Final Lap 2025

Table of Contents
Environment……………………………………....2
S&T……………………………………………......29
Economy……………………………………….....54
Polity………………………………………….......66
International Relations………………………..79
Social Issues................………………………..95
Art & Culture…………………………………....98
Government Schemes………………………...104
Reports/Indices………………………………...108
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ENVIRONMENT
Climate Change
GHG effect short wavelength of visible light from the sun pass through the atmosphere and are
absorbed, but the longer wavelengths of the infrared radiation from the heated earth
are unable to pass through the atmosphere.
Greenhouse Water vapor (biggest overall contributor to GHG effect)
gases CO2 < CH4 < N2O < HFCs < PFCs < SF6 [warming potential]
Short-lived SCLPs remain in the atmosphere for a much shorter period of time than carbon
Climate dioxide (CO2), yet their potential to warm the atmosphere can be many times greater.
pollutants
SCLPs: Black Carbon, Methane, Hydrofluorocarbons, Tropospheric Ozone
Types of Carbon Black Carbon: formed by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, wood and other
fuels it reduces surface albedo of snow and ice and heats the surface.
Brown Carbon: brown smoke released by the combustion of organic matter.
Blue Carbon: carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems. Coastal ecosystems
such as mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass meadows sequester and store more
carbon per unit area than terrestrial forests.
Green Carbon: carbon captured into terrestrial plant biomass in photosynthesis and
stored in the plants and soil of natural ecosystems.
Teal Carbon: carbon stored in non-tidal freshwater wetlands. Recently, India's first
study on 'teal carbon' was undertaken at Keoladeo National Park (KNP) in Rajasthan's
Bharatpur district.
Purple Carbon: Carbon captured through the air or industrial emissions.

Ocean • Decrease in pH of oceans but its still > 7

Acidification • average ocean pH is about 8
(called ‘evil twin
of global
warming’)
Ozone Depletion • ozone in stratosphere – good – absorbs UV rays (~90% of Earth’s ozone resides in
stratosphere)
• ozone in troposphere – bad – pollutant
• sunlight responsible for formation as well as destruction of ozone
• colder conditions à more polar stratospheric clouds à more ozone depletion
• ozone depletion à stratosphere cools
• Dobson unit – to measure thickness of ozone layer
• Ozone hole – region of exceptionally depleted ozone in stratosphere over Arctic
and Antarctica (ozone levels below 220 Dobson units)

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Ozone-depleting • Human-made gases that reach stratosphere and break down ozone molecules.
Substances • Major ODS: CFCs (aerosols, refrigerants, solvents), HCFCs (aerosols, refrigerants,
solvents), halons (fire extinguishers), methyl bromide (pesticides), carbon
tetrachloride, methyl chloroform etc.
Vienna • Objective: to protect human health and the environment against the effects
Convention, of ozone depletion
1985 • Montreal Protocol: to replace CFCs with HFCs (HFCs are not ODS)
• Kigali Amendment: it was realized that HFCs are potent green house gases (GHGs)
that contribute to climate change.
• As per UNDP, India surpassed Montreal protocol targets – exceeded 35% phase-
out goal – achieved 44% reduction from 2020.
• World Ozone Day – 16 September
UNFCCC Est in 1992 Rio Earth Summit as a framework for international cooperation to combat
climate change
Secretariat: Bonn, Germany
Important COPs:
• COP 3 – 1997 - Kyoto Protocol
• COP 8 – 2002 - New Delhi
• COP 19 – 2013 – Warsaw
• COP 21 – 2015 - Paris Agreement
• COP 26 – Glasgow, UK
• COP27 – Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt
• COP28 – Dubai, UAE
• COP29 (2024) – Baku, Azerbaijan
COP29 – Baku - • New Global Climate Finance Goal: A new collective quantified goal (NCQG) was
outcomes established, aiming to mobilize at least $300 billion annually by 2035 to support
climate action in developing countries. This goal includes public funds, development
bank loans, and private investments.
• Operationalization of Carbon Markets (Article 6): COP29 finalized the
implementation guidelines for Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, establishing a
framework for international carbon markets. This agreement enables countries to
trade emission reductions and removals, facilitating cooperative approaches to
achieve their nationally determined contributions (NDCs).
• Adaptation Initiatives: The conference adopted the Baku Adaptation Roadmap,
providing a structured framework for advancing the Global Goal on Adaptation
(GGA) under the Paris Agreement. This includes developing ecosystem-specific
indicators, such as those for marine and mountain ecosystems, with experts
expected to finalize a consolidated list by mid-2025 for formal adoption at COP30 in
Brazil.
• Gender and Climate Change: COP29 renewed the enhanced Lima Work Programme
on Gender for a period of ten years, emphasizing the integration of gender
considerations into climate policies and actions. This decision underscores the

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importance of gender-responsive climate action and encourages parties to appoint

gender focal points, enhance reporting, and integrate gender in climate finance.
• Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF): Aimed at catalyzing public and private sectors
across mitigation, adaptation, and research and development through voluntary
contributions from fossil fuel-producing countries and companies.
• Global Energy Storage and Grids Pledge: A commitment to increase global energy
storage capacity sixfold above 2022 levels, reaching 1,500 gigawatts by 2030.
• Hydrogen Declaration: An initiative to unlock the potential of a global market for
green hydrogen and its derivatives, involving both public and private sectors.
Article 6 of Paris • establishes mechanisms for voluntary cooperation among countries to achieve
Agreement their nationally determined contributions (NDCs) through market and non-market
approaches.
Market-based approach Non-market based
Article 6.2 Article 6.4 Article 6.8
• Allows countries to • Establishes a • Encourages international
trade Internationally centralized carbon cooperation without
Transferred Mitigation credit system relying on carbon trading.
Outcomes (ITMOs). supervised by the • Includes technology
• ITMOs represent UNFCCC. transfer, financial aid, and
emission reductions or • Countries, capacity-building efforts.
removals that can be businesses, or other • Supports developing
transferred between entities can generate countries in implementing
countries. and trade credits sustainable climate policies
• Requires strong from verified and projects.
accounting and emission reduction
transparency projects.
measures to prevent • Ensures that a
double counting of portion of revenues
emissions reductions. goes toward climate
• Enables linking of adaptation in
carbon markets across developing
countries or regions, countries.
promoting global
cooperation.

India’s Climate India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

Commitments Parameter Updated NDC (2022) Progress (India’s 4th Biennial
Update Report (BUR-4)
Reduce emissions 45% emission intensity of GDP has
intensity of GDP from been reduced by 36% between
2005 levels 2005 and 2020.

Cumulative electric 50% achieved 46.52% of the

power installed capacity total cumulative electric power
from non-fossil fuel- installed capacity (till Oct 2024)
based energy

Create additional carbon 2.5 to 3 billion additional carbon sink of 2.29

sink through forest and tonnes of CO₂ billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent
tree cover equivalent has been created during 2005-
21

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India’s Panchamrit (declared in COP26 – Glasgow)

• Reach 500 GW non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
• 50% of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
• Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from now to
2030.
• Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45 per cent by 2030, over 2005
levels.
• Achieving the target of net zero emissions by 2070.
Climate • It is the implementation arm of the Technology Mechanism of the UNFCCC, and is
Technology hosted by UNEP.
Centre and • It promotes the accelerated transfer of environmentally sound technologies for
Network (CTCN) low carbon and climate resilient development at the request of developing
countries.
• Established in COP16, Cancun in 2010. Operationalised in 2014
1 Million Youth • It aims to encourage youth aged 10 to 30 years old to take concrete actions for a
Actions more sustainable future.
Challenge • It works to promote 4 SDGs: SDG 6 on ‘clean water and sanitation‘, SDG 12 on
(1MYAC) ‘responsible consumption and production‘, SDG 13 on ‘climate action‘ (climate
change) and SDG 15 on ‘life on land‘ (biodiversity).
• promoted by the UN Climate Change Learning Partnership (UN CC:Learn).
Green Credit • notified in October 2023 by the Government of India under the Environment
Program Protection Act, 1986.
• It is a voluntary market-based mechanism aimed at incentivising environment
positive actions by different stakeholders.
• Activities covered: tree plantation, water management, sustainable agriculture,
waste management, air pollution reduction, mangrove conservation and
restoration, ecomark label development, sustainable building and infrastructure.
• Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) – society regd under
Societies Registration Act, 1860 - serves as the GCP Administrator,
• for program implementation, management, monitoring, and operation.
• It is independent of the carbon credit under the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme,
2023 made under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
Greenwashing • It is the process of conveying a false impression or misleading information about
how a company’s products are environmentally sound. It involves making an
unsubstantiated claim to deceive consumers into believing that a company’s
products are environmentally friendly or have a greater positive environmental
impact than they actually do.
Keeling Curve • It is a graph that represents the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in
Earth’s atmosphere since 1958.
• Measurements are taken from Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii.
• Current CO2 levels in atmosphere: 425 ppm
Carbon Farming • It is a system of agricultural management that helps the land store more carbon
and reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that it releases into the atmosphere.
• 4 per 1000 initiative: launched by France in 2015 at COP21, aims to increase soil
organic carbon content by 0.4% annually to combat climate change, enhance food
security, and promote sustainable agriculture.
Water Credit • Market-based financial tool that enables individuals and communities to access
affordable loans for clean water and sanitation. It is primarily driven by
microfinance institutions (MFIs), banks, and NGOs.

