LUTHER W. JR.
NEW THEOLOGICAL COLLEGE
DEHRADUN
A Reading Report of Book “Oxford History of the Christian Church:
Christianity in India From Beginning to the present” by
Robert Eric Frykenberg
By Gladwin S. Thomas (BD II)
Submitted to
Mr. Prince Thomas
In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the subject
BHC02: History of Christianity in India
Date of Submission: 12th December, 2024
OUTLINE
A. Introduction
B. Thomas Christians and the Thomas Tradition
C. Pfarangi Catholic Christians and Padroado Christendom
D. Evangelical Christians as Missionary Dubashis: Conduits of Cross-Cultural
Communication
E. India’s Rajand Political Logic: The Unification of India, a Southern Perspective
F. Avarna Christians and Conversion Movements
G. Reflection
A. Introduction
Robert Eric Frykenberg's Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present offers
an expansive and integrative exploration of the historical development of Christianity
in the Indian subcontinent. The book highlights the transcultural and migratory nature
of Christianity, detailing how it has interacted with various religious, cultural, and
societal frameworks over the centuries. Frykenberg examines the origins of Christian
communities in India, including the traditions surrounding the Apostle Thomas, while
also addressing the waves of migrations and missionary efforts that brought diverse
expressions of Christianity to the region. He emphasizes the complex interplay
between Christianity and indigenous cultures, exploring how local traditions shaped
and were shaped by Christian doctrines, practices, and institutions.
The book also tackles broader themes, such as the socio-political dynamics of caste
and identity, the influence of colonialism, and the emergence of indigenous Christian
movements. By framing Christianity in India as both distinctly local and globally
interconnected, Frykenberg challenges reductionist views of the faith as a foreign
implant, instead presenting it as an integral part of India's multifaceted religious
landscape. Through rigorous scholarship and a nuanced perspective, the work
provides a rich and comprehensive account of Christianity's historical journey and its
ongoing evolution within India.
In total this book contains 15 chapters which briefly talks about the history of
christianity in India and its development. But in this reading report I have explored a
few chapters i.e., from Chapter 4 to Chapter 8 which gives us a good understanding of
the development of Christianity in India in different aspects.
B. Thomas Christians and the Thomas Tradition
Chapter 4 of Frykenberg's book explores the origins, narratives, and traditions of the
Thomas Christians in India, focusing on the Apostle Thomas's role in establishing
Christian communities in South India. It examines the historical, cultural, and
religious contexts surrounding the Thomas Christian tradition, drawing on literary
accounts, oral traditions, and archaeological evidence to trace the spread of
Christianity in the Indian subcontinent. According to the Thomas Tradition, the
Apostle Thomas is believed to have brought Christianity to India in AD 52, landing
near Muziris (modern Kodungallur) on the Malabar Coast. He is credited with
founding seven churches and engaging in missionary activities across Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. His martyrdom in AD 72 at Mylapore near present-day Chennai is a
central narrative, enriched by miraculous stories such as raising a local ruler’s brother
from the dead, which reportedly led to mass conversions.
The chapter delves into the textual and oral evidence that supports the Thomas
Christian tradition. Texts such as the Acts of Thomas, written in Syriac in the third or
fourth century, provide a blend of allegorical and historical elements that connect the
tradition to Christian communities in Edessa, Mesopotamia. Oral traditions,
particularly folk songs like the Thomma Parvam, recount the Apostle's arrival and his
establishment of Christian communities in Kerala. Archaeological and epigraphic
evidence further substantiates the longstanding Christian presence in South India.
Notable artifacts include stone crosses, inscriptions, and copper plates from places like
Quilon and Niranam. The copper plates granted by Kerala's Chera rulers confirm the
privileges extended to early Christian settlers, such as land ownership and elevated
social status.
The socio-cultural context of the Thomas Christians is another focus of the chapter.
