stotes-houses, 117.
Streets, narrowness of, 221.
Syrian goddess, 412.

Tepper-moor, 196.
Terraced gardens, 224.
Thirlwall-castle, 270.
Time occupied in building the Wall, 94.
Toads represented on altars, 416.
Tower of Repentance, 307.
Tower-tay, 195.
Traditions regarding Cilurnum, 192.
Traditions, Sewingshields, 203.
Transmarine Mothers, 419.
Troughs of stone, 158.
Tumuli, 351, 365.
Turrets, 68.
Twice-brewed-ale (inn), 233.
Tynemouth, 318.

Vallum, description of, 52.

Vallum, additional rampart of, 283.
Vangiones, 427.
Vegetation inimical to the Wall, 93.
Vespasian and Titus in Britain, 5.
Viteres, altars to, 395, 416, 417.
Victory, figure of, 300.
Vindobala, Rutchester, 150.
Vindolana, Chesterholm, 236.
Vindomora, 342.

Wallend, 273.
Wall, in relation to the rivers, 100.
Wallis, 349.
Wall-mill, 262.
Wall, probable height of, 47.
Wallsend, Segedunum, 105.
Walltown crags, 263.
Walton, 287.
Warden-hill, 194.
Wardley, 324.
Water-course, ancient, 161, 257.
Watch-cross, 298.
Whitley-castle, 346.
Wreckendike, 322.
Written rock on the Gelt, 81.
 Zodiacal tablet, #409.#

1. The Plan represents the position of each stone now remaining

in the river. It is the result of a series of observations made
during the summer of 1850, by Mr. Robert Elliot, of Wall. Most
of the stones have luis-holes.

2. This coin is in the possession of Mr. Bell, of the Nook,

Irthington, to whose cabinet of coins, chiefly procured from the
line of the wall, the author has kindly been allowed free
access.

3. This interesting coin is thus described by Akerman:—Obverse—

HADRIANUS · AVGustus, COnsul III. [tertium] Pater Patriæ.
Laureated bust of Hadrian, with the chlamys buckled over his
right shoulder. Reverse—ADVENTVS AVGusti BRITANNIAE. In the
exergue—Senatus Consulto. An altar, with the fire kindled, placed
between the emperor in his toga, who holds a patera, and a
female figure, a victim lying at her feet.

4. Numismatists differ as to the appropriation of the female. The

same figure in other coins of this reign being used to personify
Rome, it probably does so in this case; and represents the
secure possession obtained by the Eternal City, of Albion’s
rocky shore. However this may be, the same figure has been
placed by many successive generations of mint-masters on the
reverse of the copper coinage of Great Britain. Britain in this
still bows to Rome!

5. The Roman Eagle.

6. Walsh on Coins.

7. In the collection of Geo. Rippon, Esq., North Shields.

 8. Historians differ as to the degree of credibility due to this
author. Mr. Wright, in his Biographia Britannica Literaria, says
that his is ‘a name of very doubtful authority.’ Sharon Turner
thinks that ‘as far as he can be supported, and made
intelligible, by others, he is an acceptable companion, but that
he cannot be trusted alone;’ and Mr. Stevenson, in the preface
to his edition of the original Latin of Gildas, writes ‘We are
unable to speak with certainty as to his parentage, his country,
or even his name, the period when he lived, or the works of
which he was the author.’ Thus much, however, is certain, that
he lived before the time of Bede, and is quoted by him.

9. This point is well put by Sir Francis Palgrave, in his History of

the Anglo-Saxons. ‘The walls of the cities fortified by the
Romans were yet strong and firm. The tactics of the legions
were not forgotten. Bright armour was piled in the
storehouses, and the serried line of spears might have been
presented to the half-naked Scots and Picts, who could never
have prevailed against their opponents.’