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• Pioneered by water.org
Biodiversity • It is an economic instrument that allow private companies to finance activities,
Credit such as forest conservation or restoration, that deliver net positive biodiversity
gains.
• Private companies can purchase these credits to meet their own biodiversity- or
nature-based commitments, much like how companies purchase carbon credits
toward achieving their emissions-reduction goals.
• Different from Biodiversity offsets: Biodiversity credits are intended to have a net-
positive impact on nature and biodiversity, whereas biodiversity offsets, a different
market-based tool, are intended to compensate for companies’ negative and
unavoidable impacts on nature.
International • UN declared 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers' Preservation (IYGP) to raise
Year of Glacier global awareness about the vital role of glaciers, snow, and ice in the climate
Preservation system and water cycle, and the impacts of rapid glacial melt.
Mission LIFE • Pro Planet approach that mobilises citizens to use environmental friendly options
(Lifestyle For such as LED bulbs, Public Transport , reduction of single use plastic , recycling of
Environment) old clothes , reduction in e waste among others

Global Methane • international public-private initiative to achieve reduction in anthropogenic

Initiative methane emissions and use of methane as a valuable energy source
• launched in 2004
International • Jointly launched by India and France during COP 21 (Paris)
Solar Alliance • HQ: Gurugram
(ISA) • Countries that do not fall within the Tropics can join the alliance and enjoy all
benefits as other members, with the exception of voting rights.
First Movers • Led by WEF and US Govt
Coalition • India is a member
• To decarbonise sectors of Aluminium, Aviation, Shipping, Steel, Trucking, Cement
and Chemicals
Fit for 55 55% emission reduction target (from 1990 levels) which the European Union (EU) has
package set for 2030
Carbon Border • proposed carbon tariff imposed on goods imported to the European Union from
Adjustment countries with less strict climate policies
Mechanism • aim: to encourage cleaner industrial production in non-EU countries.
(CBAM) • Adopted as part of EU’s Fit for 55 Package.
Green Deal • By EU
Industrial Plan • To create supportive environment for scaling up the EU's manufacturing capacity
of the net-zero technologies required to meet Europe's ambitious climate targets.
• EU aims to become net-zero by 2040
Just Energy • A financing mechanism that aims to support developing countries in their
Transition transition from fossil fuel-based energy systems to clean and renewable energy
Partnerships sources.
(JETP) • Launched at the COP26 in Glasgow (2021)
Forest Carbon • They are permits for companies to emit a certain amount of CO2
Credit Stamp • Issued by China

Partnership to India-US
Advance Clean Launched in 2009, to accelerate clean energy R&D
Energy (PACE)

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Climate Green Climate Fund (GCF)

Financing set up in 2010

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

established in 1992 Rio Earth Summit || World Bank administers the fund || GEF serves
as a "financial mechanism" to 5 conventions: UNFCC, CBD, UNCCD, Stockholm - POPs,
Minamata - Mercury

Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF)

established under UNFCCC in 2001 to finance projects in developing country parties

Adaptation Fund
established in 2001 to finance adaptation projects and
developing country parties
Climate tackle climate change by directly removing CO2 or limiting amount of sunlight reaching
engineering/ge0- the Earth
engineering
Techniques:
• Carbon capture and storage (CCS): capture of CO2 emissions from industrial
processes, transport it and store in deep underground geological formations.
• Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS): captured carbon is reused in
industrial process or stored.
• Direct Air Capture and Storage (DAC+S)
Diamond Dust • New Study explores Diamond Dust as a potential Geoengineering Strategy for
Cooling of Planet.
• It reflects light and heat effectively, remains airborne longer, and is less likely to
• clump together in atmosphere
• Unlike sulphur dioxide, which poses risks like acid rain and ozone depletion,
diamond dust is chemically inert
Biochar It is a carbon-rich material produced by burning organic biomass under complete
absence (pyrolysis) or partial absence (gasification) of O2 at high temperature.
It is a stable form of carbon that can’t easily escape into the atmosphere.
Sunlight • Stratospheric Aerosol Injection – SO2 is used
reflection • Cirrus cloud manipulation
methods • Space-based mirrors
IPCC 6th Assessment 1. Part I - scientific basis for climate change average surface temperature of the
Report Earth will cross 1.5 °C over pre- industrial levels by 2040 and 2°C by the
middle of the century without sharp reduction of emissions
2. Part II - likely impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation issues
3. Part III - actions that can be taken to combat climate change
4. Net Anthropogenic GHG have risen in last decade
5. Sectoral Share of GHG Emissions:
• Energy > Industry > Agriculture
State of Cryosphere • Released by International Cryosphere Climate Initiative (ICCI)
2024 • Cryosphere – frozen areas of the Earth
• Findings:
o Rate of global sea-level rise has doubled in the last 30 years and as per
current trends it would increase to 6.5 mm/year by 2050.
o Venezuela lost its final glacier, Humboldt, in 2024, joining Slovenia as
the first two countries to lose their glaciers in modern times.

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State of Global World Meteorological Organisation(WMO) – specialised UN agency

Climate Report 2024
Findings:
• Jan-Sep 2024 global mean surface air temperature was 1.54°C above the
pre-industrial level
• Concentrations of three main greenhouse gases – carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide – reached record highs in 2023.
Greenhouse Gas WMO
Bulletin 2024 Concentrations of the three key greenhouse gases:
• CO2 – 420 ppm - 151% of pre-industrial level
• Methane (CH4) – 1934 ppb - 265% of pre-industrial level
• Nitrous dioxide (N2O) – 337 ppb - 124% of pre-industrial level
Emissions Gap Report UNEP
2024
Findings:
• Top 4 emitters: China > US > India > EU27
• India’s per capita GHG emissions in 2022 were 2.9 tCO₂e, significantly
lower than China (11 tCO₂e) and the US (18 tCO₂e)
• Global temp rise of 3.1°C if the current policies continue.
Adaptation Gap UNEP
Report 2024
Findings:
• Adaptation finance needs are 10-18 times higher than current public
flows.
• Adaptation finance gap is expanding, now at US$194-366 billion
annually.
Production Gap UNEP
Report 2023
Measures gap between governments’ planned production of fossil fuels and
production consistent with Paris agreement
Climate Change Germanwatch
Performance Index
2025 Findings:
• Assesses performance in 4 categories: GHG emission, Renewable
energy, Energy use, Climate policy
• First three ranks – empty
• #4 - Denmark
• #10 - India
• Worst ranked – #67 Saudi, #66 Iran
Global Climate Risk Germanwatch
Index

Pollution
Air pollutants CO, SO2, NO2, O3, PM10, PM2.5, Ammonia
Other air pollutants:
Lead, Arsenic, Nickel, Acrolein, Asbestos, Benzene
National Air Quality By CPCB, MoEFCC
Index (AQI) Launched in 2014 under Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
8 pollutants:
SO2, NO2, CO, O3, PM10, PM2.5, NH3, Pb

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6 AQI categories - Good, Satisfactory, Moderate, Poor, Very Poor, Severe

