Political Science

Chapter No.: 01 Political Theory and Indian Politics

1.1 Political Theory

Political theory is the study and analysis of political ideas, concepts, and principles that
determine and govern political systems and societies. It tries to understand and explain how
power is exercised, how governments work, and how people and communities conduct
political activities. Political theory explores the nature of justice, equality, rights, democracy,
and other such fundamental political values. It also delves into the philosophical basis of
political systems. It looks into several ideologies, including liberalism, conservatism,
socialism, and feminism.

Nature & Scope of Political Theory

Political Theory is very wide-ranging and heterogeneous in scope, to the extent that it
includes a number of topics of socio-political life. In this respect we have three interrelated
aspects:

 Normative Analysis: Political Theory generally concerns ethical questions related to

government, powers, and political processes. It provides a foundation for moral
prescriptions, which determine what should or should not occur in political life.

 Empirical Analysis: For normative dimensions, it provides guidance for the moral
aspects. On the other hand, empirical analysis is realistic and down-to-earth. It deals
with observable facts concerning political phenomena and institutions.

 Conceptual Analysis: It breaks abstract concepts such as democracy, justice, power,

equality, and their practical implications in Political Theory.

Traditional Political Theory

Traditional Political Theory provides the historical underpinning for our way of
understanding political life. This tradition of governance has a great depth rooted in the
ideas of ancient and medieval philosophers, starting from the city-states of Greece to the
empires of China and India. Major questions posed are the very basics of governance,
justice, power, and freedom. These questions that formed the spring of wisdom- the ethical
bedrock for modern political systems, have been discussed and answered by great thinkers
and minds like Plato, Aristotle, Confucius, Kautilya, and many more. This kind of theory
typically involves moral judgments that prescribe how society should be arranged and
governed.
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Contemporary Political Theory

This is a step out from the normative foundations of the traditional sphere to the
complexities of the modern world.

As societies became more complex, so were the political problems and questions. Thus,
modern political thought was broadened and began to absorb topics such as political
economy, social justice, identity politics, environmental ethics, and postcolonial studies.
Naturally, this theory is flexible with the times; it encompasses emerging topics and
proceeds with socio-political changes. In addition to this, contemporary political theory
embraces all types of approaches: modern, behavioural, post-behavioural, and structural-
functional, which we analysed earlier.

Descriptive Political Theory

Descriptive political theory, a strand in political theory, describes and explains political
phenomena as they actually exist. It is different from the prescriptive in traditional theory.
This strand of political theory does not entail a moral judgment nor prescriptive advice.
Instead, it is all about making factual observations in empirical analysis. Its end is to paint a
real-world picture of political events, processes, and institutions, by which people can gain
almost full understanding of the dynamics of politics.

In a nutshell, Political Theory, though single-minded in its pursuit of an analysis and

understanding of the nature of political life, is nevertheless very diverse in its forms.
Whether it's the normative approach of traditional theory, the adaptability of contemporary
theory, or the factual basis of descriptive theory, each type of theory provides its own
unique insights which together illuminate the multidimensional world of politics.

Approaches to Political Theory

Let us dig deeper into some of the prominent approaches of political theory below:

 Traditional Approach
The roots of the Traditional Approach are well-entrenched in the soil of history, philosophy,
and law and are richly drawn from the wisdom of ancient political thinkers. This approach
respects normative and philosophical analysis. It legitimates the advancements of the great
classical political philosophers, like Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, and
Rousseau, who all plunged deep into the concept of the state, sovereignty, rights, and
justice. The Traditional Approach becomes the base of Political Theory, placing us on solid
ground regarding ethical and moral principles.

 Modern Approach
Let the philosophical underpinnings of the Traditional Approach take their step backward;
the Modern Approach holds the empirical and statistical analyses into precision. It is a
rather scientific method, instead of systematic observation to a hypothesis to be tested,
each conclusion drawn being supported by logical reasoning. The Modern Approach brings
light upon the study of political institutions, processes, and behaviour in verifiable facts and
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data. This is when Political Theory shifts from its speculative, normative domain into more
concrete, empirical territory. Behavioral Approach

 Behavioural Approach
The Behavioural Approach is one of the major offspring of the Modern Approach. Here,
human behaviour occupies the centre stage of political study. It deals with how individuals
and groups behave in a political system; it involves research on voting behaviour, power
relations, policy attitude, and political action. The Behavioural Approach revised Political
Theory: abstract institutions yielded to real-world human action and sentiment.

 Post-Behavioural Approach
In response to the limitations of Behavioural Approach, particularly its over-emphasis on
empirical data and underplaying normative questions, came the Post-Behavioural Approach.
It advocated that Political Theory should not be limited to value-free empiricism but have
ethical concerns as well. In this view, balance between facts and values was sought by
combining such high empirical rigor with normative relevance.

 Structural-Functional Approach
The Structural-Functional Approach views the political system as a whole. It assumes
political life is an integrated system of interrelated structures, including legislative,
executive, and judicial branches whose functions are carried out in law making, law
enforcement, or adjudication. This approach considers the overall functions of the political
system by analysing how those structures and their functions interrelate to affect the
system as a whole.

In essence, every approach to Political Theory gives different insights and views that explain
the rich depth of political life. They do particularly show how complex Political Theory is in
terms of approach, appreciation, and use.

Important Aspects of Political Theory

Here are some of the important aspects of Political Theory:

 Political Ideologies
Politically, at the core of Political Theory rest different political ideologies. Each ideology
supports a different view of governance, of society, and of individual rights.

Liberalism and capitalism place emphasis on individualistic freedom and socialism on

equality with public ownership. In each case, the ideology will present a solitary view from
which we can view and understand political life. Political ideologies help us explore the
different ways through which societies can be organized and governed.

 Political Power
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Political power is one of the cornerstones of Political Theory. Political Theory answers some
of the most basic questions regarding who, how, and in what manner power has acquired.
This includes the analysis of the relationship between power and authority, the role of
institutions, and how power is being distributed; this also recognizes ethical considerations
within power exercise. From understanding political power lies the ability to critically
evaluate relationships between governments, institutions, and citizens and determine
whether there exists the possibility for advancement or manipulation.

 Political Justice
Political Theory dwells on the concept of justice. What is fair distribution of resources? What
does a just society look like? How does one make sure that justice permeates all political
decision-making? Questions in this regard form some of the subjects covered in this aspect.
Political justice probed into the issues of equality, fairness, rights, and obligations that form
the ethical foundation of political systems.

 Political Freedom
Political freedom is the other equally important political concept, which often goes with
concepts of liberty. Political Theory digs deep into whatever rights and freedoms individuals
should enjoy under a political system and extends the exploration of the balance between
individual liberty and societal order. This aspect also looks into the constraints that prevent
political freedom and mechanisms set to ensure these freedoms.

 Political Obligation
Political obligation is concerned with the duties and obligations that citizens owe to their
state and society. It explicates why citizens should obey the laws, what constitutes
legitimate authority, and what are the ethical dimensions of citizenship. Political obligation
enriches the relationship between individual citizens and the state.

1.2 The State and Sovereignty

Sovereignty

State has four characteristics -namely population, territory, government and sovereignty.
The term sovereignty literally means supreme or highest autority or power, within the state.
It is the most important of characteristic of the state. It is like the very heart or soul of the
state. A nation or a country cannot be called state unless it enjoys sovereign power over its
people and within its territory. Essence of the state authority is its sovereign power. It is this
element which distinguishes the State from other associations. In every state there must be
an authority which is supreme, final, whose will is legally binding over all individuals and
associations within the territory. The concept of sovereignty is essentially a juristic concept.
It implies supreme and final legal authority, above and beyond which no further legal power
exist.
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Blackstone defined sovereignty as "the supreme irresistible, absolute, controllable authority

in which the supreme legal power resides".
Jellinek defines it as "that characteristic of the state in virtue of which it cannot be legally
bound except by its own will, or limited by any other power than itself".

Duguit defines sovereignty as "the commanding power of the state; it is the will of the
nation organised in the state; it is the right to give unconditional orders to all individuals in
the territory of the state."

Burgess characterizes sovereignty as "original, absolute, unlimited power over the individual
subject and over all associations of subjects."

Garner defines it as "the supreme will and power", elements which distinguish the state
from other human associations.

Political Science Dictionary defines sovereignty as "the supreme power of a state exercised
within its boundaries, free from external interferences".

The Penguin Dictionary of Politics defines sovereignty as "the right to own and control some
area of the world".

All these definitions emphasise absolute and exclusive nature of sovereignty in its internal
and external aspects. In simple words sovereignty means supreme authority of the state
within its territory and complete freedom from external control, or interference.

In conclusion we may quote the words of Justice Sutherland of the Supreme Court of United
States of America: "Rulers come and go, governments and forms of government change, but
sovereignty survives. A political society cannot endure without a supreme will somewhere.
Sovereignty is never held in suspense" In strict sense sovereignty is a legal attribute of a
state which entitles it to make decisions with respect to matter within its jurisdiction, free of
external restraint or coercion.

The State

The term 'State' occupies the highest place and central theme in the study of political
science. The modern term "state" is derived from the word "status" earlier used by the
German tribe "Teutons". The Greeks used the word 'Polis' to denote the 'city-state' and
Romans used the term 'Civitas' which means state. It was the Italian scholar Machiavelli who
used the term 'state' in political science in the modern sense. In political science the term
'state' we mean an association of people who live within a geographical area under an
organised government and subject to no outside control
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State is an institution to ensure law and order and maintain harmony of social relations. It
creates those conditions, which are necessary for the development of individual personality.
It creates laws and rules to regulate human behaviour. It stand for the welfare of society as
whole and protect the rights and life of citizen from internal and external disturbances or
war.

The ordinary people usually use the word state in a wrong way. It is wrong to equate the
word state with government, nation or society. When they say 'state aid to industries' 'state
bus' etc., actually they mean 'government aid to industries' 'government bus' etc. Further,
the constituent units of a federation are called "states", for example, various states in India
and the federal states in the U.S.A. But as far as our study is concerned the term state is
used in a different way.

In the scientific sense of the term "the state means an assemblage of human beings
occupying a definite territory, organised under a government supreme within the country
and subject to no outside control".

Definitions and Nature of State: - Many scholars have defined state in various ways. Even
today modern day scholars attempt to define state taking into account its modern functions.

In 4th century B.C. Aristotle, who is regarded as 'Father of Political Science had defined
state. According to him, state is a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect
and self-sufficing life, by which we mean a happy and honourable life.

According to some scholars, this definition is so comprehensive that it can hardly be

improved upon. Aristotle.s definition communicates the primary objectives of the state
however we must study some more definitions of the State.