10. The supposition is not destitute of support. The migratory

tendencies of the Gothic tribes have always been conspicuous.
From the earliest periods of our history, the inhabitants of
Jutland and its neighbouring provinces were in the habit of
making descents upon the coasts of Britain. After the
departure of the Romans, their attempts were probably more
bold and frequent, but they did not then, for the first time,
commence. The Norfolk and Suffolk coast was, from its
position, peculiarly exposed to these incursions, and as early
as the close of the third century, was placed under the
command of a military Count called Comes litoris Saxonici. This
district was called ‘the Saxon shore,’ as Sir Francis Palgrave
observes, not merely because it was open to the incursion of
the Saxons, but, most probably, because they had succeeded
in fixing themselves in some portion of it. The weak hold which
the Romans, at all times, had of Scotland, would render it an
easier prey than England to the Franks and Saxons. Tacitus
informs us, that the ruddy hair and lusty limbs of the
Caledonians indicate a Germanic extraction. Richard of
Cirencester tells us, that a little before the coming of Severus,
the Picts landed in Scotland; from which we are at least
entitled to infer, that the Picts were not the original inhabitants
of North Britain; and probably the statement is substantially
correct, inasmuch as large reinforcements landed in Scotland
at this period, as previously observed. The Scots—the other
branch of the people classed under the general term
Caledonians—are confessedly of Irish origin. When St.
Columba, whose mother tongue was Irish Gaelic, preached to
the Picts, he used an interpreter. Fordun, the Father of Scottish
History, tells us, ‘The manners of the Scots are various as to
their languages; for they use two tongues, the Scottish and the
Teutonic. The last is spoken by those on the sea-coasts and in
the low countries, while the Scottish is the speech of the
mountaineers and the remote islanders.’ The proper Scots,
Camden describes as those commonly called Highlandmen; ‘for
the rest,’ he adds, ‘more civilized, and inhabiting the eastern
part, though comprehended under the name of Scots, are the
farthest in the world from being Scots, but are of the same
German origin with us English.’ Dr. Jamieson, whose researches
in philology are well known, is decidedly of opinion that the
Picts and Saxons had a common origin. Upon what other
theory, he argues, can the prevalence of the Saxon tongue in
the Lowlands of Scotland be accounted for? William the
Conqueror could not change the language of South Britain—
was it likely that a few Saxon fugitives at the Scottish court
could supplant that of their benefactors?
The theory of the Germanic origin of the Picts removes another
difficulty. How is the disappearance of the Celtic tongue from
England to be accounted for? The Saxons, on seizing the soil,
would not exterminate the inhabitants, but retain them as
bondsmen. Had the majority of the occupants of England been
 the original Britons or Romanized Celts, we should have found
in our daily speech, and in the names of our towns and
villages, a large intermixture of Gaelic and Latin; but such is
not the case. Grant that the Picts were a branch of the great
Gothic family—and that successive waves of them had, long
before the time of Cerdic, poured from the lowlands of
Scotland over the plains of England, and the almost entire
extermination of the ancient British is easily accounted for.
If the theory here advocated, cannot be sustained, it must at
least be allowed, that the population of North Britain was
largely leavened with individuals of the Saxon race. These
strangers would doubtless obtain that supremacy over the
natives which the Franks did in Gaul; so that, even upon this
limited view of the question, the influence of the Germanic
race in fixing the destinies of Britain, at this critical period, is
apparent.

11. The whole of these are accurately figured and described in the
"Materials for the History of Britain," published by the
government. It is to be hoped that a work so auspiciously
begun will not be strangled in its birth, by a false application of
the principles of national economy.

12. Whitaker’s History of Manchester, i. 228.

13. "Politically speaking, Rome is now the city of the dead."

Times, March 18th, 1850.

14. Hodgson states the mean of nineteen measurements to be one

hundred and twenty six yards.—Northumberland, II. iii. 310.
This high number is obtained by its including the mountain
districts, where the works are widely separated.

15. Harl. MSS. 374,—impr. Hodg. North’d. II. iii. 273.

16. Harl. MSS. 373,—impr. Richardson’s Reprints and Imprints,
divis. Miscell.

17. It will be observed here that the erection of this structure has
not been always ascribed to Severus.

18. Greater extremes are met with, but they are rare. Hodgson in
a note p. 276 says, The foundations in the turnpike-road, just
west of Portgate are scarcely seven feet broad; but opposite a
plantation a little further west, ten feet and a half. Hutton
found the Wall at Brunton only five feet and a half thick.

19. This is particularly the case about Old Wall in Cumberland.

20. Hutton’s Roman Wall, 139.

21. Hodg. North’d. II. iii. 276.

22. Horsley, in the profiles of the barrier which he gives, represents

the marginal rampart or agger as being much larger than the
south one. The present aspect of the works does not warrant
such a delineation.