This community integrated into Kerala’s caste-based society while adapting Hindu
customs, such as the tying of the thali (a wedding symbol), to reflect their Christian
identity. Within the community, hierarchical distinctions existed, notably between the
Northists and Southists, the latter claiming descent from Knai Thomman, a leader of
Jewish-Christian settlers. Despite these rich traditions, the chapter acknowledges
challenges in verifying the historicity of the Thomas Tradition. Although definitive
evidence remains elusive, Frykenberg argues that the tradition carries canonical
significance for the Thomas Christians and provides a plausible narrative for the early
spread of Christianity in India.
Overall, Chapter 4 offers a comprehensive analysis of the Thomas Christian tradition,
emphasizing the intertwining of oral, textual, and archaeological sources that reveal
the deep roots of Christianity in India. It highlights the community's cultural
adaptability and enduring legacy in Indian society, making this chapter a cornerstone
for understanding the complex history of Christianity in the region.
C. Pfarangi Catholic Christians and Padroado Christendom
In this chapter we will see the interaction between European Catholic missionaries and
the early Thomas Christians, focusing on the cultural, political, and church based
dimensions of the Portuguese Padroado system. This chapter also talks about the
transformative and controversies introduced by European Christianity in India.
Initially we can read how Portuguese arrived in India in 1498, marking a significant
phase in introducing Western Christendom. The term “Pfarangi”1 used to describe
European Christians, captures the distinct identity and militant religious zeal they
carried into Indian society. Backed by papal bulls, the Portuguese Crown wielded the
Padroado Real, granting it authority over clerical appointments in its overseas
territories. This alliance between church and state exemplified a colonialistic mission
to subjugate local populations and integrate them into a Catholic Christendom that
often mirrored Islamic notions of a unified religious-political domain.
1
Pfarangi (also spelled as "Farangi") is a term derived from the Arabic and Persian word "Farang", which
itself originates from "Frank"—a name historically used to describe Europeans, particularly those from
Western Europe. In various South Asian and Middle Eastern contexts, it broadly referred to foreigners,
especially Western Europeans, during the medieval and early modern periods.
The Portuguese encountered the Thomas Christians, a community rooted in the
apostolic tradition of St. Thomas. Initially, both communities found mutual benefit in
their alliance. However, tensions emerged among them due to doctrinal, cultural, and
ritualistic differences. Portuguese missionaries considered the Syriac liturgy and the
Thomas Christians’ theology as heretical. This rejection of early and old practices,
coupled with the imposition of Latin rites, sowed seeds of division and led to enduring
schisms within the Thomas Christian community.
The Synod of Diamper in 1599 is highlighted as a moment when Archbishop Menezes
attempted to enforce Catholic orthodoxy on the Thomas Christians. The event, marked
by force and ceremonial imposition, outlawed ancient practices and declared
allegiance to Roman Catholic doctrines. Despite these efforts, the resilience of the
Thomas Christians persisted, leading to the historic Coonan Cross Oath in 1653,
where they renounced European ecclesiastical authority and consecrated their own
native archbishop, Mar Thoma I.
We also find broader socio-political implications of Portuguese. Their strategy to
fortify Goa as the epicenter of Padroado power created a framework for missionary
outreach but also intensified resistance. Indigenous Christians, disillusioned by
Portuguese excesses, including cultural insensitivity and abuses of power, often
sought to preserve their unique identities and traditions.
In conclusion, Frykenberg the author portrays the Portuguese Padroado system as a
double-edged sword. While it expanded Catholic influence and introduced a new
ecclesiastical structure, it also led to persistent conflicts, cultural alienation, and
fragmentation within Indian Christianity. The chapter underscores the enduring
struggle between indigenous and colonial forces, reflecting broader themes of
resistance and adaptation in the history of Christianity in India.