1.3 Welfare State

A welfare state is a form of government in which the state (or a well-established network of
social institutions) protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens,
based upon the principles of equal opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public
responsibility for citizens unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good
life.
There is substantial variability in the form and trajectory of the welfare state across
countries and regions. All welfare states entail some degree of private–public partnerships
wherein the administration and delivery of at least some welfare programs occur through
private entities. Welfare state services are also provided at varying territorial levels of
government.
Early features of the welfare state, such as public pensions and social insurance, developed
from the 1880s onwards in industrializing Western countries. World War I, the Great
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Depression, and World War II have been characterized as important events that ushered in
the expansion of the welfare state. The fullest forms of the welfare state were developed
after World War II
1.4 Liberal

Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on the rights of the individual,
liberty, consent of the governed, political equality, the right to private property, and
equality before the law. Liberals espouse various and often mutually conflicting views
depending on their understanding of these principles but generally support private
property, market economies, individual rights (including civil rights and human rights),
liberal democracy, secularism, rule of law, economic and political freedom, freedom of
speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of religion. Liberalism
is frequently cited as the dominant ideology of modern history.

Liberalism became a distinct movement in the Age of Enlightenment, gaining popularity

among Western philosophers and economists. Liberalism sought to replace the norms
of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy, the divine right of kings and
traditional conservatism with representative democracy, rule of law, and equality under
the law. Liberals also ended mercantilist policies, royal monopolies, and other trade
barriers, instead promoting free trade and marketization. The philosopher John Locke is
often credited with founding liberalism as a distinct tradition based on the social
contract, arguing that each man has a natural right to life, liberty and property, and
governments must not violate these rights. While the British liberal tradition
emphasized expanding democracy, French liberalism emphasized rejecting
authoritarianism and is linked to nation-building.

Liberals sought and established a constitutional order that prized important individual
freedoms, such as freedom of speech and freedom of association; an independent
judiciary and public trial by jury; and the abolition of aristocratic privileges. Later waves
of modern liberal thought and struggle were strongly influenced by the need to expand
civil rights. Liberals have advocated gender and racial equality in their drive to promote
civil rights, and global civil rights movements in the 20th century achieved several
objectives towards both goals. Other goals often accepted by liberals include universal
suffrage and universal access to education. In Europe and North America, the
establishment of social liberalism (often called simply liberalism in the United States)
became a key component in expanding the welfare state. Today, liberal parties continue
to wield power and influence throughout the world. The fundamental elements of
contemporary society have liberal roots. The early waves of liberalism popularised
economic individualism while expanding constitutional government and parliamentary
authority.
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1.5 Neo-Liberalism

Neo-liberal institutionalism focuses on the role of global institutions. Neo-liberals argue that
although anarchy prevails in international relations and prevents the states from
cooperating with each other, yet the states make an attempt to achieve peace and
cooperation. This is made possible with the liberal international organizations. Joseph M.
Grieco in 'Anarchy and the Limits of Cooperation: A Realist Critique of Newest Liberal
Institutionalism' (1988) says that there are three variants of the neo-liberal institutionalism-
functionalist integration theory which developed in the 1940s and 1950s, the neo-
functionalist regional integration theories in the 1950s and 1960s, and the interdependence
theories in the 1970s. Liberals argue that despite so much war and violence, the
international system is still surviving. The core of this survival is the possibility of
cooperation amongst the states. In other words, unlike the realist theories, neo-liberals
provide a more optimistic picture of international relations

Countering the realist arguments, realists argue that not the states but other international
organizations like the United Nations and its agencies or civil society groups are the
dominant actors. Their roles have increased to a substantial level in influencing the state
behaviour and policies This has been forcing the states to cooperate with other states.
According to the functionalist integration theorists, the specialized international agencies
and their technical experts play a crucial role in the formation of different policies at the
state level. They also coordinate amongst various states at different levels which facilitates
co-operation amongst them.

The neo-functionalist regional integration theory of liberal institutionalism on the other

hand emphasizes more on various civil society organizations or non-governmental
organizations like labour unions, political parties, trade associations, and supranational
bureaucracies. According to the neo-functionalist school, these actors force states to
cooperate with each other. The interdependence theorists focus more on the role of
multinational corporations and transnational and trans-governmental. Coalitions like the
World Trade Organizations, World Economic Forum etc. Unlike other types of global
institutions, they are based upon the bargaining and negotiation amongst different states
and their exercise to form groups

All these theorists argue that the state authority is not so centralized and monolithic as
realists argue. Rather it is decentralized and divided amongst various non-state and non-
governmental organizations. Besides, with the expansion of the civil society organizations,
various groups are also playing a significant role at the global level. This has made even
foreign policy making a decentralized affair and not an exercise dominated by a few central
actors.

Neo-liberals also argue that states are no more for power-politics and war prone as realists
argue. Rather, the cost of indulging in a war has increased exponentially. The growing threat
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of nuclear weapons and mobilized national populations were rendering war prohibitively
costly (Keohane and Nye) Besides, many economic issues like price stability, higher growth,
employment generation and so on has forced the states to be in contact with other states
Welfare and development has started dominating the state agenda at home and not power
and prestige. In fact faster development has become a parameter of prestige in
international relations. Thus, the states are not power-seeking actors but try to cooperate
with each other in order to secure a more comfortable and secure global order
Finally, the neo-liberals argue that the role of international organizations is such that they
foster cooperation amongst states without questioning their sovereignty. Similarly, many
international regional organizations like the European Union are an outcome of the
realization amongst the states that they have certain limitations in ensuring their citizens'
welfare alone. Finally, theorists argue that in the contemporary world of interdependence
where multiple issues are occurring amongst the states, the bargaining capacity of various
political institutions has increased. Unlike the earlier versions of liberal philosophy, neo-
liberals believe that states do have a significant role to play in international relations despite
challenges on various fronts. States are also rational-unitary actors who decide their own
course of action.

1.6 Marxist
Marxist political theory focuses on social change and revolutionary reconstitution of society.
In this context, Marxism consists of three interrelated elements
 An examination and critique of the present and past societies. This is known as
dialectical materialism and historical materialism.
 The notion of an alternative model against a society based upon exploitation
and divided among classes. The new society is based on the common ownership
of the means of production on which human potential will be allowed to freely
develop its manifold facets. Such a society will be classless and stateless
 Though there was a general agreement that capitalist system was unstable and
crisis-ridden, the advent of socialism required a revolutionary action by the
proletariat, whose growing impoverishment will lead to revolution, and
establishment of a socialist state and society
The central themes of Marxist political theory are modes of production, class division, class,
struggle, property relations, revolution and state as an instrument of class domination.
Marxism also examines the nature of rights, liberty, equality justice and democracy but
came to the conclusion that in a class divided society, they are the prerogatives of the
propertied class. Real liberty and equality can be achieved only in a classless and stateless
society. Thus, Marxist political theory preoccupied itself with the establishment of a socialist
state through revolutionary action.
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1.7 Pluralism
Classical pluralism is the view that politics and decision-making are located mostly in the
framework of government but that many non-governmental groups use their resources to
exert influence. The central question for classical pluralism is how power and influence are
distributed in a political process. Groups of individuals try to maximize their interests. Lines
of conflict are multiple and shifting as power is a continuous bargaining process between
competing groups. There may be inequalities but they tend to be distributed and evened
out by the various forms and distributions of resources throughout a population. Any
change under this view will be slow and incremental, as groups have different interests and
may act as "veto groups" to destroy legislation. The existence of diverse and competing
interests is the basis for a democratic equilibrium, and is crucial for the obtaining of goals by
individuals.
A polyarchy—a situation of open competition for electoral support within a significant part
of the adult population—ensures competition of group interests and relative equality.
Pluralists stress civil rights, such as freedom of expression and organization, and an electoral
system with at least two parties. On the other hand, since the participants in this process
constitute only a tiny fraction of the populace, the public acts mainly as bystanders. This is
not necessarily undesirable for two reasons:
(1) it may be representative of a population content with the political happenings, or
(2) political issues require continuous and expert attention, which the average citizen
may not have.

1.8 Post – Colonial

The post-colonial political theory is a theory that focuses on combating the residual effects
of colonialism upon people. The theory basically focuses on understanding, explaining and
analysing political phenomenon. The theory basically describes and explains political
behaviour and events. Political theory aims to reflect upon political phenomenon, processes
and institutions and on actual political behaviour by subjecting it to philosophical or ethical
criterion. Political theory is a result of thoughts and research of many scholars.
Germino is of the view that, 'Political theory is the most appropriate term to employ in
designating that intellectual tradition which affirms the possibility of transcending the
sphere of immediate practical concerns and viewing man's societal existence from a critical
perspective. According to Sabine, Political theory is, quite simply, man's attempts to
consciously understand and solve the problems of lis group life and organization. It is the
disciplined investigation of political problems not only to show what a political practice is,
but also to show what it means In showing what a practice means, or what it ought to mean,
political theory can alter what it is
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Andrew Hacker defines political theory as a combination of a disinterested search for the
principles of good state and good society on the one hand and a disinterested search for
knowledge of political and social reality on the other
Andrew Hacker defines political theory as a combination of a disinterested search for the
principles of good state and good society on the one hand, and a disinterested search for
knowledge of political and social reality on the other.

George Catlin points out that, 'political theory includes political science and political
philosophy. While science refers to the phenomena of control in many forms over all the
process of whole social field... It is concerned with means, political philosophy is concerned
with the end or final value, when man asks "what is the national goo" or "what is good
society"." I
A comprehensive definition of political theory given by Gould and Kolb is: "a sub-field of
political science which includes:
 Political philosophy a moral theory of politics and a historical study of political ideas,
 A scientific criterion
 A linguistic analysis of political ideas
 The discovery and systematic development of generalizations about political
behaviour
The post-colonial political theory is thus a theory concerned with the study of the state in
philosophical as well as empirical terms. The theory focuses on the moral philosophical
purpose for which the state has been established. The theory is concerned with the fate of
the humans which depends upon the development of a political community. The political
community so developed is the one where the goals of the ruler and the ruled are unified
which is the betterment of the society as a whole.

1.9 Feminist
Feminism can be defined as a collection of movements, which are aimed at defining,
establishing and defending equal political, economic and social rights, and equal
opportunities for women. However, its ideas and concepts have common characteristics
with those of women's rights. Feminism is primarily focused on women's issues, but because
feminism fights for gender equality, some feminists claim that the emancipation of men is
therefore a significant aspect of feminism, and that men are also affected by sexism and
gender roles. Feminists are 'person[s] whose beliefs and behaviour[s] are based on feminism
Feminist theory exists in several disciplines, which emerge from feminist movements
including general theories and theories about the origins of inequality, and, in some cases,
about the social construction of sex and gender. Feminist activists have not only fought for
women's rights but also have promoted women's rights to physical integrity, self-sufficiency
and reproductive rights. They have strongly raised their voice against domestic violence,
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sexual harassment and sexual assault. They have also campaigned for workplace rights,
including equal pay, opportunities for careers and to start businesses
Some earlier forms of feminism have also been criticized for fighting against White, middle-
class, educated perspectives. This resulted in the development of ethnically-specific or
multi-culturalism forms of feminism.

Feminists worldwide sometimes had different causes and objectives, depending on time,
culture and country. According to several Western feminist historians, all movements that
work to achieve women's rights should be considered feminist movements, even when they
did not for do not) apply the term to themselves Other historians argue that the term
should be restricted to the modern feminist movement and its successors. These historians
use the term "proto-feminist to describe earlier movements.