National Ambient Air By CPCB, MoEFCC
Quality Standards 12 pollutants:
(NAAQS) SO2, NO2, CO, O3, PM10, PM2.5, NH3, Pb, As, Ni, Benzene, Benzopyrene

SAFAR (System of Air • by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)

Quality and Weather • to monitor air quality in metropolitan cities of Delhi, Ahmedabad, Mumbai,
Forecasting And Pune
Research)
Graded Response • a framework designed to combat air pollution in the Delhi-NCR region
Action Plan (GRAP) • implemented by: CAQM
• enforcement based on AQI levels
Stage Delhi AQI Actions
I – ‘Poor’ 201-300 Hotels/restaurants to use only
electricity/clean fuel
II – ‘Very 301-400 Regulated operations of DG sets
Poor’
III – 401-450 strict restrictions on plying of BS III
‘Severe’ petrol and BS IV vehicles, discontinue
physical classes in schools for
children up to Class V
IV – 450+ Do not permit LCVs registered
‘Severe+’ outside Delhi, other than EVs
/CNG/BS-VI diesel, discontinuing
physical classes even for classes VI–IX
Commission for Air • Statutory body
Quality Management • Replaced Environment Pollution Control Authority (EPCA)
in NCR and Adjoining • Farmers exempted from penal provisions
Areas (CAQM) • Appeal against CAQM orders à NGT
Central Pollution • Statutory body under Water Act, 1974
Control Board (CPCB) • Under MoEFCC
• Function: prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
National Clean Air • Launched by MoEFCC in 2019
Programme (NCAP) • to cut PM10 and PM2.5 concentration by 20%-30% by 2024 (2017 – base year)
• To be implemented in 131 non-attainment cities
• Not legally binding
• Implemented by CPCB
Portal for Regulation for monitoring of the implementation of the National Clean Air Programme
of Air-pollution in (NCAP) in 131 cities & disseminating information on air quality to the public.
Non-Attainment cities
(PRANA) portal
Swachh Vayu • Conducted under NCAP by MoEFCC
Sarvekshan 2024 • rank cities on the basis of implementation of activities approved under city
action plan and air quality in 131 NCAP cities
• Results
Category Winning Cities
million plus population Surat, Jabalpur, and Agra
million plus population Firozabad, Amravati, and
Jhansi

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less than 3 lakhs population Raebareli, Nalgonda, and

Nalagarh
Air Quality • Launched by Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)
Management • It is a one-stop-shop that provides the latest air quality management
Exchange Platform guidance and tools proposed to meet WHO Air Quality Guidelines interim
(AQMx) targets.

Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC)

• CCAC was founded in 2012, and convened within UNEP.
• It is a voluntary partnership of over 190 governments, intergovernmental
organizations, and NGOs
• It works to reduce powerful but short-lived climate pollutants– methane,
black carbon, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and tropospheric ozone – that
drive both climate change and air pollution.
WHO Air Quality The WHO Air quality guidelines recommend levels and interim targets for
Guidelines common air pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, O3, NO2, and SO2.

PM emissions from Sugarcane (12) > Maize (11) > Cotton (10) > Rice (9) > Wheat (8)
burning crop residue *Note: 43% of all crop residue burnt in India is residue of rice crop
(g/kg)
Largest Emitters of SO2 – India > Russia
N2O – China > India
Ammonia (NH3) – China > India
Pusa bio-decomposer Developed by Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Pusa, Delhi
To decompose stubble
Torrefaction Swedish technology to convert rice stubble into bio-coal
Coal in India Gondwana Coal (99% of India’s coal production)
• High ash content
• Low sulphur content

Tertiary Coal (found in North East)

• Low ash content
• High sulphur content
Pollution Control Pre-combustion
Technologies (PCTs) • Coal washing and blending
at different stages of
a power plant’s In-combustion
operations • Low NOx Burner (LNB) and Over-Fire Air (OFA) in boiler for NOx reduction.
• Limestone injection into the furnace for SOx reduction.
• Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC) boilers: environment-friendly
technology to reduce the discharge of pollutants such as nitrogen oxide and
sulfur oxide by injecting air and lime at the same time for burning.

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Post-combustion
• Flu Gas Desulphurization: To remove SO2 from exhaust flue gases of
thermal power plants
• Selective Catalytic Reduction: To remove NOx from flue gases. Converts
NOx to nitrogen in the presence of a catalyst
• Electrostatic Precipitator: Removes fine particles like smoke and dust from
gases
Fly Ash Fine powder left after combustion of coal
contains several toxic heavy metals like lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn),
manganese (Mn)
Applications: agriculture – improves water holding capacity, making cement &
bricks, making adsorbent waste water treatment
Radon Emitted naturally by soil || generally found in basements
Green crackers – Don’t contain lithium, arsenic, barium and lead
SWAS, STAR, SAFAL developed by CSIR-NEERI
Petroleum & • nodal agency to look after safety requirements of the Explosives and
Explosives Safety Petroleum Sector including firecrackers.
Organisation (PESO) • Statutory body
HQ: Nagpur • Under DPIIT, Ministry of Commerce
Cloud Seeding • deliberate introduction into clouds of various substances that act as
condensation nuclei to induce precipitation.
• Chemicals used: Salts such as silver iodide (AgI), potassium iodide, sodium
chloride, or dry ice (solid carbon dioxide)
• Clouds should contain supercooled water (less than zero degree C)
Ozone pollution • Stratospheric ozone – good
• Tropospheric (ground-level) ozone – bad
• Ground-level ozone is secondary pollutant formed by chemical reactions
between oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4)
and volatile organic compounds (VOC)
• Ozone is most likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot sunny days in urban
environments

BOD, COD, Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved Oxygen – amount of oxygen present in water (should be >
8 mg/L)
↑ temperature è ↓ dissolved oxygen

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) – dissolved oxygen needed by

microorganisms to decompose organic waste (only biodegradable)
in water

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) – oxygen needed by chemicals to

decompose organic waste (biodegradable + non-biodegradable) in
water
Bioaccumulation , Bioaccumulation – increase in concentration of a pollutant from the
Biomagnification environment to the first organism in a food chain

Biomagnification – increase in concentration of a pollutant as it

moves from one trophic level to the next
Diseases by pollutants Mercury – Minamata

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Cadmium – Itai Itai

Nitrates – Blue Baby syndrome / Methamoglobinemia
Fluoride – Fluorosis
Arsenic – Black Foot Disease
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl • Man-made chemicals used in everyday products such as Non-stick
substances (PFAS) cookware, some cosmetics, etc.
• Called forever chemicals because these chemicals persist in
environment and human bodies, breaks down extremely slowly.
• Exposure has been linked to several health issues, including
cardiovascular disease, cancer, etc.
• Currently, three sub-groups of PFAS are listed under Stockholm
Convention as industrial POPs.
Dimethyl • It is an herbicide applied to control grasses and certain broadleaf
tetrachloroterephthalate (DCPA) weeds in both agricultural and non-agricultural settings.
trade name - Dacthal • It is used on crops such as broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage and
onions.
• Fetuses exposed to it could suffer from low birth weight,
impaired brain development, decreased I.Q., and impaired motor
skills later in life.
Trichloroethylene & • Recently banned by US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Perchloroethylene • Toxic chemicals used in stain removers, degreasers, and range of
industrial processes, including dry
• cleaning
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with significant industrial
utility but raise concerns due to their environmental and health
impacts.
• Health Impact: Linked to severe health issues like kidney cancer,
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, cardiac defects and bladder cancer.
Waste Management Rules - Plastic Waste Management Rules (Amended 2024)
under the Environment - Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for plastic packaging.
Protection Act (EPA), 1986 - Ban on identified single-use plastics.
- Mandatory use of recycled plastic in packaging.
- Digital EPR certificates introduced for compliance monitoring.
- Polluter Pays Principle applied for non-compliance.

E-Waste Management Rules (2022)

- EPR first introduced in 2011 rules.
- Producer Responsibility Organisations (PROs) introduced in 2016.
- 2022 rules expanded scope to include more electronic products.
- EPR compliance through digital certificates.
- Strict penalties for non-compliance.