23. When travelling along the road west of Birdoswald, I have seen
a ploughman and his team entirely disappear, on descending
into the fosse of the Vallum.

24. An inspection of Horsley’s own sections will at once show this.

—Britan. Romana, 158.

25. In corroboration of this statement, it may be mentioned that

an intelligent and substantial farmer offered to take, on a
twenty-one years’ lease, the Corchester field, in which the
station of Corstopitum stood, at the yearly rate of 6l. per acre.
It contains twelve acres.
26. The Notitia has Lergorum, but it will be afterwards shewn that
this is probably an error for Lingonum.

27. The Notitia has Astorum in this and the subsequent instances,
but all the inscriptions hitherto found have Asturum.

28. Brit. Rom. 102.

29. Ibid. 473.

30. This slab is in the possession of his Grace the Duke of

Northumberland, and is preserved, along with several other
interesting reliques of the Wall, in that noble baronial
residence, so worthy of the chiefs of Percy, Alnwick Castle.

31. Now in the Dean and Chapter Library at Durham.

32. According both to Hyginus and Vegetius, the first cohort of a

legion, in the times of the lower empire, was called milliaria,
from its being stronger than any cohort of the legion, and from
its generally consisting of about a thousand men.
Arch. Æl. ii., 83.

33. A correspondent of the author writes 'Even in my own day it

was the custom of the superstitious, on the line of the Wall,
especially between Birdoswald and Cambeck Fort to pound the
stones, bearing inscriptions, into sand for their kitchens, or
bury them in the foundations of houses or walls, for the simple
reason that they considered them unlucky—calling them 'witch
stones’. When one was found, the old wives fearing that the
butter might not form in the churn, took good care that it
should never again make its appearance. Thus down went
many a splendid Roman altar, a sacrifice to ignorance and
superstition'!
34. The plough has now passed over the station of Watch Cross.
The enquiries which I have made on the spot, and in the
neighbourhood, are, on the whole, confirmatory of Hodgson’s
view.

35. Mounsey’s Account of the occupation of Carlisle in 1745.

36. Ford’s Hand-book of Spain, 1st edition, p. 306.

37. On putting the inquiry pointedly to a person who had ploughed

up some portions of the Vallum in the neighbourhood of
Wallend, Cumberland, and who was also acquainted with the
mode in which the Maiden-way (a Roman road) was formed, I
was told that there were no traces of pavement in the Vallum.

38. We must not, however, pronounce a road to be impracticable,

because now it would be thought so. A Northumberland
farmer, speaking to me upon this subject, said he had seen
roads which, in his neighbourhood, were regularly traversed
only a century ago, on which no one would venture now-a-
days; ‘it was like coming down a crag-side.’ He had driven
through mosses in which the horses were commonly
enveloped, but had no misgivings so long as he could see the
heads of the animals.

39. Hodgson, however, distinctly proves, that the cornage, or

castle-guard rent of the North of England—originally a
payment in lieu of cattle, and called in English, horngeld and
neatgeld, cattle-tax, or ox-lay—has nothing whatever to do
with sounding the war-alarm by horns.

40. It must, however, be borne in mind, that even the uneducated

labourer, in a highly civilized community, has unconsciously
received a considerable amount of mental training, which
places him in a situation much superior to that of the mere
savage.
41. The remainder of this valuable communication is, in order to
avoid repetition, embodied in the subsequent account of the
Masonry of the Wall.

42. Hodgson II. ii. 298.

43. It would be described by a modern builder as a rough blocking

course.

44. The cuts representing these markings are transferred from my

note book, without reference to scale.

45. Concrete contains less lime, and is mixed with a smaller

proportion of water than grout. It is chiefly used in large
masses, to form an artificial foundation for a building.

46. The almost entire absence of those little white lumps of lime,
not properly mixed with sand, which are found in the
imperfectly prepared mortar of modern times, shews that the
lime must in some way have been crushed by rollers or
beaters.

47. Mr. Bell, of Irthington, tells me that in some places the

foundation flags of the north side point upwards, at an angle
of about twenty degrees, caused apparently by the settling of
the ponderous mass. In this circumstance, we have an
interesting confirmation of the supposition that the Wall was
surmounted with a parapet on its north side. The foundation
would have settled equally if both sides had been burdened
alike.