1.10 Nature and Elements of State

 With the exception of anarchists, all political thinkers have regarded state as a
worthwhile or necessary association.
 The traditional political scientist like Garner, Gettle, Pollack and Strong accept the
centrality of the concept of State in Political Science.
 “To Garner, Political Science begins and ends with State.”
 While describing the scope of the subject, these political scientists had preferred to use
the term state because it is so comprehensive that it includes all other institutions like
Government Constitution etc.
 The term State in the modern sense was used for the first time by Niccolo Machiavelli in
his book ‘The Prince’.
 To the Greeks, the concept was ambiguous. They used the word ‘polis’ which means ‘city
state’.
o In these city states, the emphasis was on rights and duties, not upon supremacy and
obedience. As Catlin points out, “they could more appropriately be described as the city
community rather than the modern state”.
 However, the concept of State began to emerge during the later medieval age, but it
was not well articulated, it was only in the 16th century that the term or concept
of State became current.

State

 The modern term “state” is derived from the word “status”. The state is the most
universal and most powerful of all social institutions. The state is a natural institution.
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 Aristotle said man is a social animal and by nature he is a political being. To him, to live
in the state and to be a man were identical.
 The state is the highest form of human association. It is necessary because it comes into
existence out of the basic needs of life. It continues to remain for the sake of good life.
 In common usage the term State is used in varied sense. We often come across such
phrases as ‘state transport’, ‘State College of education’, ‘State aid to industries’ etc.
Strictly speaking all such usages of the term ‘state’ are wrong.
o The fact is that when we talk of the state transport we refer to that transport which is
run by the government, as distinguished from the one that is managed by a private
company or an individual capitalist.
o We thus confuse the two terms state and government and do not understand the
difference between the two. Another equally wrong usage of the term is with regard to
the units of federation. We often describe Punjab, Haryana and Himachal are the units
of a bigger state, India. All these so-called states in India are the units of federation.
o In this way, we can say that though term ‘State’ has been distorted in a number of ways
to cover a number of diverse units and usages yet in political science it has a definite
meaning and a precise definition.
 Burgess says that state is “a particular portion of mankind viewed as an organized unit.”
 Woodrow Wilson says that the state “is a people organised for law within a definite
territory.”
 Aristotle defined the state as a “union of families and villages having for its end a perfect
and self – sufficing life by which it meant a happy and good life”.
 According to Sidgwick. “State is a combination or association of persons in the form of
government and governed and united together into a politically organized people of a
definite territory.”
 Bodin defines the state as, “an association of families and their common possessions
governed by a supreme power and by reason”.
 Prof. Laski defines “state as a territorial society divided into government and subjects
whose relationships are determined by the exercise of supreme coercive power.”
 According to Garner, the state is “a community of persons more or less numerous
permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent, or nearly so of
external control and possessing an organized government to which the great body of
inhabitants render habitual obedience”.
 This definition covers all the elements of modern state which are: first a number of
persons, second, the occupation of a definite territory, third, having a well-organized
government, fourth, possessing independence of external control.

Elements of State
The State may thus be said to consist of four elements namely;
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 Population,
 Territory,
 Government,
 Sovereignty

Population

 State being a human institution, cannot be conceived of without human beings.

Population is essential to a state as threads are to a piece of cloth. A desert or a
mountain peak where people normally do not live, cannot be described a state. This
much is, therefore, certain that there must be some people to constitute a state.
 Now the question arises how many people should be there to form a state? This
question regarding the number of persons necessary or desirable for constituting a
state cannot be answered in concrete terms. There is no limit to the size of its
population. All that is required is that there must be some human being living in it. This
does not mean a dozen people or so living in place will form a state. Their number
should not be very small, but there is no ceiling (limit) to the population of the state.
 Some writers have tried to suggest a limit, for example, Plato felt that an effective
number of 5040 citizens should be sufficient.
 His disciple Aristotle opined that the population should be large enough to be
selfsufficing and small enough to be well-governed. According to him a hundred persons
would rather be too small a number but a hundred thousand would be too
unmanageable.
 Likewise Rousseau, a great admirer of small republics and direct democracy, thought
that ten thousand may be an ideal number.
 While some states like the U.S.A., Russia, and Canada are still under populated relative
to area, resources and similar factors. Other states like India, China and Italy are
confronted by the problem of a population which is expanding too rapidly for their
natural or technological resources.
 Therefore, every state strives to confine its population within its exiting or potential
resources. The former set of states (U.S.A., former U.S.S.R. and Canada) encourages
increased population in comparison to the latter which attempts to control the
population.

Territory

 Territory is the second essential element of the state. The people do not become a state
unless they permanently settle down in some territory.
 Previously, philosophers like Hall, Duguit, and Seeley etc. did not attach much
importance to the permanent settlement of a people on some territory.
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 There is now a consensus that nomadic people do not form a state though they may not
be deficient in political organisation.
 There have been numerous organised groups in the early periods of human civilization
which occupied no fixed territory.’ It is now a fairly common opinion that such tribal
formations, so long as they do not settle down on a definite piece of territory, do not
constitute states.
 There is no such thing as migratory state, For example, the Jews were not able to form
themselves into a state till recently because they had no homeland of their own. They
lived scattered over various parts of Palestine and the Jewish state of Israel; has
consequently come into being.
 Therefore, territory is indispensable in the making of the state. The authority of the
state extends not only over persons, but over the territory also.
 With regard to the extent of territory also we cannot fix any hard and fast rules.
The modern states vary greatly in size. On the other hand, the state of San Marino has
an area of only 38 square miles. There was a time when political thinkers considered
the smaller state to be better. This view prevailed in ancient Greece. Aristotle was of the
opinion that if the size of the state was very large, good administration was difficult.
Rousseau also subscribed to this view.
 These writers were to some extent justified partly because the means of transport and
communications were then un-developed and partly because the representative
institutions had not yet been well organised.
 But now when the problems of communication and government no longer hamper us,
large size states are preferable. That is why we find smaller states drawing closer to each
other and forming federations. Larger states have an added advantage of a vast
economic potential.
 The extent of territory that a state should possess depends upon the size of the
population it has to support.
 If the population is larger than what the natural resources of the country can sustain,
complications are likely to arise unless it rapidly becomes highly industrialised and
economically efficient.
 On the other hand, if the population is small many tracts of the territory and the
population of the state had impelled Aristotle to remark that the territory of a state
should be small enough to be well governed and large enough to be self-sufficient.
 It may be added that the territory of a state also includes, besides the land surface the
entire air space above the land surface. Further, the authority of the state also extends
over a part of the sea that touches its territory coast. The extent of this maritime or
coastal belt as it is called is generally three miles.
 Finally, it may be remarked that the territory of a state should preferably be contiguous.
If it scattered and separated, it will pose administrative difficulties.
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 Pakistan as it existed before the creation of Bangladesh consisted of the East and West
Pakistan separated from each other by two thousand miles has been a victim of this
geographical misfortune.’

Government

 Government is the concrete expression of the state. The people may live in a particular
piece of territory, but that inhabited territory cannot be termed as state unless
the people are controlled by a common government.
 Government forms the agency through which the will of the state is formulated,
expressed and executed.
 Population in the absence of government is only an unorganised mass of people. The
government brings about regulation and adjustment in the life of the people. The ends
of the state can be achieved through the government only.
 Moreover, the state is incapable of collective action in any sphere without such an
agency. All this means that government in one form or another is essential for the
existence of the state.
 The Government has three branches: legislature, executive and judiciary. The legislature
makes laws, the executive enforces and execute them and the judiciary interprets and
punishes the breach of laws.
 The government exercises the physical coercion at the disposal of the state and
“punishes disobedience to its command.
 The form of Government is immaterial so far as the state is concerned. It may
be kingship, democratic or dictatorial, parliamentary or presidential, federal or unitary. A
change in government does not bring a change in the state.

Sovereignty

 Sovereignty is the most important element of the state. It alone distinguishes the state
from other associations. There are two kinds of Sovereignty (a) Internal and (b) External.
 Internal Sovereignty implies the supremacy of the state over its citizens, over all their
associations and over their entire possessions. This means that the state possesses
authority to secure unquestioned obedience from all citizens to its laws. If any one of
them throws a challenge to its authority by disobeying its laws, it can inflict upon him
any type of punishment, ranging from a simple warning to death penalty depending of
course on the gravity of the crime.
 External sovereignty implies that a state is independent in its external actions. This
means that outside the territorial bounds of the state, there is no other state,
government, king or any authority, who may issue command to this state. It is
completely free from any such limitation. It may voluntarily accept and abide by the
dictates of the international law and obligations.
 Political Science

 To sum up, sovereignty means full authority over the citizens within and complete
independence from outside.
 But several other essential elements of a state are described by writers. Burgess for
example, gives all comprehensiveness and permanence as peculiar elements of the
state. But those are the merits of a state not the essential elements constituting a state.
 Population, definite territory, well organised government and sovereignty are thus the
essential elements of the state.

1.11 CONCEPT OF RIGHTS

In this section we shall make a detailed discussion of the concept of rights. The Definition of
Rights

As members of the society, every individual possesses certain rights. Without rights a man is
said to be deprived of various opportunities. According to British political scientist Harold
Laski, "State is known by the rights it maintains."(Agarwal, R.C.: Political Theory- Principles
of Political Science, S. Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2007, p.181). He further says that,
"Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man seeks to be himself, at his
best." (ibid.,p.181). We all enjoy our rights in an organized society. Thus rights are
recognized by a society. However, while enjoying our rights we must ensure that our fellow
beings also enjoy their respective rights in the society. It implies while enjoying our rights
we must perform our duties also to. For example, while walking on the road we should not
occupy the entire space so that our fellow citizens can also enjoy similar rights. Hence, every
right has a corresponding duty and enjoyment of the right depends on the performance of
everyone's duties. In his book Grammar of Politics, Laski states that, "He that will not
perform functions cannot enjoy rights any more than he who will not work ought to enjoy
food."

In the modern time, every state guarantees certain rights to its citizens. State also acts as
the protector of these rights. In India also, the Constitution provides certain rights to its
citizens. Among these rights guaranteed by the Constitution, some are described as
fundamental without which no individual in a civil society can develop in a proper way. The
rights of the citizens are also the conditions of social welfare. Therefore, rights are necessary
for proper development of human lives and to establish a just society.

The rights we have as individuals have some characteristics as well. Let us look at some of
the characteristics of our rights:

Individual rights should aim to meet their needs in society.

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Rights are usually recognised by law and protected by the state's authority. These rights,
however, are not absolute. Individuals' enjoyment of these rights may be restricted by the
authority in certain circumstances.

Every right comes with a responsibility. While exercising one's right, one must ensure that
the rights of others are not harmed.

1.12 CONCEPT OF LIBERTY

In this section we shall discuss the meaning and types of liberty.