Hazardous and Other Wastes Rules (2016)

- Regulates generation, storage, import/export, and disposal of
hazardous waste.
- Prior consent required for import/export of hazardous waste.
- Separate categories for waste oils, contaminated containers, and
industrial waste.

Battery Waste Management Rules (2022)

- EPR introduced for battery manufacturers.

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- Mandates recycling and reuse of recovered materials.

- Prohibits landfill disposal of used batteries.
- Covers all battery types (Li-ion, Lead-acid, Nickel-Cadmium, etc.)

Solid Waste Management Rules 2016

Hydrogel • A hydrogel is a three-dimensional (3D) network of hydrophilic
polymers that can absorb and retain large amounts of water
while maintaining their structure. These materials can be natural,
synthetic, or hybrid and have unique properties that make them
useful in various applications.
• used in wound healing, drug delivery, tissue engineering, contact
lenses, agriculture (soil moisture retention), hygiene products,
biomedical implants, and water purification, including removing
microplastics from water by trapping and filtering them.
AroTrack portable water-pollutant detecting device developed by IIT Bombay
Microplastic, Nanoplastic Plastic particles < 5 mm (microplastics) || < 100 mm (nanoplastics)
Found in cosmetics, synthetic clothing, plastic bags and bottles
Plasticrust Thin coating of plastic that grows on rocks at sea shore
Composed of polyethylene
Dead zone Dead zones are hypoxic areas in the world's oceans and large lakes.
Hypoxia occurs when dissolved oxygen concentration falls to or
below 2ml of O₂/liter.
Great Pacific Garbage Patch Gyre, sargasso sea weed, plastic litter
GloLitter Partnership Implemented by IMO + FAO
Aims to tackle marine plastic litter
MARPOL Convention, 1973 IMO’s convention for prevention of pollution of the marine
environment by ships
International Maritime Organization (IMO) – specialised UN agency
London Convention, 1972 control of all sources of marine pollution and to take all practicable
steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and
other matter
Honolulu strategy Reduce the impact of marine debris worldwide
Dublin Principles Related to Water management
Groundwater • India is the world’s largest user of groundwater exceeding US and
China combined. (25% of global groundwater extraction)
• 90% of it used for irrigation
• 10% - drinking, domestic & industrial use
Bodies related to water Central Groundwater Authority (HQ: New Delhi)
• statutory - under Environment (P) Act, 1986
• under Jal Shakti Ministry
• to regulate and control development and management of ground
water resources in the country.

Central Groundwater Board (HQ: Faridabad)

• non-statutory
• multidisciplinary scientific organisation to provide scientific inputs
for management, exploration, monitoring, assessment,
augmentation and regulation of ground water resources of the
country.
• under Jal Shakti Ministry

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Central Water Commission (CWC)

• non-statutory
• attached office in Jal Shakti Ministry
India WRIS (Water Resources Web portal containing info related to water resources
Information System) Launched in 2019 under National Hydrology Project
Zero Liquid Discharge Water treatment process to recirculate all the water with zero liquid
waste
Components: pre-treatment à Reverse Osmosis (RO) à Evaporator
& Crystalliser
River Cities Alliance (RCA) • Launched by M/o Jal Shakti and M/o Housing & Urban Affairs in
2021
• to provide the member cities with a platform to discuss and
exchange information on aspects that are vital for sustainable
management of urban rivers, sharing best practices and
supporting innovation
• The Alliance is open to all river cities of India. Any river city can
join the Alliance at any time.

Plastic Overshoot • Refers to the day when the amount of plastic waste surpasses the capability
Day of waste management systems to effectively manage.
Plastic Waste • Bans single-use plastic of low utility and high littering potential
Management • Single-use Plastic items completely banned from July 1, 2022: earbuds with
Amendment Rules plastic sticks, plastic flags, polystyrene, plastes, cups, glasses, cutlery, straw,
2021 trays, wrapping etc
• Thickness of plastic carry bags increased to 75 microns wef Sept 2021 and 120
microns wef 31 Dec 2022
Un-plastic Collective • co-founded by the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), the United Nations
(UPC) Environment Programme (UNEP), and WWF-India.
• seeks to minimise externalities of plastics on the ecological and social health
of our planet. The word ‘un-plastic’ specifically refers to moving all types of
plastics in a circular economy and removing unnecessary plastic in the long run
Invisible e-waste Electronic items that often go unrecognized and aren’t properly recycled within
the appropriate waste stream are known as invisible e-waste. E.g., vapes, LED
accessories, USB cables, power tools, smoke detectors, etc.
Waste to energy Incineration – burning waste in presence of O2
Pyrolysis – burning waste in absence of O2 to produce syngas (CO + CO2 + H2)
Gasification – burning waste in controlled amount of O2 to produce syngas
Biomethanation – microbiologically convert waste into biogas
Bioremediation use of microorganisms to convert to degrade environmental pollutants into less
toxic forms

in-situ – bioventing, biosparaging, bioaugmentation

ex-situ – landfarming, biopiles, bioreactors, composting

phytoremediation – use of plants

mycoremediation – use of fungus
Conventions Stockholm Convention – persistent organic pollutants
Basel Convention – transboundary movement of hazardous waste and their
disposal
Rotterdam Convention - hazardous chemicals and pesticides
Minamata Convention – mercury

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Washington Convention – CITES

Bonn Convention – CMS

Cartagena Protocol – biosafety to ensure safe handling of living modified

organisms
Nagoya Protocol – access and benefit sharing

Biodiversity
Indian Tiger / IUCN: EN || CITES: Appendix I || WPA,1972: Schedule I
Royal Bengal Status of Tigers Report 2022
Tiger • India – 3682 tigers, home to 75% of global tiger population
• Population – statewise: MP(785) > Karnataka(563) > Uttarakhand(560)
• Population – Tiger reserves: Jim Corbett(260) > Bandipur(150) > Nagarhole(141)
• Tiger reserve with highest tiger density: Jim Corbett
• Tiger reserves with no tigers: Dampa (MZ), Kamlang (Arunachal), Kawal (TL),
Satkosia (OD), Sahyadri (MH)

58 Tiger Reserves in 18 states.

Latest TR – Madhav National Park, MP
Tigers found in 13 countries: India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand,
Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Russia
Project Tiger (1973): Centrally sponsored scheme
NTCA: statutory under WPA, 1972
Conservation Assured | Tiger Standards (CA|TS): accreditation standards for Tiger
Reserves – 23 TRs in India have CA|TS.
Sustainable • hosted by the Bhutan government and supported by the Tiger Conservation
Finance for Tiger Coalition (TCC)
Landscapes • SFTLC seeks to increase support for tiger protection and its landscape
Conference • Tiger Bonds launched by the Asian Development Bank (ADB)
(SFTLC)
Tiger Conservation Coalition: group of NGOs to conserve tigers - Environmental
Investigation Agency (EIA), Fauna & Flora, IUCN, Panthera, TRAFFIC, UNDP, Wildlife
Conservation Society (WCS) and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
International Big global alliance launched by India 2023 on 50th anniversary of Project Tiger.
Cat Alliance Conserve 7 big cats - tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, cheetah, jaguar and puma
(IBCA) All big cats found in India except Puma and Jaguar.
Leopard IUCN: VU || CITES: Appendix I || WPA, 1972: Schedule I
Status of Leopards in India 2022
• 13,874 leopards in India
• Population – statewise: MP > Maharashtra > Karnataka
Snow Leopard IUCN: VU || CITES: Appendix I || WPA, 1972: Schedule I
First ever survey of snow leopards in India
• 718 snow leopards in India
• Statewise pop: Ladakh (477) > Uttarakhand (124) > HP (51), Arunachal (36) >
SK (21) > JK (9)
Found in 12 countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Russia,
Mongolia, Uzbek, Tajik, Kyrgyz, Kazak
Cheetah African Cheetah: VU || Asiatic Cheetah: CR

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Asiatic Cheetah
• declared extinct in India in 1952
• surviving today only in Iran
Asiatic Lion IUCN: EN || CITES: Appendix I || WPA,1972: Schedule I

Surviving today only in India

Its range is restricted to Gir National Park and adjoining (Pania, Mitiyala, Girnar
Sanctuaries)
Asian Elephant IUCN: EN || CITES: Appendix I || WPA,1972: Schedule I
Species: Indian, Sri Lankan, Sumatran, Borneo (all EN)