48. Part II. v. iii. p. 294.

49. In some parts of the line, the joints of the Wall are at present
filled with earthy matter instead of mortar, and it is the opinion
of some authorities, and amongst them, the eminent architect
and intelligent antiquary, Mr. Dobson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
 that in these places, clay has been originally substituted for
mortar. Very loath to suppose that the original builders of the
Wall would leave any portion of it in so unsatisfactory a state, I
have been in the habit of accounting for the apparent absence
of mortar in the following way:—The upper part of the
structure having been overthrown by a ruthless enemy, and
the lower parts covered with the fallen rubbish, the whole heap
would speedily become coated with vegetation. Roman mortar,
with all its tenacity, would not be able to resist the powers of
vitality; and the constant demands of the ferns and the
foxgloves would, in the course of time, abstract the whole of
the lime. The roots of the plants, by whose agency the work of
abstraction had proceeded, yielding in due time to the process
of decay, would themselves, in the form of vegetable earth,
supply the place of the lime which they had withdrawn.

50. The only source of information which I have upon the subject
of this wall, is a translation of an extract from a pamphlet by
Professor Buchner, of Regensburg, in the first volume of the
‘Archæologia Æliana.’ The precise relation which the Pfahl
bears to the stone Wall does not very clearly appear from this
paper; to all appearance, however, the analogy between the
German and English barriers is very close.

51. Hodg. North’d. II. iii. 276.

52. Ibid. 284.

53. Iter Boreale, 67.

54. He who has the heart of a pilgrim ‘per lineam Valli,’ will not fail
to accompany the author, while he attempts, at the very
commencement of his local peregrination, to pay a tribute of
respect to three departed worthies who made the Wall their
especial study.
John Horsley was the first and mightiest of the three—is it too
much to say that he was the father of the science of
Archæology? Born in an unknown locality of this county,
receiving his elementary education at Newcastle, his
academical at Edinburgh, he spent the greater portion of his
life as the pastor of a Presbyterian congregation in Morpeth.
His tastes, and great familiarity with the classics, induced him
to devote his leisure hours to the study of the antiquities of
Northumberland. Had he conceived that the Britannia Romana
would have cost him one-third of the time which its execution
required, the world would never have seen it. Having
embarked in the undertaking, he felt it his duty to make it as
good as he could. How severe his toils, how great his
pecuniary sacrifices, how ardent his aspirations after
emancipation from his self-imposed task, in order that he
might entirely devote himself to his sacred calling, who shall
tell? The thought that his flock might eventually be no losers,
that his family and his own fair fame might gain by the
enterprise, buoyed him up in his course. On 2 Jan. 1731-2, he
put the finishing stroke to his labours, the dedication of his
work bearing that date. Now he might hope to reap the fruits
of his toils—the enjoyment of rest, such as the wearied only
know, the congratulations of friends, the approbation of the
learned, the replenishment of his exhausted means. None of
these fruits he enjoyed. He can scarcely have had the
satisfaction of casting his eyes upon a completed copy of his
work. The ink of his dedication was hardly dry when he was
summoned to the unseen world. Respecting him who recorded
the mighty doings of the Romans in Britain, the parish clerk of
Morpeth made the following entry in the church-yard calendar:
—Buried,
‘1731-2, Jan. 15, Mr. John Horsley.’
‘Vanity of vanities, all is vanity.’ As regards the honours or
enjoyments of this world, he died an utterly unrequited man.
Even of that bubble, posthumous fame, an attempt was made
to rob him. Warburton, in his Vallum Romanum, transfers
Horsley ‘in bulk’ to his pages—he even copies, without
alteration, the opinions which Horsley expresses in the first
person. The honest Hutton often quotes the ‘judicious
Warburton,’ little knowing whose the feathers are which he so
justly admires. The precise spot where his remains rest is
unknown. He whose lot it was to interpret, after the lapse of
many centuries, the throbbings of natural affection over
departed relatives in the heathen breast, had no one to erect
over him, though a Christian minister, a memorial that should
outlive a single century. Even the parish clerk, in his
attachment to the altar and the throne, denies him, in the
sepulchral register, the title which courtesy, at least, would
have accorded him. Requiescat in pace!