Meaning of Liberty

In Political Science, the concept of liberty is also very important. The word "liberty" comes
from the Latin word "liber," which means "to be free." As a result, liberty refers to the
freedom of individuals in a society. To live a dignified life, we all require some level of
liberty. As a result, every individual's liberty is a basic requirement.

Different political thinkers have defined this concept in various ways. As a result, according
to American scholar Gilchrist, "everyone has a vague notion of liberty of some kind and a
desire for it," but "perhaps no two people using the word will be able to say exactly what
they mean, or, if they do, will agree with each other in their definition."

G.D.H Cole, an English scholar, defines liberty as an individual's freedom to express

themselves without external impediments. According to Laski, liberty is the eager
preservation of an environment in which men can be their best selves. As a result, liberty
essentially entails the absence of restraint and the ability to do as one pleases. However,
liberty in the sense of being free of all restraints is impossible to achieve. As a result, an
individual is free to the extent that he is able to fully develop his personality without
jeopardising the interests of other members of society.

The concept of liberty has primarily evolved in recent years. It went through several stages
before settling into its current form. Plato, a Greek philosopher, rejected the concept of
liberty, which granted an individual the right to rebel against the state. There was no
concept of individual liberty in the mediaeval period, which was marked by ideas of
salvation and soul freedom.

The Renaissance marked the beginning of a new era in political thought. Liberty was viewed
in a multidimensional way after the Renaissance, including religious and political liberty. The
concept of negative liberty arose from this period's belief in liberty as the absence of
restraints.
Laski, on the other hand, believes that civil liberties and rights are inextricably linked. Laski
rejects the notion that liberty entails a lack of restraints. According to him, there are three
 Political Science

types of liberty: private, political, and economic. Private liberty refers to the freedom to
make decisions in areas that directly affect the individual. Political liberty is the ability to
participate in state affairs.

Chapter No.:02 Public Administration & Political Economy

2.1 Neo-Classical and Contemporary Theories

I. Neo-Classical Theories of Political Science
Neo-classical theories emerged as a response to classical political thought, particularly
emphasizing empirical analysis, institutionalism, and rational decision-making. These
theories build upon classical concepts but incorporate modern methodologies.
1. Neo-Institutionalism
Neo-institutionalism revisits classical institutionalism but recognizes that institutions are not
just formal structures; they shape and are shaped by human behaviour.
Key Features:
- Focuses on how institutions influence political outcomes.
- Considers both formal (e.g., laws, constitutions) and informal (e.g., norms, traditions)
institutions.
- Highlights institutional stability and change over time.
Types of Neo-Institutionalism:
- Historical Institutionalism – Institutions evolve over time and constrain political actors.
- Rational Choice Institutionalism – Political actors behave rationally within institutional
constraints.
-Sociological Institutionalism – Institutions shape social behaviour and identity.
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2. Behavioralism
Behavioralism emerged in the mid-20th century, focusing on the empirical and scientific
study of political behaviour rather than normative theories.
Key Features:
- Emphasizes observable political behaviour rather than abstract ideas.
- Uses statistical and quantitative methods.
- Seeks to establish general theories based on empirical data.
Criticism:
- Overlooks the role of ideology and values in politics.
- Focuses too much on individual behaviour rather than broader power structures.
3. Neo-Marxism
Neo-Marxism modifies classical Marxist thought by incorporating modern political and
economic factors.
Key Features:
- Recognizes that capitalism has evolved, requiring new forms of critique.
- Explores the role of global capitalism and international economic relations.
- Examines issues like class struggle, economic dependency, and state power.

4. Elite Theory
Elite theory suggests that a small group of elites controls political and economic power,
even in democratic societies.
Key Features:
- Challenges the idea of popular sovereignty and democracy.
- Argues that power is concentrated in a few hands (political, military, and business elites).
- Elites manipulate institutions to maintain dominance.

II. Contemporary Theories

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Contemporary theories expand beyond classical and neo-classical perspectives,

incorporating new interdisciplinary approaches, globalization, and modern political
challenges.
1. Postmodernism
Postmodernism critiques traditional political theories, arguing that power and knowledge
are socially constructed.
Key Features:
- Rejects universal truths and objective reality.
- Emphasizes discourse, language, and identity politics.
- Questions traditional narratives of power and governance.

2. Feminist Political Theory

Feminist theory critiques mainstream political science for ignoring gender and patriarchy.
Key Features:
- Examines how political institutions reinforce gender inequality.
- Focuses on representation, participation, and rights of women and marginalized groups.
- Challenges traditional political concepts like power and justice from a gendered
perspective.
Types of Feminism:
Liberal Feminism – Advocates for equal rights and representation.
Radical Feminism – Argues that patriarchy is deeply embedded in political structures.
Intersectional Feminism – Examines how race, class, and gender intersect.

3. Environmental Political Theory

This theory examines how environmental issues influence politics and vice versa.
Key Features:
- Studies the role of states, institutions, and policies in environmental protection.
- Critiques capitalism and industrialization for ecological destruction.
- Advocates for sustainable development and green politics.
 Political Science

4. Globalization and Political Theory

With the rise of globalization, political science has adapted to study transnational
governance and power relations.
Key Features:
- Analyses the impact of multinational corporations, international organizations, and non-
state actors.
- Examines how sovereignty and national borders are challenged by globalization.
- Explores global justice, migration, and human rights.
5. Constructivism
Constructivism argues that political reality is shaped by ideas, identity, and discourse rather
than just material forces.
Key Features:
- Highlights the role of culture, identity, and norms in shaping political behaviour.
- Argues that political structures are not fixed but are socially constructed.
- Emphasizes the role of international institutions and diplomacy.

2.2 Ideal type bureaucracy (Marx)

Bureaucracy Theory Was Proposed by Max Weber, Which includes two essential elements,
including structuring an organization into a hierarchy and having a clearly defined role to
help administer an organization and its members. A German Sociologist, Max Weber,
described a theory to operate an organization effectively which is known as the Bureaucratic
management approach or Weberian Bureaucracy. Read the article below to know more
about the Max Weber Bureaucracy Theory.
Bureaucracy
"Bureaucracy is an organizational structure characterized by many laws, standardized
procedures, procedures and requirements, number of desks, the meticulous division of
labour and responsibility, clear hierarchies and professional interactions between
employees that are almost impersonal."- Max Weber.

The Concept of Max Weber Bureaucracy Theory

 Political Science

A German scientist, Max Weber, describes bureaucracy as an institution that is highly

organized, formalized, and also impersonal. He also developed the belief that there must be
a fixed hierarchical structure for an organization and clear rules, regulations, and lines of
authority that regulate it. The bureaucracy of Max Weber has the following attributes:
 Specialization of labour
 A formal set of rules and regulations
 Well-defined hierarchy within the organization
 Impersonality in the application of rules

Max Weber Bureaucracy Theory Organizational Structure

Bureaucratic organizations evolved from traditional structures due to the following changes:
In traditional structures, the leader delegates duties and can change them at any time.
However, over time, this changed and there was a clear specification of jurisdiction areas
along with a distribution of activities as official duties.

In a bureaucratic organization, the subordinates follow the order of superiors but can appeal
if they feel the need. On the other hand, in the traditional structure, the authority was
disseminated.
The rules are detailed, stable, and can be easily understood by employees. Additionally, the
company registers them in permanent archives.
Personal property is distinct from property in the workplace. The means of production or
administration, therefore, belong to the bureau.
The selection of officials shall be based on professional qualification and appointment and
shall not be based on an election. In addition, for their service, officials receive a salary as
compensation.
The official is hired for a trial period and then offered a permanent position with the
organization. This protects him from arbitrary discharge.

Features of Bureaucratic Management

The following are the different Features of Bureaucratic Management organisation:
A Structured Hierarchical Structure: In a bureaucratic organization, each level governs the
level below it. Also, the level below it governs it. The foundation of central planning and
centralized decision making is a formal hierarchy.
 Rules-Based Management- To exercise control, the company uses rules. Therefore,
at higher levels, the lower levels effortlessly execute the decisions made.
 Political Science

 Organization of Functional Specialties - Specialists do the job. The company often

breaks workers into groups depending on the type of work they do or the abilities
they possess.

Up-Focused or In-Focused: If the organization's purpose is to represent the stockholders,

board, or some other institution that motivated it then it is up-focused. On the other hand,
it is in-focused if the goal is to serve the company itself and others inside it (like producing
income, etc.).
 Impersonal - All workers are handled fairly by hierarchical organizations. They also
fairly treat all clients and do not allow individual differences to affect them.
 Employment-oriented Professional Qualifications - Selection is based on technical
qualifications and skills as well as employee promotion.
Though criticism has come from several corners of these laws, the organization's
hierarchical structure tends to live on.

Features of Bureaucratic Organization

Following are the different features of bureaucratic organization:
 A well-defined chain of command exists.
 The high level of Division of Labor and Specialization.
 It follows Rationality, Objectively, and Continuity theory.
 The relationship between the members of the association is formal and impersonal.
And it's focused not on personalities, but roles.
 The rules and regulations are well defined and employee duties and privileges are
indicated. Such ideals range from the bottom of the organization to all and must be
strictly observed.
 Professional credentials are used for selection and promotion.
 Relevance is granted only to bureaucratic or legal authority.

Criticism of Bureaucratic Organization

 Max Weber's Hierarchical Management Approach still has several fault lines and has
attracted criticism for that.
 The focus is only on rules and laws.
 Owing to the formalities and regulations of the Hierarchical Organisation, there
would be needless gaps in decision-making.
 Owing to so much formality and laws, organization and communication were
hindered.
 Political Science

 Bureaucracy requires a lot of paperwork and has an extensive level of authority,

resulting in a lot of time, effort, and resources being wasted. Not optimal for
effectiveness.
 A hierarchical approach is not ideal for business organizations because of its
unnecessary formality. For government agencies, the bureaucratic model might be
appropriate.
 The professional skills of the personnel for promotion and transfers are given too
much significance. The dedication and commitment of the worker are not
considered.
 Human Resource Limited scope exists for human resources. Informal groups are not
given any meaning and no scope is given to form one.
 The hierarchical approach of Max Weber served as a solution to the issues of
conventional administrative structures. But it was not the optimal solution or "close
to perfect."
 The bureaucratic system gives top-level management all the significance and control.
 And there are just so many rules and degrees of authority. It gives the workers a
greater sense of security. But a window for "red-tapism" is created by bureaucratic
management.

Weber's 'Ideal Type' of Bureaucracy

Weber coined the term 'ideal type of bureaucracy' not as a perfect model but as a
theoretical construct that serves as a tool for understanding the empirical world. It
represents a pure form of organizational theory, against which real-life institutions can be
compared.
His 'ideal type' of bureaucracy involves an organization with a clearly defined hierarchy,
division of labour, and set of rules and regulations. It functions purely on rational-legal
authority, with officials appointed based on qualifications and merit rather than personal
affiliations or favouritism

2.3 Public Policy

Public policy is the framework of laws, regulations, and actions governments implement to
achieve social and economic goals. It’s a statement of the government’s intent and
commitment to address a particular issue or problem. Public policy shapes the decisions of
government officials and agencies, and it affects society, the economy, and politics.