Population – state-wise: Karnataka > Assam > Kerala > Tamil Nadu

It is India’s National Heritage Animal

Initiatives: MIKE (by CITES), E8, E50:50
Indian Rhino
(Great One- Asian – Indian, Javan, Sumatran
Horned Rhino) Rhino
African – Black, White

Indian Rhino: VU || CITES: Appendix I || WPA,1972: Schedule I

• Largest of Asian Rhino species
• Excellent swimmers
• Found in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan
• Assam has 80% of the world’s population (over 3000 in Assam) with Kaziranga
National Park harbouring the highest number.
• Pobitra WS (Assam) has the highest density of Indian rhinos in the world.
• Other states: WB, UP

Great Indian IUCN: CR || CITES: Appendix I || WPA,1972: Schedule I

Bustard Found in arid and semi-arid grasslands: India and Pakistan
states: RJ, MP, GJ, MH, KN, AP
RJ’s state bird (locally known as Godawan)
River Dolphins
Dolphin River Type IUCN
Boto Amazon Freshwater EN
Baiji Yangtze Freshwater EN
Bhulan Beas, Indus Freshwater EN
Susu Ganga Freshwater EN
Tucuxi Amazon Freshwater EN
Irrawady Chillika Lake Brackishwater EN
Gangetic Dolphin IUCN: EN
• Found in Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnali-Sangphu river systems
• Functionally blind and finds its prey using echolocation
• Being a mammal, cannot breathe in water, so comes to surface every 30-120 sec
• Females larger than males
Vulture Nine species found in India:
CR - White-rumped, Slender-billed, Long-billed, Red-headed vulture
EN – Egyptian
NT - Himalayan Griffon, Cinereous, Bearded

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LC - Griffon

Threats: veterinary drug Diclofenac, collision with overhead wires, electrocution

Replacement to Diclofenac – Meloxicam
Recently, Nimesulide (another vet drug) was banned by Indian govt.
Indian Pangolin IUCN: EN
found in Pak, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka
Gharial (Gavialis IUCN: CR
gangeticus) Live in freshwater systems
Found majorly in Chambal river
Small population in Girwa river, Ramganga river
Hoolock gibbon IUCN: EN
India has only western hoolock gibbon
Only apes found in India
Dugong (Sea IUCN: VU
Cow) Only herbivorous marine mammal
Come to the surface to breathe
Ghol or Black state fish of Gujarat
spotted Crocker swim bladders highly priced because of their medicinal and commercial values.
Red Sanders IUCN: EN || CITES: Appendix II || WPA1972: Schedule IV
(Pterocarpus Non-fragrant variety of sandalwood
santalinus) Endemic to Andhra Pradesh
Used for – furniture, musical instruments, medicinal purposes, extraction of santalin
(red pigment)
Gentiana Kurroo • Himalayan medicinal plant on the verge of extinction
• perennial herb with flowers that are deep blue
• used for liver ailments, digestive disorders, diabetes, asthma, and urinary tract
infections
Golden Langur IUCN: EN
Habitat: transboundary region of Bhutan-India
Camelids UN declared 2024 as International Year of Camelids
Types:
Dromedary or Arabian camel (single hump)
Bactrian camel (two humps)

State animal of RJ (dromedary in RJ)

Bactrian found in Ladakh’s Nubra Valley
Others Dhole (Asiatic Dog): found in KN, MH, MP
Fishing Cat: found in Sunderbans mangroves, around Chillika, Western Ghats
Butterflies in Dusted Apollo, Cigaritis meghamalaiensis, Noble’s Helen, Krishna Peacock, Indian
news Jezebel, Orange Oakleaf, Golden Birdwing, Striped Hairstreak, Elusive Prince, Tamil
Yeoman
Kaiser-i-Hind – state butterfly of Arunachal Pradesh
Himalayan Serow IUCN: VU
Herbivores mammal found in Himalayas (altitude of 2000-4000m)
Invasive Alien • Prosopis chilensis: drought-resistant plant, threat to Gulf of Mannar BR, native to
Species South America
• Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis and Gambusia holbrooki): feed on mosquito
larva, introduced as biological mosquito control, native to USA
• Conocarpus Trees: invasive mangrove species, banned by GJ govt

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• Ludwigia peruviana: called primrose willow, threat to elephant habitats, native

to Central and South America
Turtles vs Turtles – live in sea, mainly carnivores
Tortoise Tortoise – live on land, mainly herbivores
Monotremes Egg laying mammals – Platypus, Echidna – found only in Aus, NZ
5 Kingdom
classification

Feature Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell Type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell Structure No nucleus, Nucleus Nucleus Nucleus present, Nucleus

single-celled present, present, cell cell wall made of present, no
mostly single- wall made of cellulose cell wall
celled chitin

Mode of Autotrophic & Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Nutrition Heterotrophic & (Saprophytic (Photosynthesis) (Ingestion)
Heterotrophic or Parasitic)
No
photosynthesis
Body Unicellular Mostly Mostly Multicellular Multicellular
Organization unicellular, multicellular,
some some
multicellular unicellular
(yeast)

Locomotion Some move Some move Non-motile Non-motile Motile

using flagella using cilia,
flagella, or
pseudopodia

Reproduction Asexual Asexual & Asexual Sexual & Sexual &

(Binary Sexual (spores) & Asexual Asexual
fission) Sexual

Examples Bacteria, Amoeba, Yeast, Trees, Flowers, Humans,

Cyanobacteria Paramecium, Mushroom, Algae Insects,
Plasmodium Molds Mammals

India State of By Forest Survey of India, MoEFCC

Forests Report 2023 Total forest cover: 21.76% of geographical area
Total tree cover: 3.41% of geographical area
Forest cover:
Absolute à MP > Arunachal > Chhattisgarh > Odisha > Maharashtra
%age à Lakshdweep (91%) > Mizoram (85%) > A&N (82%)

Tiger reserve with largest forest cover

Absolute - Nagarjunasagar Srisailam TR
%age terms – Pakke TR

Mangroves:
West Bengal (43% of total mangrove area) > Gujarat > Andaman & Nicobar

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Bamboo cover:
MP > Maharashtra > Arunachal > Odisha

Wetlands area:
Gujarat > West Bengal

Protected Areas ~5% of India’s area is protected area

Biosphere Reserves
National Parks
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Conservation Reserve – owned by govt
Community Reserve – owned by community/private
Sacred Groves SC directed RJ Forest Deptt to identify state’s sacred groves as forests and notify
them as community reserves
Sacred groves in RJ – orans, malvan, deo ghat, baugh
Conservation Declared under W(P)A, 1972 amended in 2003
Reserve and Conservation Reserve
Community Reserve Area owned by govt, adjacent to NP/WS can be declared by state govt as
conservation reserve
Managed through Conservation Reserve Management Committee

Community Reserve
Community land or private land can be declared as community reserve with
consent of community or individual
Managed through Community Reserve Management Committee
Important Laws, Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 à Animal Welfare Board of India (M/o
Bodies, Terms Fisheries and Animal Husbandry)

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 à

• National Board for Wildlife (chaired by PM) – approves alteration of boundary
of NP, WS
• Central Zoo Authority (chaired by Env Minister)
• Wildlife Crime Control Bureau

Water Act, 1974 à CPCB

Forest (Conservation Act), 1980 à Forest Advisory Committee – approves

diversion of forest land for non-forest use

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 à Central Groundwater Authority

Provides for Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZ) as transition zones between high
protection and no protection areas

National Forest Policy 1988 à provided for Joint Forest management

Forests Rights Act, 2006 à provides for Community Forest Resource

Management, Critical Wildlife Habitats

NGT Act, 2010 à NGT

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Biological Diversity Act, 2003

• Aims to conserve biodiversity, promote sustainable use of its components,
and ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of
biological resources and associated traditional knowledge.
• It aligns with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992.
• 3-tier structure
i. National Biodiversity Authority (NBA): Regulates access to biological
resources for foreign entities and advises the government on biodiversity
conservation.
ii. State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs): Grants approvals to Indian entities for
sustainable use and advises state governments on biodiversity
protection.
iii. Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) – Local Level: Prepares
People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) and ensures conservation at the
grassroots level.
PARIVESH portal For obtaining environmental clearances
CRZ norms, 2018
Under Environment
(Protection) Act,
1986