D. Evangelical Christians as Missionary Dubashis: Conduits of
Cross-Cultural Communication
We find the role of missionaries and their indigenous collaborators as intermediaries,
or “dubashis,”2 in bridging cultural divides and fostering mutual understanding
between India and the West. We can find the dynamic nature of Christianity, which
transcends ethnic and cultural boundaries, emphasizing its adaptability and rootedness
in local traditions. It argues that Christian communities in India represent an
“indigenous discovery of Christianity,” shaped more by local adaptations than by
external impositions.
Missionaries and their Indian colleagues functioned as essential conduits for cultural
and informational exchange, enabling two-way communication. Their contributions
went beyond preaching, involving the creation of infrastructures that facilitated
education, literacy, and scientific advancement. These efforts were foundational for
fostering reciprocal flows of knowledge, including linguistic studies, translations of
scriptures into local languages, and the development of Tamil fonts for printing
materials. The network of schools established by figures like Ziegenbalg provided the
common people, particularly marginalized groups, with access to literacy, education,
and religious instruction.
The contributions of prominent individuals such as Johann Ziegenbalg, who mastered
Tamil and established innovative educational institutions. His emphasis on providing
literacy in local languages and his collaboration with Tamil scholars marked a
significant shift from the elite-focused missionary efforts of his predecessors.
Similarly, Christian Friedrich Schwartz’s role as a missionary dubashi exemplified the
impact of such figures. Schwartz not only worked to evangelize and educate but also
served as a trusted diplomat and advisor, fostering Christian congregations and
schools across South India.
2
The term "Dubashis" (or Dubash) historically refers to interpreters or brokers during the colonial period in
India. These individuals acted as intermediaries between the local Indian population and European colonial
powers, particularly the British, Dutch, and Portuguese.
Furthermore, the chapter addresses the evolution of indigenous Christian leaders, or
upadesiars,3 such as Vedanayakam Sastriar and Maharasan Vedamanickam. These
leaders, deeply influenced by missionary teachings, adapted Christianity to local
cultures, contributing significantly to the spread of the faith among marginalized
communities. The development of indigenous Christian infrastructures and the rise of
mass conversion movements are attributed to the groundwork laid by these
collaborative efforts.
Overall we can see Chapter 6 presents an understanding of how evangelical Christians
acted as cultural intermediaries, blending Western missionary zeal with Indian cultural
realities to establish enduring Christian communities and infrastructures. It illustrates
the transformative power of cross-cultural engagement and the lasting impact of
missionary dubashis in shaping Indian Christianity.
E. India’s Rajand Political Logic: The Unification of India, a Southern
Perspective
Chapter 7 of this book talks mainly about the unique political logic and dynamics that
underpinned the rise and consolidation of British colonial rule in India. Titled India’s
Raj and Political Logic, this chapter provides a deep analysis of the interplay between
indigenous and colonial systems, using historical and cultural paradigms to illustrate
the evolution of governance in the subcontinent.
The chapter introduces two key paradigms; matsyanyaya (the “logic of fish”) and
mandala-nyaya (the “logic of circles”) to explain the dynamics of power in
pre-modern Indian politics. The former emphasizes brutal competition among unequal
entities, where the strong consume the weak, while the latter highlights diplomacy and
equilibrium among equals. These ancient principles, derived from classical Indian
3
Upadesiars are those person who gives advice
texts like Kautilya’s Arthashastra, underscored the difficulties of integrating India's
fragmented polities into enduring larger structures.
Frykenberg delves into the historical complexities that made India resistant to unified
rule, such as its segmented caste-based social order and the “small hard pieces” of
village-based micro-polities. The British East India Company capitalized on this
fragmentation by employing strategies like secondary alliances and treaties, enabling
indirect rule while co-opting local elites and their resources. The author underscores
how the Raj's hybrid nature blending British and Indian elements was pivotal in its
endurance. Notably, Indian manpower and financial systems largely sustained the
empire, with Indian soldiers and civil servants outnumbering their British counterparts
significantly.