It covers various issues, including economic, social welfare, education, healthcare, and
environmental policies. Political ideologies, societal values, and economic conditions
influence public policy, vital in shaping a country’s future. Public policy plays a crucial role in
shaping societies and addressing societal challenges. In political science, it is essential to
comprehend public policy’s meaning, public policy definition evolution, and significance.
 Political Science

THE HISTORY & EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC POLICY

The genesis of public policy dates back to ancient civilizations like Greece and Rome, where
rulers made decrees and laws to regulate society. However, the contemporary study of
public policy began in the late 19th century when American scholars like Woodrow Wilson
and John Burgess explored the relationship between government and society. After World
War II, public policy became an established field of study, focusing on solving social,
economic, and political problems.

Over time, various models of public policy emerged, such as the rational model, the
incremental model, and the advocacy coalition framework, which help explain how
policymakers arrive at decisions. The field of public policy has evolved, shaped by historical,
social, and political factors. Initially, public policy was primarily concerned with economic
matters and the regulation of trade and commerce. However, as societies became more
complex and interconnected, the scope of public policy expanded to include various social,
environmental, and technological issues.

FEATURES & NATURE OF PUBLIC POLICY

Public policy is a deliberate and systematic attempt to address various social, economic, and
political issues that affect society. It is a multifaceted field encompassing a wide range of
policies and decision-making processes to achieve specific goals and outcomes.
Understanding the nature and features of public policy is essential to appreciate its
significance and impact on society.

Here are some of the key features of public policy:

 Purposeful: Public policy is designed to solve specific problems or address particular

societal needs. It is not random or haphazard but a deliberate effort to address
identified issues. Policies may aim to improve the economy, enhance public health,
reduce crime, or mitigate the effects of climate change, among others.
 Systematic: Public policy is not a one-off decision but a set of coordinated actions
that work together to achieve a desired outcome. Policies are typically developed
and implemented systematically, involving various stakeholders and decision-making
processes.
 Strategic: Public policy aims to achieve long-term goals, not just immediate needs.
Policymakers consider the potential consequences of their decisions and try to
create policies that will have a lasting impact. This means that policies may take time
to implement and require significant resource investments.

TYPES OF PUBLIC POLICY

Public policy can be categorized into several types based on focus, scope, and duration.
Distributive policies allocate resources among societal groups, ensuring fair distribution.
Redistributive policies aim to reduce income inequality by redistributing wealth. Regulatory
policies control or manage behaviours to protect the public interest. Constitutional policies
 Political Science

establish fundamental rules and principles governing society. Foreign policies promote
national interests, maintain peace and stability, and foster international cooperation.

Each type of policy plays a crucial role in addressing various social, economic, and political
challenges.

PROCESS OF PUBLIC POLICY FORMATION

The process of public policy formation involves several stages, including problem
identification, agenda setting, policy formulation, decision-making, implementation, and
evaluation.

 Problem Identification: Identify a problem or issue that requires government

intervention. Conduct research and gather data to understand the scope and
severity of the problem. Define the problem and its impact on society.
 Agenda Setting: Determine the importance of the problem and its priority on the
policy agenda. Consider the political and social context in which the problem exists.
Decide whether the problem should be addressed through legislation, regulation, or
other means.
 Policy Formulation: Generate alternative solutions to address the problem. Evaluate
the feasibility and effectiveness of each solution. Consider the short-term and long-
term impacts of each solution. Choose the best solution and develop a plan for its
implementation.
 Decision-Making: Present the proposed policy solution to the appropriate decision-
makers. Seek input and feedback from stakeholders and interested parties. Debate
and discuss the merits of the proposal. Make a final decision on the policy and its
implementation.
 Implementation and Evaluation: Put the policy into practice through legislation,
regulation, or other means. Monitor the implementation of the policy and make any
necessary adjustments. Assess the effectiveness and efficacy of the policy. Gather
feedback from stakeholders and interested parties. Use the feedback to refine and
improve the policy over time.

SCOPE OF PUBLIC POLICY IN INDIA

The scope of public policy in India is vast and covers various critical areas. It includes
economic development, promoting social justice, ensuring environmental sustainability,
maintaining national security, and engaging in international relations. Public policy in India
aims to drive economic growth, alleviate poverty, address inequality, promote renewable
energy and conservation, enhance national security, and actively participate in global
affairs.

By addressing these areas, public policy in India seeks to foster development, prosperity,
and well-being for all citizens while positioning the country as a responsible global power.

IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC POLICY

 Political Science

Studying public policy provides numerous benefits, equipping individuals to address

complex societal issues and make positive changes on a large scale. It provides a deep
understanding of policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation, allowing for effective
advocacy and influencing decision-making processes. Additionally, it enhances critical
thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills valued in various professions while offering
networking opportunities with experts in the field.

MAJOR SUBJECTS IN PUBLIC POLICY

Public policy covers diverse subjects like policy analysis, economics, governance, research
methods, social justice, and public administration. These subjects develop a comprehensive
understanding of contemporary policy issues and equip students with effective skills in
formulation, evaluation, and management. Students gain insights into policy development’s
social, economic, and political contexts.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBLIC POLICY

Public policy plays a critical role in shaping societies and affecting the lives of individuals. It
influences everything from healthcare and education to the environment and social welfare.
Effective public policy ensures the equitable allocation of resources, promotes social justice,
and addresses societal challenges. By studying public policy, you become empowered to
contribute to developing and implementing policies that positively impact people’s lives.
With the ability to identify and analyse policy problems, you can propose innovative
solutions, advocate for change, and drive sustainable development. The importance of
public policy cannot be understated, as it is the catalyst for creating more inclusive and
prosperous societies.

2.4 Administrative Management Planning Commission

The Planning Commission of India was a governmental agency established in 1950 to
formulate India's Five-Year Plans. It aimed to guide the country's economic and social
development. The commission's responsibilities included assessing India's resources,
formulating development plans, prioritizing and allocating resources, and monitoring the
implementation of plans. It played a crucial role in shaping India's economic trajectory
during its formative years. It contributed significantly to the country's growth and
development.

Planning Commission of India

 Planning Commission was under the Prime Minister of India on March 15, 1950,
under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Lal Nehru,
 It was created by the Central Government and did not have any constitutional or
legal basis.
 In March 1950, the government of India established the Planning Commission
through a government resolution to improve the standard of living for Indians by
 Political Science

effectively utilizing the nation’s resources, boosting production, and offering

employment opportunities to all sections of India.
 The role of the Planning Commission included making an assessment of all of India’s
resources, utilizing them efficiently, and setting priorities.
 The first head of the Commission was Pandit Nehru.

Composition of Planning Commission in India

 The Prime Minister served as the Chairman of the planning commission and presided
over the meetings.
 The Deputy Chairperson was the de facto head of the Commission and held the full
functioning role of drafting and submitting drafts of the Five Year Plan to Cabinet
Ministers.
 The Deputy Chairperson was appointed for a fixed term by the Central Cabinet. He
held the position equivalent to that of Cabinet Minister. Also, he did not have any
voting powers.
 Part-time members included some central ministers.
 Finance Ministers and Planning Ministers were ex-officio members.

Functions of the Planning Commission of India

 The primary function of the Planning Commission was to formulate Five-Year Plans.
These plans outlined specific targets, strategies, and investments for various sectors.
 The Planning Commission conducted regular assessments of India's resources. This
included natural resources, human capital, and financial resources.
 The Planning Commission played a central role in prioritizing development programs.
It allocated resources across various sectors.
 The Planning Commission established monitoring mechanisms to track the progress
of Five-Year Plans. It identified bottlenecks and assessed the effectiveness of
implemented programs.
 The Planning Commission facilitated coordination and collaboration between various
government ministries and departments.
 The Planning Commission encouraged research and innovation in various fields. This
involved supporting research institutions, funding research projects, and promoting
technology adoption.
 The Planning Commission provided economic advice to the government on various
policy matters.
 The Planning Commission aimed to achieve balanced regional development across
India. It addressed disparities between states and regions.
 The Planning Commission advocated for the empowerment of marginalized groups.
This included women, minorities, and disadvantaged communities.
 The Planning Commission encouraged public participation in the planning process. It
recognized the importance of involving stakeholders in decision-making.
 Political Science

Is the Planning Commission dissolved?

In 2014, the Planning Commission was dissolved, and a new body, which goes by the name
of National Institute of Transforming India (NITI) Ayog, was formed. Proponents of NITI Ayog
say that it will function differently as compared to the erstwhile Planning Commission. This
is given in detail below-
 NITI Ayog works as a brainstorming centre of discussion platform as compared to the
Planning Commission, which mandated five-year plans and allotted resources to
meet those targets.
 In Contrast to the previous National Development Council’s planning commission,
the full team of NITI Ayog will report directly to the Prime Minister, who will serve as
its chairperson.
 Every state and UT will be represented in NITI Ayog, but the daily operations will be
handled by the deputy chairperson, CEO, and experts who make a full-time team.
 It is presented as a decentralized body as compared to the Planning Commission,
which was centralized in its decision-making approach.
 The major distinction between NITI Ayog and the Planning Commission is that NITI
Ayog will foster greater involvement of states, whereas the Planning Commission
opted for a centralized strategy that adopted a top-down approach with a one-size
plan for all.
 The role of the Planning Commission was to draft comprehensive policies and act as
a consultant. On the other hand, the role of NITI Ayog is to distribute resources to
states as per their requirements.
 The policy planning responsibility of the Planning Commission had limited direct
involvement from the states. The States were only indirectly engaged through the
National Development Council, which will not be the case with NITI Ayog.

2.5 Macro-Economic Reforms

The year 1991 saw India face an unprecedented financial crisis. The crisis was triggered by a
major Balance of Payments situation. The crisis was converted into a golden opportunity to
reform the country’s economic situation and make-up and introduce fundamental changes
in economic policy.
The government brought in structural reforms and stabilization policies. While the former
was aimed at removing the rigidities in the various sectors of the Indian economy, the latter
was aimed at correcting the weaknesses that had emerged on the fiscal and BoP fronts.
India’s Prime Minister, when the New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced was P V
Narasimha Rao and the Finance Minister was Dr. Manmohan Singh.

Objectives of New Economic Policy 1991

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 Enter into the field of ‘globalization’ and make the economy more market-oriented.
 Reduce the inflation rate and rectify imbalances in payment.
 Increase the growth rate of the economy and create enough foreign exchange
reserves.
 Stabilize the economy and convert the economy into a market economy by the
removal of unwanted restrictions.
 Allow the international flow of goods, capital, services, technology, human
resources, etc. without too many restrictions.
 Enhance the participation of private players in all sectors of the economy. For this,
the reserved sectors for the government were reduced to just 3.

Steps under economic reforms of 1991

The branches of the new economic policy are threefold:

1. Liberalization
2. Privatization
3. Globalization

The government sought to open up the Indian economy through these measures and gear
India from a Soviet-model economy to a market economy. This is an ongoing process and
the initiation was done in 1991.