Ramsar sites 89 Ramsar sites in India

Largest: Sunderban (WB)
Smallest: Renuka (HP)

State with most wetlands: TN (18) > UP (10)

World Wetlands Day – 2 February
Mangroves in India Found in all coastal states including Lakshadweep and A&N
State-wise: WB>GJ>A&N
Largest mangrove forest in India: Sunderbans
2nd largest: Bhitarkarnika, OD

Corals in India Not found in Sunderbans, Gulf of Khambat

Coral map of India

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Peatlands Cover 3% of global land

Largest natural terrestrial carbon store
Found in: permafrost regions (poles, high altitudes), coastal areas, beneath
tropical rainforests, boreal forests
Blue Flag Beach certification by Denmark-based FEE - recognized for their cleanliness,
safety, amenities, and eco-friendliness.
12 blue flag beaches in India:
Shivrajpur (Gujarat), Ghoghla (Diu), Kasarkod and Padubidri (Karnataka),
Kappad (Kerala), Rushikonda (Andhra Pradesh), Golden (Odisha), Radhanagar
(Andaman and Nicobar), Kovalam (TN), Eden (Puducherry), Thundi
(Lakshadweep), Kadmat (Lakshdweep)
Cryptobiosis state of an organism when it shows no visible signs of life and when its metabolic
activity becomes hardly measurable
Facultative • ability of sexually reproducing species to sometimes produce offspring
parthenogenesis asexually.
(FP) • In FP, a female's egg cell can develop into a baby without being fertilized by a
(also referred as male's sperm cell.
"virgin birth”) • Scientists have documented the first-known instance of a FP by a crocodile.
Environmental DNA DNA that is collected from a variety of environmental samples such as soil,
(eDNA) seawater, snow or air, rather than directly sampled from an individual organism.
Stromatolites layered accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping,
binding, and cementation of sedimentary grains by biofilms of microorganisms,
especially cyanobacteria (commonly known as blue-green algae).
Recently discovered in Red Sea.

Types of Water Blue Water: found in lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.

Green Water: water available in the soil for plants and soil microorganisms.
Grey Water: water that has been previously used and contains impurities.
Garudakshi Online FIR system to curb wildlife crimes
Launched by Karnataka government
Biodiversity Beyond Union Cabinet approved its signing
National Jurisdiction

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(BBNJ) Agreement High Seas - ocean water that lies beyond the boundaries of any one country, also
(High Seas Treaty) known as areas beyond national jurisdiction

High Seas Treaty

international legal framework under UNCLOS
focuses on four main areas:
• Conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity in ABNJ,
including marine genetic resources
• Area-based management tools, including marine protected areas
• Environmental impact assessments
• Capacity building and the transfer of marine technology

COP16 – UNCBD Held in Cali, Colombia

Theme: Peace with Nature
1st COP since adoption of Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework
(KMGBF)
Key Outcomes:
• Cali Fund - for sharing the benefits from Digital Sequence Information
(DSI)
• Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF) under Global Environment Facility (GEF)

UN Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD):

legally binding treaty adopted at Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.
Secretariat: Montreal, Canada
Objectives:
• Conservation of biological diversity – Aichi Biodiversity Targets
• sustainable use of its components – Cartagena Protocol, Nagoya-Kuala
Lumpur Supplementary Protocol
• fair and equitable sharing of the benefits – Nagoya Protocol

Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF)

Adopted in COP15 (Montreal, Canada) in 2022
Aims to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030
Sets 4 goals and 23 targets
COP16 – UNCCD Held in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

The only legally binding framework set up to address desertification and the
effects of drought.
UN Decade on 2021-30
Ecosystem
Restoration
Living Planet Report WWF
Living Planet Index WWF
Global Biodiversity Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Outlook

Sustainable Development
Biofuels Considered renewable energy source
Generations: 1G (food crops), 2G (non-food crops), 3G (engineered algae)
Types:

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§ Bioethanol: used as additive (India targets 20% ethanol-blending by 2025)

§ Biodiesel: can be directly used as fuel (target 5% blending of biodiesel in diesel
by 2030)
§ Biogas
§ Biojet
National Policy on Categorization of biofuels, VGF to 2G biorefineries, allows use of surplus
Biofuels, 2018 foodgrains
Global Biofuel • Launched by India at G20 Summit
Alliance (GBA) • Aim: To serve as a catalytic platform, fostering global collaboration for the
advancement and widespread adoption of biofuels.
• GBA Members: 7 G20 countries: Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India Italy, South
Africa, USA.
Green Deposits a type of savings account where deposited money goes toward environmentally
friendly projects.
Solar Energy Installed solar capacity: 102 GW (Feb 2025)
States with highest installed solar capacity: RJ > GJ > KN > TN > MH
Wind Energy Installed wind capacity: 48 GW (Dec 2024)
State with highest installed wind capacity: GJ > TN > KN > MH > RJ

Jaisalmer Wind Park (capacity 1600 MW): largest wind park in India
Hydrogen Grey H: natural gas split into H2, CO2 | CO2 emitted into atmosphere
Blue H: natural gas split into H2, CO2 | CO2 is captured and stored
Green H: water split into H2, O2 using solar/wind power | No CO2 emitted
National Green Implementing agency – National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE)
Hydrogen Mission
Sustainable • Encourages entrepreneurs to set up CBG plants, produce & supply CBG to Oil
Alternative Towards Marketing Companies (OMCs) for sale as automotive & industrial fuels.
Affordable • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG).
Transportation • Compressed biogas (CBG): Biogas is a mixture of methane, CO2 and small
(SATAT) Scheme quantities of other gases produced naturally through the anaerobic
decomposition of biomass. It is then purified and compressed to give CBG
Flex Fuel Vehicle Vehicles that can run on more than one type of fuel, or even a mixture of fuels
such as petrol and ethanol.
Ex. E85 which has 85% ethanol fuel and 15% gasoline or other hydrocarbon by
volume.
Fugitive emissions unintentional leaks emitted from sealed surfaces, such as packings and gaskets,
or leaks from underground pipelines resulting from corrosion or faulty
connections.
Wind and solar don’t have fugitive emissions
RETAP • launched under US-India under Strategic Clean Energy Partnership (SCEP)
• To accelerate the development of emerging renewable technologies.
Methane hydrates molecules of natural gas enclosed within a solid lattice of water molecules.
Green Term Ahead Platform for trading renewable energy
Market (GTAM)
Geothermal Energy 7 geothermal provinces in India:
• Himalayas – Ladakh, Manikaran, Tapoban;
• Sohana – Haryana, Rajasthan;
• West coast – Maharashtra;
• Cambay – Khambet;
• Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA) – Tatapani, Anhoni-Samoni;

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• Godavari – Manuguru;
• Mahanadi – Bakreshwar
Star Labelling • Launched in 2006 by Ministry of Power under the Energy Conservation Act,
Programme (SLP) 2001
• Implementation: By Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)
o Statutory body – Energy Conservation Act, 2001 – under M/o Power
• Mandatory for 15 appliances and voluntary for 20.
Indian Seasonal It is an evolved rating methodology for air conditioners that factors in variance in
Energy Efficiency higher temperature in India and rates air conditioners accordingly.
Ratio (ISEER)
Ecomark granted to products that meet specified environmental criteria as per resource
consumption and environmental impacts

Ethanol 100 (E100) E100 fuel includes 93-93.5 percent ethanol blended with 5 percent petrol and 1.5
percent co-solvent, which is a binder
It has high octane number (fuel’s ability to resist engine knocking – higher octane
no -> higher stability of fuel)
Green GDP Chhattisgarh – 1st state to adopt Green GDP
Gross Environment Uttarakhand – 1st state to adopt GEP
Product (GEP)
Net Zero Banking group of leading global banks committed to aligning their lending, investment,
Alliance (NZBA) and capital markets activities with net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050
No Indian bank is a member of NZBA.
SDG India Index NITI Aayog
2023-24
Sustainable UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) – also published
Development Happiness Index
Report 2024
SDGs Report 2024 UNDESA
Fostering Effective WEF
Energy Transition
report
Energy Transition WEF
Index
World Energy IEA (International Energy Agency)
Outlook
Global Energy and IEA
CO2 Status report
Global Electric IEA
Vehicles Outlook
Geospatial Energy NITI Aayog + ISRO
Map of India