The Rev. Anthony Hedley, was also a native of Northumberland;

he was a man of literary tastes, and considerable antiquarian
acquirements. He entered public life as curate of Hexham,
where his preaching was that of a Boanerges. He subsequently
held some temporary appointments at Whelpington,
Newcastle, and Whitfield. Having, however, actively espoused
the cause of that political body, who, until lord Grey became
premier, had no patronage to bestow, it was his lot to sigh in
vain for a summons to active occupation in the work which he
loved. When the party whom he had long and conscientiously
served, came into office, neglect was his portion. One of the
original members of the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, he did much to promote the study of primæval
archæology in the fruitful region traversed by the Wall. Biased
by his taste for antiquities, he was led to select, as his abode
for life’s evening, the beautiful valley of the Chineley Burn. The
rural hall arose at his bidding, nearly every stone of which was
chiseled by Roman hands. The milliary which told to Hadrian’s
soldiers that another mile had been traversed, stood by his
barn. The station of Vindolana was in his grounds—many
beautiful altars and other important reliques had he dug out of
it—he could tell where the prætorium stood, where the
standards were deposited, where every soldier slept. Scarcely
were all the arrangements for his comfortable residence at
Chesterholm made, when death seized him as its victim.
Imprudently superintending, whilst somewhat indisposed, the
exhumation of an urn in the station, his mortal part was a few
days afterwards deposited in the church-yard at Beltingham.
He died in 1835, and his beautiful abode has since remained
desolate.

Westmoreland has the honour of giving birth to the Rev. John

Hodgson, but Northumberland enjoyed the advantage of his
youthful and maturer labours. Successively curate of
Sedgefield, Lanchester, and Heworth, and afterwards vicar of
Kirkwhelpington, he was shortly before his death promoted to
the living of Hartburn. He was the chief founder of the Society
of Antiquaries of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and the chief
contributor to its transactions. His tastes led him to
contemplate, and an honourable desire to make provision for
the education and settlement of his family, induced him to
begin, a history of Northumberland. Seldom have laudable
designs been so signally defeated. He lived but to complete a
part of his task; his health failed, and his mind gave way under
his excessive labours. His fortunes were not bettered by them;
‘I have lived,’ said he, 'to see that works of this kind are not
suited to the times I live in, perhaps to any time. It is not
profitable to me—it is not suited to my profession—I ought to
do my duty in my profession—to take up night and day to do it
well. Well? no; but as well as good intentions, holy zeal, every
thought and faculty of my mind fully exerted, could do it.'
Hodgson paid great attention to the Wall, and its antiquities.
The last published portion of his history contains a vast mass
of learned information upon the subject. It is perhaps enough
for the present author to say, that had not Horsley and
 Hodgson cleared the way before him, he would never have
adventured to write a book upon the Barrier of the Lower
Isthmus. Though he cannot be a Horsley or a Hodgson, he
hopes he will never prove a Warburton.

55. Brand conceives that Segedunum may be derived from the Saxon
secg, a sedge or flag, and dun, which is an Anglo-Saxon, as
well as a Celtic word; this would give, as its meaning—the hill
of sedge. If we can suppose that any of the Germanic hordes
had obtained so complete a settlement here, as to give them
the power of forming a local vocabulary in accordance with
their own language prior to the Roman occupation of this post,
the Saxon origin of the term is by no means improbable. In no
part of England was an early settlement more likely to take
place than on the eastern coast of Northumberland, but, after
all, we must probably assign a later date to the first arrival of
our Gothic forefathers. If a Saxon derivation be at all
admissible, another might be suggested: sige is the Anglo-
Saxon for victory, and tun is town—the town of victory—an
appropriate name for a station occupied either by Roman or
Saxon forces.

56. This statement I make on the authority of the late Mr. Buddle,
who said, as I remember, that in his youth he had seen the
stones extending far into the river.

57. This place derived its earlier name from being the property,
and perhaps the suburban residence of John Cosyn, a worthy
alderman of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in the seventeenth century.
About 1740, sir Robert Carre, a London knight, and draper, but
also, it is thought, a burgess of the northern metropolis,
bought Cosyn’s house at Wallsend, and thenceforward
designated it Carre-ville. The present mansion is, with some
little impropriety, called Carville-hall.
When I began my inquiries at Wallsend, I had much difficulty
in ascertaining which was Cousin’s-house. One man told me he
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