Steps taken under Liberalisation

1. Commercial banks were given the freedom to determine interest rates. Previously, the Reserve
Bank of India used to decide this.
2. The investment limit for small scale industries was raised to Rs. 1 crore.
3. Indian industries were given the freedom to import capital goods like machinery and raw
materials from foreign countries.
4. Previously, the government used to fix the maximum production capacity of industries. Now, the
industries could diversify their production capacities and reduce production costs. Industries are
now free to decide this based on market requirements.
5. Abolition of restrictive trade practices: Previously, companies with assets worth more than
Rs.100 crore were classified as MRTP firms (as per Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices
(MRTP) Act 1969), and were subject to severe restrictions. These were lifted.
6. Industrial licensing and registration were removed: as per this, the private sector is free to start a
new venture of business without obtaining licenses except for the following sectors (which still
need licenses):
1. Cigarette
2. Liquor
3. Industrial explosives
4. Defence equipment
5. Hazardous chemicals
6. Drugs
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Steps taken under Privatisation

Privatization refers to opening up the private sector to industries that were previously
reserved for the government sector. This chiefly involved selling the PSUs (private sector
undertakings) to private players. This was meant to remove the political interference in
PSUs which was making them models of inefficiencies.

The following steps were taken under the privatization reforms:

1. Selling shares of PSUs to the public and financial institutions. For example, shares of Maruti
Udyog Ltd. were sold to private parties.
2. Disinvestment in PSUs. This means selling PSUs to the private sector.
3. The number of industries that were reserved for the public sector was decreased from 17 to only
3. These are:
1. Transport and railway
2. Atomic energy
3. Mining of atomic minerals

Steps taken under Globalisation

Globalization refers to opening up the economy more towards foreign investment and
global trade.

1. Reduction in tariffs: a gradual reduction in the customs duties and tariffs on exports and imports
to make India attractive to global investment.
2. Long term trade policy: trade policy was enforced for a longer duration. The main features of the
trade policy are:
1. Liberal policy
2. Encouragement of open competition
3. Controls on foreign trade were removed
3. Before 1991, imports to India were regulated by a positive list of freely importable items. From
1992 onwards, the list was replaced by a limited negative list. Almost all intermediate and capital
goods were freed from the list for import restrictions.
4. The Indian currency was made partially convertible.
5. The equity limit of foreign capital investment was raised from 40% to 100%. The Foreign
Exchange Management Act (FEMA) was enacted replacing the draconian Foreign Exchange
Regulation Act (FERA).

The economic reforms of 1991 led to widespread economic development in the country.
Many sectors such as civil aviation and telecom saw great leaps from deregulation and
surged ahead. India is also home to many start-ups and mushrooming businesses because of
the end of the dreaded License Raj. The process is, however, far from complete and many
areas need improvement.
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2.6 Pre Colonial and Impact of Colonial Economy

India was a direct colony of the British and the impact of this colonial rule over the
economy, society and polity of India has been quite deep. Many serious consequences of
the British Colonial Rule are still persisting and this makes the study of colonial phase of
India very relevant for understanding many contemporary aspects of the Indian society. It
must be stated at the outset that direct colonial rule leaves a total impact on the colonized
society because every aspect of social life is influenced by the policies of the colonizers. A
direct colony is under the complete control of the colonizers and colonial policies and
interests penetrate every aspect of social life of a colony. Another important fact about
India is that the colonial rule lasted for a very long time and this longevity of the colonial
rule over India affected the vitals of the Indian society. The long period of British Rule over
India provided enough time to the British to establish strong and stable institutions for the
governance of India. The journey of British occupation of India was slow and steady and it
passed through various stages. This evolutionary process provided the British an
opportunity to evolve their policies and change their policies on the basis of experience
gained through practice. But before we go into that, we should have a look at the nature of
Indian economy prior to British rule.
IMPACT OF THE COLONIAL RULE: WESTERN VIEW-POINT
What has been the impact of British rule over India? It must be clearly stated that sharp
differences have always existed, and continue to persist, among the Indian nationalists and
the Western Scholars in their evaluation. Of the impact of British colonial rule over the
economy, society and polity of India. According to many western writers, the British rule
provided political unity and stability of governance to India. It has been maintained by the
Western scholars that the British rescued India from chaos and provided political stability.
As
"Despite a Hindu tradition of imperial expansion, at no time in Indian history over any large
region did a stable political unit survive for more than a century or a century-and-a half.
There was nothing that compares with the imperial chronologies of Rome, Egypt, or China. A
crucial consequence is that no tradition of continuous administrative institutions and no
persistent bureaucracy ever developed".
Indian political unity was a myth, an abstract concept which was concretized into a reality by
the British rulers. In the absence of political unity, the eighteenth century India had very low
levels of "commerce and capital accumulation" and its implication was that the British rule
in India had to deal with a very low level of economy. This argument of the western writers
challenges the nationalist argument that India was economically very attractive and
profitable for the British.
Second, the western writers have suggested that the history of India revealed a very low
level of agricultural productivity because it was based on a 'non-animal powered
agriculture'. According to many western historians, the absence of any worthwhile
technology kept a large portion of India as a 'virgin land as late as 1800'. Tobacco, potato
and peanut cultivation was introduced by the British in India.
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Third, according to them, India could not claim any great achievements in manufacturing
because it lacked technology. Although India had some excellent craftsmen and produced
textiles and a few other manufactured goods but they were the result of hard work and not
of any developed technology. The evidence for this view-point is gathered from the
seventeenth century records of the English which point out the inelasticity of textile
productivity in India. W.H. Moreland and many other scholars have used the evidence of
early European travellers to prove that Indian technology was poor. On the basis of such
evidence, Morris D. Morris observes that:
". . .. The Indian subcontinent was a region in which per capita income was relatively low in
the centuries before 1800. Given the lack of political stability, low agricultural and non-
agricultural productivity, and insignificant commerce no other conclusion is supportable".
If the opinions of Monis D. Morris, W.H. Moreland. or European travellers or British factory
records are accepted that India was underdeveloped when the British gradually conquered
it, then the implication is that the British conquest of India was beneficial for the economy,
society and polity of this country. In history whenever two societies interact, the advanced
and well organized society succeeds in establishing its control over the less advanced society
and at the same time the less advanced society gains from the technology and organization
of the advanced society. This is the basic premise of the western writers who view the
British colonial rule as a rule of advanced society over an underdeveloped society. In the
process, the underdeveloped society like India achieved benefits from the British rule and
they are enumerated by the Western scholars:
 The British provided political unity and stability to India.
 The British developed a system of roads and rail transport which had a positive
impact on the economic development of India.
 The British developed irrigation and other public works which facilitated growth of
agriculture, commerce and manufacturing activities in India.
To sum up, the Western writers have made two points regarding the impact of British rule
over India. First, on the eve of colonial expansion, the British found a highly underdeveloped
India with low productivity in agriculture, very low per capita income and absence of any
developed technology or tools for manufacturing. Second, the benevolent policies of the
British helped in the establishment of political unity, a system of governance and it laid the
foundations of economic development in India

IMPACT OF THE COLONIAL RULE: INDIAN VIEW-POINT

As against this, the Indian nationalist scholars put forward a different hypothesis. Dadabhai
Naoroji, Romesh Chandra Dutt in the 19Ih century and Rajni Palme Dutt in the 2(rh century
represented the Indian nationalist perspective. The question they raised was that why did
the British East India Company gradually get involved Pre-Colonial and in local wars of
conquest? Why did the Britigh Queen in 1858 take up the direct Colonial India responsibility
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of ruling over India till 1947? How was it that the East India Company which came to India
with a trading capital of & 68,000, went on to make fortunes? If the Indian economy was
really stagnant, how did it sustain the East India Company and its expenditure?
Two important aspects of British colonial rule over India highlighted by the nationalists were
the 'drain theory' and the theory of 'de-industrialisation'.
5.6.1 The Drain Theory
The drain theory, as formulated by the nationalists, referred to the process by which, a
significant part of India's national wealth, was being exported to England for which India got
no economic returns. In other words, India was made to pay an indirect, tribute to the
English nation. Needless to say, this drain of India's wealth to England, in the form of salaries
to British officers posted in India, home charges and the profits made on the British capital
invested in India, benefited England and diminished the sources for investment in India.
Arniya Bagchi observes:
"Since after acquiring dominion over India, the East India Company and private traders could
appropriate Indian goods or tribute or profits without really paying for them. Britain did not
any longer have to send bullion to India to balance her accounts. Instead bullion was now
sent out from India either to China or to Britain".
Bagchi's estimate is that 'external drain' from Bengal constituted about 3 to 4 percent of the
gross domestic material product. If expenditure on wars of the East India Company is added
in this period, Bagchi maintains "that at least 5 to 6 percent of resources of the ruled land
were siphoned off from any possibility of investment.
An elementary principle of economic development is that surplus is generated for
investment but if the surplus is siphoned off from a colony to the colonizers, the colony gets
underdeveloped. This was the impact of external drain on the economy of India under
British colonial rule starting with Bengal after the battle of Plassey in 1757
External drain however was only one element of British exploitation of India, linked with
other sources of exploitation like heavy taxation and an unfavourable trade. The British
benefited immensely from the plunder and exploitation of India.
Lord Curzon wrote:
"India is the pivot of our Empire.. . .. If the Empire loses any other part of its Dominion we
can survive, but if we lose India the sun of our Empire will have set”
The Company obtained Dewani or civil administration rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in
1765 and this opened new opportunities for plunder by the Company. The land revenue
because of Dewmi rights were remitted by the Company to England. This monopoly of
plunder and exploitation by the Company continued till the end of eighteenth century when
England moved from mercantile capitalism to industrial revolution and the emerging
industrial capitalists in Britain started demanding the end of Company rule in India.
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Besides the external drain theory, the nationalists argued that British rule led to the de-
industrialization of India. India was an exporter of cotton manufacture and this was how the
Company started its trade but gradually India became an importer of cotton manufacture
and thus Indian artisans, craftsmen and important trading centres collapsed and whatever
manufacturing activity existed was destroyed under the impact of imports of cotton
manufacture almost exclusively from Britian. Arniya Bagchi observed that: "for more than
seventy-five years up to 1913, India remained the major importer of cotton goods from
Britain, often taking more than forty per cent of the British exports".
Thus the industrialization of &gland was accompanied by the decline and destruction of
Indian cotton manufacturer. As a result, India witnessed, from the early 19" century
onwards, a steady decline in population dependent on indigenous industries and a
consequent over burdening of agriculture. This proved injurious to both. Its political
ramifications have been summed up by Sumit Sarkar:
"The sufferings of artisans have to be kept in mind as a significant factor in the
understanding of many movements of our period: both in the way in which
deindustrialization stimulated patriotic sentiments among intellectuals alike in the
Moderate, Extremist and Gandhian eras, as well as more directly, in occasional urban and
rural explosions of various types".
'The decay of Dacca, Surat, Murshidabad and many other flourishing towns bears testimony
to de-industrialization of India. Sir Charles Trevelyan observed in 1840:
"The population ‘of the town of Dacca has fallen from 1,50,000 to 30,000 or 40,000 and the
jungle and malaria are fast encroaching upon the town. Dacca, which was the Manchester of
India, has fallen off from a very flourishing town to a very poor and small one; the distress
there has been very great indeed".
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Chapter No.: 03 Modern Political Thought

3.1 Philosophical Thought

Philosophical thought in political science explores fundamental questions about power,

governance, justice, and the role of the state. It examines how societies should be structured,
the legitimacy of authority, and the moral foundations of political systems. Some key areas
include:

1. Theories of the State and Governance

 Social Contract Theory (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau) – The idea that governments
derive their legitimacy from an implicit contract with the people.
 Marxism (Karl Marx) – A critique of capitalism, advocating for class struggle and a
communist society.
 Liberalism (John Stuart Mill, Rawls) – Emphasizing individual rights, democracy, and
limited government.
 Conservatism (Burke) – Valuing tradition, gradual change, and social order.
 Anarchism (Bakunin, Kropotkin) – Rejecting centralized authority in favor of self-
governed societies.