Agriculture
Zero Budget Natural Beejamrutham (seed treatment), Jeevamtrutham (no fertilisers, no pesticides),
Farming (ZBNF) Acchadana (Mulching), Whaapasa (soil moisture)
terms
No vermicomposting done
Benefits: low cost, less water use, less electricity, lower methane emissions

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National • Certification of organic produce

Programme for • Accredited Certification Bodies responsible for certifying.
Organic Production • Implementing agency: Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
(NPOP) Development Authority (APEDA) under Ministry of Commerce & Industries
• Recognized by European Commission and Switzerland
Participatory • Certification of organic produce
Guarantee Systems • Local Group responsible for certifying – no need for 3rd party certification
(PGS) • M/o Agriculture
Jaivik Bharat logo Introduced by FSSAI to communicate adherence of product to NPOP and PSG
National Mission on Previously called Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi Padhati (BPKP)
Natural Farming Centrally Sponsored Scheme under Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare
(NMNF)
World of Organic India ranked #1 in number of organic farmers
Agriculture report Rank #9 in terms of area under organic farming
2025 Sikkim – fully organic state
Aquaponics, Hydroponics: growing crops in water w/o soil
Hydroponics, Aeroponics: no growing medium
Aeroponics Aquaponics = Hydroponics + Aquaculture
Vertical farming Growing crops in vertically stacked layers
Conservation 3 components: permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance, crop rotation
Agriculture
Agrivoltaic Farming Practice of growing crops underneath solar panels uses land for both agriculture
and solar photovoltaic energy generation

Cellular Agriculture • Production of animal-based products from cell cultures rather than directly
from animals.
Millets • 2023 - international year of millets
• India produces 20% of World’s Millets
• Major Millets in India : Jowar , Bajra , Ragi
Millets And Other • Launched at G20 2023 meetings
Ancient Grains • Secretariat: Indian Institute of Millets Research (IIMR), Hyderabad
International
ReSearcH Initiative
(MAHARISHI)
Soil Health Card: 12 Macro
parameters Primary: N P K
Secondary: Sulphur

Micro: Iron, Copper, Boron, Manganese, Zinc

Soil Podsol: cold & humid | rich in Silica and Lime
Latosol: hot & humid | rich in Iron, Aluminium
Gleysol: waterlogged peaty soil
Globally Important Initiative of FAO
Agricultural 3 GIAHS in India:
Heritage Systems • Kuttanad Below Sea Level Farming System of Kerala.
(GIAHS) • Koraput Traditional Agriculture of Odisha.
• Pampore Saffron Heritage of Kashmir.
Virtual water Water consumed for production of agri and non-agri commodities throughout
their lifecycle
Food Waste Index UNEP

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Geography
Tropical Cyclone 5-20° North, South (Coriolis force), sea surface temp > 27°C, high humidity,
conditions presence of low pressure, small variation in vertical wind speed
La Nina, El Nino Normal year/ La Nina
Western Tropical Pacific (warm) – Eastern Tropical Pacific (cool)

El Nino
Western Tropical Pacific (cool) – Eastern Tropical Pacific (warm)

El Nino Modoki
WTP (cool) - Central Tropical Pacific (warm) – ETP(cool)
Pacific Decadal 2 phases:
Oscillation (PDO) • Negative/Cool: cooler Eastern Equatorial Pacific, warmer north, west and
southern Pacific
• Positive/Warm: warmer Eastern Equatorial Pacific, cooler north, west and
southern Pacific
Madden Julian Low pressure band moving from west to east
Oscillation (MJO) MJO over Indian ocean à good rainfall in Indian subcontinent
Indian Ocean Dipole Positive phase à good rainfall in Indian subcontinent
(Indian Nino) Western Indian Ocean (warm) – Eastern Indian Ocean (cool)

Negative phase à scarce rainfall in Indian subcontinent

Western Indian Ocean (cool) – Eastern Indian Ocean (warm)
Atlantic Meridional • AMOC is a large system of ocean currents driven by differences in
Overturning temperature and salinity (water’s density)
Circulation (AMOC) • Weakening due to global warming (as temp difference between poles and
equator decreasing)
Boreal Summer Heat transfer from Indian ocean to western Pacific ocean during monsoon (June-
Intra Seasonal Sept)
Oscillation (BSISO) Causes short-term climate variability in monsoon system
Atlantification Process wherein warm water from Atlantic Ocean is being advected into Arctic
Ocean in increasing amounts.
Heat Dome A heat dome is created when an area of high pressure stays over the same area
for days or weeks, trapping very warm air underneath - like a lid on a pot.
South Atlantic Weak spot in Earth’s magnetic field
Anomaly Here, Van Allen radiation belt comes down to 200 km altitude
Van Allen Radiation zone of energetic charged particles that are captured by and held around a
belt planet’s magnetosphere.
Karakoram anomaly the stability or anomalous growth of glaciers in the central Karakoram, in
contrast to the retreat of glaciers in other nearby mountainous ranges of
Himalayas and other mountainous ranges of the world.
Atmospheric Rivers long, narrow regions in the atmosphere – like rivers in the sky – that transport
most of the water vapor outside of the tropics.
Ex. Pineapple Express, a strong atmospheric river that is capable of bringing
moisture from the tropics near Hawaii over to the U.S. West Coast.
Ringwoodite Ocean vast, hidden ocean exists deep within Earth's mantle, trapped within the
crystalline structure of the mineral ringwoodite, potentially holding three times
more water than all surface oceans combined
Equatorial strong, east-flowing electric current in the ionosphere (E-region) centered around
ElectroJet (EEJ) the magnetic equator

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Misc
6th mass extinction ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch (with the
more recent time sometimes called Anthropocene) as a result of human activity.
Evil Quartet 4 major causes of biodiversity loss: habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive alien
species, secondary extinction
Carbon Fertilisation phenomena that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the
rate of photosynthesis in plants.
Great Green Wall Project to combat desertification in Africa
Deep Ecology environmental philosophy which promotes the inherent worth of all living beings
regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs

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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology

Cell Cell theory

• all living organisms are composed of cells and products of
cells
• all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Types of cells
• prokaryotic – lack a membrane-bound nucleus
ex. Bacteria, archaea
• eukaryotic – have membrane bound nuclei (0, 1 or more)
ex. Plants, animals, fungi, protozoa

Cell organelles and their functions:

• nucleus – DNA storage
• mitochondria – energy production (ATP)
• ribosomes – protein production
• lysosomes – protein destruction (suicide bags)
• vacuole - store water, nutrients, and the waste materials of
the cell

Plant vs Animal cell Plant cell Animal cell

Have cell wall (outer cover) No cell wall
as well as cell membrane
(inner cover)
Large single vacuole Many small vacuoles
Have chloroplasts for No chloroplasts
photosynthesis

DNA, RNA • While DNA stores genetic information, RNA mostly helps in
transfer and expression of information. Though DNA and RNA
both function as genetic material, but DNA being chemically
and structurally more stable is a better genetic material.
• DNA has the blueprints for every protein in our body, all
packaged into a neat double helix.
• Transcription (making a complementary strand of RNA from
DNA) is completed within the nucleus
• Translation (making protein from RNA instructions) takes
place in the cytoplasm.