The chapter also mentions the tensions between colonial policies and missionary
endeavors. While the early British administration resisted Christian missionary
activity, pressure from missionary societies in Britain eventually led to grudging
acceptance, often triggering backlash from Indian elites. This delicate balance of
appeasing local power structures while promoting imperial interests underscored the
vulnerabilities of the colonial apparatus.
A recurring theme is the interconnectedness of local and imperial dynamics.
Frykenberg illustrates this through metaphors like the mahachakra (Great Wheel),
symbolizing the integration of countless “small wheels” into a larger political entity.
However, the stability of this system relied heavily on maintaining equilibrium within
these networks, a task achieved through contractual agreements, diplomacy, and
strategic concessions.
In conclusion, the chapter asserts that the Raj’s (Britishers) success lay in its
adaptability and reliance on indigenous structures. Far from being a purely colonial
construct, it was as much “India’s Raj” as it was Britain’s empire. This nuanced view
sheds light on the complexities of colonial rule and its lasting impact on India’s
socio-political fabric.
F. Avarna Christians and Conversion Movements
In this chapter we can find the phenomenon of avarna (outcaste or Dalit) Christian
conversion movements, tracing the socio-cultural and historical contexts that
influenced these mass conversions. It explores the marginalized status of āvarna
communities, who were relegated to servitude and faced severe social stigma. These
individuals, often engaged in labor-intensive agrarian economies, found opportunities
for autonomy and dignity through Christianity. The chapter discusses how conversion
provided these communities with tools for social mobility and empowerment, often
establishing “villages of refuge” and cooperative societies that offered protection from
persecution and avenues for mutual aid.
The chapter further analyzes the role of missionaries as dubashis (cultural
intermediaries) in facilitating these conversions. These missionaries and their
indigenous counterparts not only spread Christian teachings but also created
institutional frameworks such as schools, seminaries, and healthcare facilities—that
supported these communities’ development. Frykenberg highlights the transformative
impact of these movements, which were more than religious shifts; they were cultural
and social revolutions that enabled marginalized groups to assert their identity within
oppressive structures. At the same time, the chapter acknowledges the resistance from
the dominant Hindu social order, which viewed these movements as a challenge to
entrenched hierarchies.
In summary we can see that Chapter 8 offers a detailed exploration of avarna
Christian conversion movements, illustrating the dynamic interplay between religion,
culture, and social reform in the context of Indian Christianity. It underscores the
resilience of marginalized communities and their ability to use Christianity as a means
of socio-political empowerment, making it a significant chapter in understanding the
broader narrative of Christianity in India.
G. Reflection
Overall this book offers a rich, detailed exploration of the multifaceted history of
Christianity in India. It stands out for its ambitious scope and interdisciplinary
approach, blending history, sociology, and theology. The book successfully
contextualizes Christianity within India’s diverse cultural and religious tapestry,
emphasizing its interaction with Hinduism, Islam, and other indigenous traditions.
Frykenberg’s effort to present an “Indocentric” or we can say “ethnocentric”
perspective is commendable, as it highlights the agency of Indian Christians and their
adaptation of Christianity to local customs. The thorough use of oral traditions,
archaeological evidence, and textual sources strengthens the work, providing a
nuanced understanding of the subject.
However, the book also has its own pessimistic perspective. This is why I come to the
conclusion that while its depth is a strength, the extensive detail can overwhelm
readers unfamiliar with Indian history. The narrative occasionally feels fragmented,
with certain themes revisited across chapters without clear continuity. Furthermore,
Frykenberg’s focus on an “Indocentric” lens sometimes leads to underrepresentation
of broader global contexts or comparative analyses, which could have enriched the
study. Additionally, the writing style, though scholarly, may appear dense and less
accessible to a general audience.
In summary, this book is a seminal work that significantly contributes to the
understanding of Christianity's evolution in India. Its strengths in depth and originality
outweigh its limitations in accessibility and structure, making it a valuable resource
for scholars and those deeply interested in the intersection of religion and Indian
history.