2. Justice and Political Morality

 Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill) – Advocating policies that maximize overall happiness.

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 Rawlsian Justice (John Rawls) – The "veil of ignorance" thought experiment,

promoting fairness and equality.
 Libertarianism (Nozick) – Arguing for minimal state intervention and individual
freedom.

3. Democracy and Political Authority

 Democratic Theory (Tocqueville, Dahl) – Exploring the strengths and weaknesses of

democracy.
 Authoritarianism vs. Democracy – Examining the legitimacy of different political
systems.

4. Power and Ideology

 Foucault – Analyzing power as a social construct that operates beyond just

government institutions.
 Gramsci – The concept of cultural hegemony, where ruling classes maintain power
through ideology.

3.2 Contemporary Political Thought

Contemporary political thought builds upon classical theories while addressing modern
challenges such as globalization, human rights, environmental crises, and digital governance.
It integrates perspectives from philosophy, economics, sociology, and law to analyze power,
justice, and governance in today's world. Some key themes and thinkers include:

1. Democracy and Its Challenges

 Deliberative Democracy (Jürgen Habermas, John Rawls) – Advocates rational

discourse and public reasoning in democratic decision-making.
 Radical Democracy (Chantal Mouffe, Ernesto Laclau) – Emphasizes conflict,
pluralism, and the need for continuous debate in democracy.
 Post-Democracy (Colin Crouch) – Critiques the dominance of elites and corporations
in modern democratic systems.

2. Justice, Equality, and Rights

 John Rawls' Theory of Justice – Proposes the "veil of ignorance" as a method for
designing fair institutions.
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 Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum’s Capability Approach – Focuses on individual

freedoms and capabilities rather than material wealth alone.
 Critical Race Theory (Derrick Bell, Kimberlé Crenshaw) – Analyzes how race and law
intersect to perpetuate systemic inequalities.
 Feminist Political Thought (Judith Butler, Nancy Fraser) – Challenges gendered
power structures and advocates for intersectionality.

3. Globalization and Political Economy

 Neoliberalism (Milton Friedman, Friedrich Hayek) – Advocates free markets,

privatization, and minimal government intervention.
 Critiques of Neoliberalism (David Harvey, Thomas Piketty) – Argue that neoliberal
policies increase inequality and weaken democracy.
 Postcolonial Theory (Edward Said, Frantz Fanon, Gayatri Spivak) – Examines the
lingering effects of colonialism on politics and culture.
 Global Governance (Ulrich Beck, David Held) – Discusses transnational institutions,
global democracy, and cosmopolitanism.

4. Power, Surveillance, and Digital Politics

 Michel Foucault (Biopolitics & Surveillance) – Analyzes how states regulate

individuals through knowledge, discipline, and surveillance.
 Zygmunt Bauman (Liquid Modernity) – Describes how globalization and technology
create unstable, fragmented societies.
 Shoshana Zuboff (Surveillance Capitalism) – Critiques how corporations exploit
personal data for profit and influence.

5. Populism, Nationalism, and Identity Politics

 Ernesto Laclau & Chantal Mouffe (Left-wing Populism) – View populism as a way to
mobilize marginalized groups against elites.
 Francis Fukuyama (Identity Politics) – Explores how identity-based movements
shape contemporary politics.
 Samuel Huntington (Clash of Civilizations) – Argues that future conflicts will be
driven by cultural and religious identities rather than ideology.

6. Ecological and Environmental Political Thought

 Green Politics (Bruno Latour, Naomi Klein, Vandana Shiva) – Critique industrial
capitalism and advocate for sustainability.
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 Degrowth Theory (Serge Latouche, Jason Hickel) – Argues for reducing economic
growth to achieve environmental and social well-being.

7. Postmodern and Post-Structuralist Politics

 Jean Baudrillard (Hyperreality) – Examines how media creates a simulated version

of reality that influences political perception.
 Jacques Rancière (Politics of Disagreement) – Views politics as a process of
challenging dominant power structures.

Key Contemporary Issues

 Artificial Intelligence and Political Decision-Making – Ethical concerns about

algorithmic governance and democracy.
 Climate Change and Political Responsibility – Who should bear the cost of
environmental damage?
 Crisis of Liberal Democracy – Rising authoritarianism, misinformation, and political
polarization

3.3 Gandhian Ideology: Principles and Contemporary Relevance

Gandhian ideology is a comprehensive framework of political, social, and ethical thought

developed by Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948). It emphasizes nonviolence (Ahimsa), truth
(Satya), self-reliance (Swadeshi), and grassroots democracy (Sarvodaya). His ideas
continue to influence movements for social justice, peace, and sustainable development
globally.

Core Principles of Gandhian Ideology

1. Ahimsa (Nonviolence)

 Central to Gandhi’s philosophy; nonviolence is not just physical but also extends to
thoughts and words.
 Inspired by Jain and Hindu traditions, Gandhi believed that true strength lies in
moral and ethical resistance rather than physical force.
 Practical Application: Satyagraha (Truth-force) – A method of passive resistance and
civil disobedience to fight oppression.

2. Satyagraha (Truth and Resistance)

 Satyagraha means “insistence on truth” and is a peaceful method of protest against

injustice.
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 Used effectively in movements such as the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920),

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930), and Quit India Movement (1942).
 Inspired global movements, including Martin Luther King Jr.’s civil rights movement
and Nelson Mandela’s anti-apartheid struggle.

3. Sarvodaya (Welfare of All)

 Advocates for an egalitarian society where resources and opportunities are shared
equitably.
 Promotes decentralization of power, self-sufficient villages, and local governance.
 Influenced socialist movements and policies emphasizing inclusive development.

4. Swadeshi (Self-Reliance and Economic Independence)

 Encourages local production and consumption to reduce dependence on foreign

goods.
 Led to the boycott of British goods and promotion of Khadi (handwoven cloth)
during India’s independence movement.
 Modern Relevance: Sustainable living, local economies, and self-sufficient
communities.

5. Trusteeship (Ethical Capitalism)

 Advocates for business leaders acting as ‘trustees’ of wealth for the benefit of
society.
 Encourages ethical corporate responsibility rather than wealth accumulation.
 Modern Application: CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) and social
entrepreneurship.

6. Religious Tolerance and Harmony

 Gandhi promoted interfaith harmony and believed that all religions lead to the same
truth.
 Opposed communal violence and worked towards Hindu-Muslim unity.

Gandhian Ideology in Contemporary Politics

1. Nonviolent Protest and Civil Disobedience – Used in global movements like Black
Lives Matter, climate activism (Extinction Rebellion), and pro-democracy protests.
2. Decentralization and Grassroots Governance – Inspired India’s Panchayati Raj
system, promoting self-governance at the village level.
3. Sustainable Development – Encourages environmentally friendly lifestyles, local
economies, and renewable energy.
4. Ethical Business Practices – Advocated in socially responsible companies and fair-
trade initiatives.

Criticism and Challenges

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 Some argue that nonviolence is impractical against extreme oppression (e.g., Nazi
Germany, terrorism).
 Economic policies like Swadeshi may not align with modern globalized economies.
 The concept of trusteeship is seen as utopian, as it relies on voluntary moral action
by the wealthy.

Despite criticisms, Gandhian ideals remain influential in peace movements,

environmental activism, and ethical leadership worldwide.

3.4 Social Thought: An Overview

Social thought refers to the philosophical and theoretical ideas that explain human society,
relationships, institutions, and culture. It examines issues like inequality, social justice,
identity, and power structures. Social thought has evolved through classical, modern, and
contemporary perspectives, drawing from philosophy, sociology, and political science.

1. Classical Social Thought

a. Greek and Roman Contributions

 Plato – Advocated for a just society ruled by philosopher-kings (The Republic).

 Aristotle – Defined humans as "political animals," emphasizing the importance of
community (Politics).
 Cicero – Advocated for civic virtue and the rule of law.

b. Religious and Medieval Social Thought

 St. Augustine – Argued for a divine order shaping human society (City of God).
 Thomas Aquinas – Merged Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy,
emphasizing natural law.

c. Enlightenment Thinkers (17th–18th Century)

 Thomas Hobbes – Believed in a strong state to control human selfishness

(Leviathan).
 John Locke – Advocated for individual rights, freedom, and social contract (Two
Treatises of Government).
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Proposed the idea of the "General Will" and equality (The
Social Contract).
 Adam Smith – Laid the foundation of capitalism and free markets (Wealth of
Nations).
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2. Modern Social Thought (19th–20th Century)

a. Sociological Theories

 Karl Marx – Focused on class struggle and economic systems (Communist

Manifesto).
 Émile Durkheim – Studied social cohesion, institutions, and collective consciousness
(Suicide, The Division of Labor in Society).
 Max Weber – Analyzed bureaucracy, authority, and cultural influences on capitalism
(The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism).

b. Social Justice and Reform Movements

 John Stuart Mill – Advocated for liberty, democracy, and gender equality (On
Liberty).
 W.E.B. Du Bois – Critiqued racism and introduced the idea of "double
consciousness."
 Gandhi – Developed nonviolent resistance (Satyagraha) and social upliftment
(Sarvodaya).

c. Functionalism vs. Conflict Theory

 Functionalists (Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton) – Saw society as a system where

each part serves a function.
 Conflict Theorists (Karl Marx, C. Wright Mills) – Believed social structures maintain
inequality.

3. Contemporary Social Thought (21st Century)

a. Globalization and Modernization

 Manuel Castells – Analyzed the "Network Society" shaped by technology.

 Ulrich Beck – Proposed the "Risk Society," dealing with global uncertainties like
climate change.

b. Social Inequality and Identity

 Critical Race Theory (Kimberlé Crenshaw, Derrick Bell) – Examines systemic racism
and legal structures.
 Intersectionality (Patricia Hill Collins, Crenshaw) – Studies overlapping systems of
oppression (race, gender, class).
 Feminist Theories (Judith Butler, Nancy Fraser) – Challenges patriarchy and explores
gender as a social construct.

c. Postmodern and Poststructuralist Thought

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 Michel Foucault – Explored power, surveillance, and knowledge systems (Discipline

and Punish).
 Jean Baudrillard – Studied media and hyper reality, where representations replace
reality (Simulacra and Simulation).

d. Environmental and Technological Social Thought

 Bruno Latour – Critiqued modernity and explored science-society relationships.

 Shoshana Zuboff – Investigated surveillance capitalism and the impact of digital
platforms.

4. Contemporary Issues in Social Thought

 Climate Change and Social Responsibility – How should societies adapt to

environmental crises?
 AI and Automation – How do emerging technologies shape human interactions and
labor?
 Neoliberalism and Economic Inequality – How does global capitalism affect wealth
distribution?
 Social Media and Identity – How does digital culture influence self-perception and
social movements?

3.5 Humanism, the United Nations, and Security & Disarmament

Humanism, as a philosophical and ethical framework, emphasizes human dignity, rationality,

and universal rights. When applied to international relations, it promotes peace, security,
and disarmament, aligning closely with the United Nations’ (UN) goals of global stability
and human welfare.

1. Humanism and International Relations

Humanism in global affairs advocates for:

 Peace and Nonviolence – Rejecting war as a means of conflict resolution.

 Universal Human Rights – Promoting dignity, equality, and freedoms for all.
 Global Cooperation – Encouraging diplomacy over nationalism.
 Social Justice and Development – Addressing poverty, education, and health as
global priorities.
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These principles are embedded in the UN Charter (1945) and key international treaties.

2. The Role of the United Nations in Security and Disarmament

The UN plays a critical role in conflict prevention, peacekeeping, arms control, and
disarmament through various bodies and treaties.

a. UN Security Council (UNSC)

 Responsible for maintaining international peace and security.

 Authorizes peacekeeping missions, sanctions, and military interventions when
necessary.
 Challenges: Veto power of permanent members (P5: USA, China, Russia, UK,
France) limits consensus on global security issues.

b. UN Disarmament Initiatives

Key agencies and treaties focused on reducing arms proliferation:

1. UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) – Coordinates global disarmament

policies.
2. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT, 1968) – Prevents the spread of nuclear
weapons.
3. Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT, 1996) – Bans nuclear weapon tests.
4. Arms Trade Treaty (ATT, 2013) – Regulates international arms transfers.
5. Chemical and Biological Weapons Conventions – Prohibit the use of such weapons.

c. UN Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution

 Deploys peacekeeping forces in conflict zones (e.g., Rwanda, Bosnia, Sudan).

 Promotes mediation and negotiations in international disputes.
 Example: UN peace efforts in the Israel-Palestine conflict, Afghanistan, and
Ukraine.

3. Challenges to Global Security and Disarmament

Despite UN efforts, several obstacles persist:

a. Nuclear Proliferation and Geopolitical Tensions

 North Korea, Iran, and other states continue nuclear development despite treaties.
 US-Russia-China rivalry fuels arms races in nuclear and AI-based weapons.

b. Arms Trade and Militarization

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 Global military spending exceeds $2 trillion annually, driven by powerful nations.

 Conflicts in Ukraine, Middle East, and Africa highlight the ongoing arms crisis.

c. Terrorism and Cyber Warfare

 Non-state actors (ISIS, cybercriminals, extremist groups) pose new threats beyond
traditional warfare.
 AI-driven weapon systems raise ethical concerns about autonomous warfare.

4. The Future of Humanism in Security and Disarmament

 Strengthening International Laws – Expanding enforcement mechanisms for arms

treaties.
 Ethical AI and Cybersecurity – Ensuring human control over digital warfare.
 Global Peace Movements – Strengthening civil society efforts for nuclear
disarmament.
 Multilateral Diplomacy – Encouraging greater UN cooperation to address new
security threats.

Conclusion

A humanist approach to global security requires prioritizing diplomacy, reducing arms,

and ensuring human rights. While the UN remains the key institution for peace and
disarmament, achieving a world free from war and nuclear threats depends on international
cooperation, ethical governance, and grassroots advocacy.

3.6 Non-Traditional Security Threats

Non-Traditional Security Threats (NTSTs) refer to challenges that do not arise from
direct military aggression but significantly impact global stability, national security, and
human well-being. Unlike traditional threats (e.g., war, territorial disputes), NTSTs
transcend borders, require multilateral cooperation, and often involve non-state actors.

Key Types of Non-Traditional Security Threats

1. Terrorism & Extremism

 Global and domestic terrorism (e.g., ISIS, Al-Qaeda, far-right extremism) threaten
civilian safety and disrupt national stability.
 Cyber-radicalization and online propaganda increase extremist recruitment.
 Hybrid warfare includes terrorism combined with cyberattacks and misinformation.
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2. Cybersecurity Threats & Information Warfare

 Cyberattacks on critical infrastructure (e.g., power grids, banking systems).

 Data breaches and surveillance threaten personal privacy and national security.
 Disinformation campaigns (e.g., fake news, election interference) undermine
democratic institutions.

3. Climate Change & Environmental Security

 Rising sea levels, extreme weather, and resource scarcity cause displacement and
geopolitical conflicts.
 Water and food security crises increase global instability (e.g., conflicts over the
Nile, Arctic disputes).
 Climate refugees (millions displaced by environmental disasters) create
humanitarian challenges.

4. Pandemics & Global Health Crises

 COVID-19, Ebola, SARS, and future pandemics expose global vulnerabilities.

 Biological threats (natural or bioterrorism-related) pose security risks.
 Weak health systems in some countries increase disease spread and global
instability.

5. Transnational Organized Crime & Human Trafficking

 Drug cartels, arms smuggling, and human trafficking networks exploit weak
governance.
 Illicit financial flows (money laundering, corruption) fund criminal and terrorist
activities.

6. Migration and Refugee Crises

 Wars, economic instability, and climate change force mass migrations.

 Border tensions and xenophobia fuel political instability.
 Stateless populations face legal and human rights challenges.

7. Artificial Intelligence (AI) & Emerging Technologies

 AI-driven warfare (autonomous drones, robotic soldiers) challenges ethical and

legal norms.
 Weaponization of space and quantum computing could disrupt global security.
 Lack of global governance over AI development poses existential risks.

Responses and Solutions to NTSTs

1. Strengthening Global Cooperation

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 UN frameworks (e.g., UN Security Council, WHO, Interpol) for coordinated

responses.
 Regional alliances (EU, ASEAN, AU) to tackle localized threats.

2. Investing in Resilience & Early Warning Systems

 AI-based cybersecurity defenses to prevent cyberattacks.

 Climate adaptation policies to reduce environmental risks.
 Global health infrastructure to detect and contain pandemics.

3. Policy & Legal Frameworks

 International treaties on cyber warfare and AI regulations.

 Stronger anti-trafficking and anti-money laundering laws.
 Climate agreements (e.g., Paris Accord) to combat environmental security risks.

4. Public Awareness & Civil Society Engagement

 Community-based counterterrorism programs.

 Education on misinformation and media literacy.
 NGOs & think tanks advocating for ethical AI and sustainable development.

Conclusion

Non-Traditional Security Threats require a multidimensional, global approach involving

governments, international organizations, private sectors, and civil society. The future of
security will depend on diplomacy, technology governance, and sustainable policies to
address these emerging threats.

3.6 Foreign Policy and Diplomacy

Foreign policy refers to a government's strategy in managing international relations, while

diplomacy is the method through which foreign policy is executed. Both are essential in
shaping global interactions, ensuring national security, promoting economic interests, and
maintaining peace.

1. Understanding Foreign Policy

a. Definition and Objectives

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Foreign policy is a nation's approach to interacting with other states, international

organizations, and non-state actors. Key objectives include:

 National Security – Protecting territorial integrity and sovereignty.

 Economic Interests – Expanding trade, investments, and economic alliances.
 Political & Diplomatic Influence – Strengthening alliances and global standing.
 Cultural & Humanitarian Goals – Promoting national values, human rights, and
global stability.

b. Determinants of Foreign Policy

Several factors shape a country's foreign policy:

 Geopolitical Location – Proximity to allies or adversaries.

 Economic Strength – Influence through trade, investments, and aid.
 Military Power – A country’s defense capabilities and strategic alliances (e.g., NATO).
 Domestic Politics – Public opinion, leadership ideology, and government policies.
 Historical Legacy – Past conflicts, treaties, and alliances.

2. The Role of Diplomacy

a. Definition and Types

Diplomacy is the art of negotiating, managing, and resolving international issues without
conflict. It can take various forms:

1. Bilateral Diplomacy – Between two countries (e.g., U.S.-China trade talks).

2. Multilateral Diplomacy – Through international organizations (e.g., UN, WTO, G20).
3. Public Diplomacy – Engaging foreign publics through cultural exchange, media, and
education (e.g., Fulbright scholarships).
4. Economic Diplomacy – Trade agreements, sanctions, and development aid.
5. Digital Diplomacy – The use of social media and cyber communication in foreign
relations.

b. Tools of Diplomacy

 Negotiation & Treaties – Formal agreements like the Paris Climate Accord.
 Alliances & Strategic Partnerships – NATO, QUAD, BRICS.
 Sanctions & Incentives – Economic penalties or aid to influence behavior.
 Peacekeeping & Conflict Resolution – UN mediation in war zones.

3. Foreign Policy Approaches

a. Realism vs. Liberalism

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 Realism – Focuses on power, national interest, and competition (e.g., Cold War
strategy).
 Liberalism – Emphasizes cooperation, democracy, and global institutions (e.g., EU
integration).

b. Major Foreign Policy Doctrines

1. Isolationism – Avoiding entanglements in global affairs (e.g., U.S. before WWII).

2. Interventionism – Active involvement in global issues (e.g., U.S. role in Iraq, NATO
missions).
3. Soft Power – Cultural and economic influence over military force (e.g., China’s Belt &
Road Initiative).
4. Hard Power – Military and economic coercion (e.g., Russia’s actions in Ukraine).
5. Smart Power – A combination of soft and hard power (e.g., U.S. global strategy).

4. Contemporary Foreign Policy Issues

a. U.S.-China Rivalry

 Trade wars, Taiwan conflict, South China Sea tensions.

b. Russia-Ukraine War

 Impact on global energy markets and NATO expansion.

c. Climate Change Diplomacy

 Paris Agreement, COP conferences, global carbon reduction commitments.

d. Middle East Conflicts & Diplomacy

 Iran nuclear deal, Israel-Palestine peace efforts, Saudi-Iran reconciliation.

e. AI & Cybersecurity in Diplomacy

 Digital espionage, cyberwarfare, tech competition between nations.

5. The Future of Diplomacy

 Rise of Artificial Intelligence in foreign relations.

 Increased role of non-state actors (corporations, NGOs, social media).
 New diplomatic challenges like pandemics, space exploration, and resource
conflicts.
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