Terms • Chromosomes - In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule

is packaged into thread-like structures called chromosomes.
• Genome – an organism’s complete set of DNA
• Gene – functional sequence of DNA

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• Genotype (backend) – pattern of genes in an organism’s DNA

responsible for particular traits
• Phenotype (frontend) – observable physical properties of an
organism

Genetic Modification Direct Manipulation of DNA of an organism to get desired

(GM) Technology characteristics

Approaches for Gene 1. CRISPR- Cas9

Editing/ Gene 2. Homing Endonuclease
Modification 3. Site Directed Endonuclease (SDN)
● In SDN, ‘Nucleases’ are used which are like
molecular scissors which cleave the DNA at
desired position
● SDN 1 and 2 do not introduce any alien gene while
SDN3 does
● In SDN 1 and 2 result is indistinguishable from a
conventionally bred crop

CRISPR cas9 This technology got awarded the Nobel Prize in 2020

Nobel Prize in Medicine for the discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional
2024 gene regulation
About Post-Transcriptional Gene Regulation
• Regulation of gene expression after transcription (mRNA
synthesis) but before translation (protein synthesis).
• Key mechanisms:
o mRNA degradation – Unused mRNA is broken
down to prevent excess protein production.
o RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) – Bind to mRNA and
regulate its function.
o microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs
(siRNAs) – Inhibit or degrade target mRNA to
control gene expression.

About microRNA

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• A small non-coding RNA that helps cells regulate gene

expression.
• Controls gene expression by binding with mRNA and
preventing them from being translated into proteins or by
degrading or destroying mRNA altogether.

Bt cotton • Only GM crop approved for commercial cultivation in India.

• it is said to lost its efficacy against the Pink Bollworm (PBW)
pest.
• GEAC asked states to test a new kind of transgenic cotton seed
that contains a gene, Cry2Ai, which makes cotton resistant to
pink bollworm.
• Bollgard I and Bollgard II technologies have been used in Bt
Cotton.

DMH 11 (Dhara Mustard ● SC gave split verdict on GEAC approval on environmental

Hybrid) release of DMH-11
● It is a transgenic hybrid crop developed by researchers at
Delhi University by crossing Indian Mustard Varuna
(Barnase Line) with East European Early Heera 2 Mutant
(Barstar Line)
● Foreign genes come from a soil bacteria called ‘Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens’

GM Crops regulators in ● Department of Biotechnology (DBT) under Ministry of

India Science is the nodal for GM research and setting of safety
standards
● GEAC - Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is the
regulator under Ministry of Environment and Forests to
approve GM Crops in India, allow field trials and approve
large scale release in environment
● ICAR - Indian Council For Agricultural Research under
Ministry of Agriculture for R&D on GM crops
● FSSAI – approval for import, manufacture, use or sale of
GM food

CAR (Chimeric Antigen • cellular immunotherapy treatment that uses T cells that
Receptor) -T Cell Therapy are genetically altered in a lab to enable them in locating
in destroying cancer cells more effectively.
• T-cells taken from patient’s blood à CAR gene inserted à
CAR T-Cells infused in blood
• Ex. NexCAR19 – to target cancer cells that carry CD19
protein.
• Therapy is called ‘living drug’ – uses live cells

Genome Sequencing ● A genome is an organism’s complete set of DNA.

Sequencing it involves deciphering the order in which
base pairs of the DNA are arranged
● In human DNA, there are 3 billion base pairs
● Genome sequencing helps in understanding human

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evolution, identify genetic diseases

● USA in 1990 led the Human Genome Project (HGP) while
in India we have had initiatives like INDIGEN (by CSIR) and
Genome India (by DBT)
● INSACOG ( Indian SARS Cov2 Genomics Consortium) was
an recent programme by CSIR, MoHFW, DBT etc to
sequence the genome of SARS COV2 virus.

IndiGen Programme Whole-genome sequencing of 1000 Indian individuals

By CSIR

Genome India Project build a grid of the Indian “reference genome” after collecting
10,000 samples
• by Deptt of Biotechnology

Human Genome Project international research effort to determine the DNA sequence of
the entire human genome. It sequenced 92% of human genome.

Telomere to Telomere It sequenced the remaining 8% of human genome.

(T2T) consortium

Tmesipteris oblanceolata • It is a fern species having the largest genome of any

organism.
• more than 50 times the size of the human genome.
• A large genome is not considered beneficial - it has failed
over time to efficiently remove non-functional or
redundant DNA sequences.
• There is no relationship between genome size and
organism complexity

Dark Genome • The human genome is conventionally divided into the

“coding” genome, which generates the ~20,000
annotated human protein coding genes, and the “dark”
genome, which does not encode proteins.
• The dark genome is a vast space, accounting for the
~98.5% of genomic space where repeat elements,
enhancers, regulatory sequences, and non-coding RNAs
reside.

RNA Editing • Cell synthesises messenger RNA (mRNA) using

instructions in DNA (Transcription).
• Cell then ‘reads’ instructions from the mRNA to make
functional proteins.
• During this process of transcription, the cell may make
mistakes in the mRNA’s sequence and based on it
produce faulty proteins.
• Many of these proteins have been known to cause
debilitating disorders.
• RNA editing allows scientists to fix mistakes in the mRNA
after the cell has synthesised it but before the cell reads it
to make the proteins.

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RNA interference (RNAi) • RNAi disrupts the production of harmful proteins by

technology intercepting and incapacitating mRNA transcripts before they
make it to ribosomes. This prevents the corresponding
proteins from being made
• Used for controlling gene expression, gene-silencing

mRNA vaccine Benefits: use of a non-infectious element, shorter manufacturing

times, and potential for targeting of multiple diseases. mRNA
vaccines can be developed in a laboratory using a DNA template
and readily available materials.

Enzyme Replacement • U.S. Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) recently gave nod
Therapy to world’s first enzyme replacement therapy (ERT).
• Adzynma - the first genetically engineered protein product for
ERT.
• for treating congenital thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura
(cTTP), a rare blood clotting disorder.

Mitochondrial
Replacement Therapy (3-
parent baby)

2 methods – pronuclear transfer, spindle transfer

Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) ● small fragments of nucleic acids that are released from cells
and found outside the cell in body fluids as plasma, urine, and
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
● cfDNA quantity in the blood increases under pathological
conditions such as auto-immune diseases, cancer etc.
● used in detection and diagnosis of diseases

Stem Cells ● cells with the unique ability to develop into specialised cell
types in the body.
Type Description Ex
Totipotent Can develop into all cell Zygote
types
Pluripotent Into most cell types Embryo
Multipotent Into some cell types Umbilical cord
Oligopotent Into few cell types Bone marrow cells

Organ on Chip OoC is a micro-engineered device that mimics the structure and
Technology function of human organs for drug testing, disease modelling, and
biomedical research.

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Applications:
• Drug Testing & Development – Replaces animal trials,
making drug testing faster and ethical.
• Personalized Medicine – Helps predict how a patient’s
body will respond to treatments.
• Disease Research – Models diseases like cancer, lung
infections, and neurological disorders.
• Toxicology Studies – Tests environmental toxins and
chemicals' effects on human organs.

Gene Therapy for Sickle ● USFDA approved 2 gene therapies for sickle cell disease:
Cell Disease Casgevy, Lyfgenia
● Casgevy is based on CRISPR which uses molecular "scissors" to
trim faulty parts of genes that can be disabled or replaced with
new strands of normal DNA.
● Lyfgenia uses a more conventional form of gene therapy that
uses a virus to transfer a gene into cells.

Molecular Motor ● These are type of proteins that drive intracellular movement by
converting chemical energy to mechanical work - useful in
processes like muscular contraction, cell division etc

Unified Genomic Chip ● Developed by Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying

(DAHD), Ministry of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries.
● for genomic profiling and evaluation of Indian cattle breeds.
● two versions: ‘Gau Chip’ for cattle and the ‘Mahish Chip’ for
buffalo.

BioE3 (Biotechnology for BioE3 is aimed at fostering high-performance biomanufacturing,

Economy, Environment which involves the production of bio-based products across
and Employment) Policy various sectors.
Implementation Agency: Department of Biotechnology (DBT)

Gene Drive ● genetic engineering technique that modifies genes so that

they don’t follow the typical rules of heredity.
● It increases the likelihood that a particular suite of genes will
be passed onto the next generation, allowing the genes to
rapidly spread through a population and override natural
selection.
● Applications: agri pest control, disease vector control

Wolbachia Method • A biological control strategy to reduce mosquito-borne

diseases like Dengue, Zika, and Chikungunya.
• Uses Wolbachia, a naturally occurring bacteria found in
many insect species, but not in Aedes mosquitoes
(disease carriers).

Infected Males + Wild Females → Eggs do not hatch (reduces

mosquito numbers).
Infected Females + Any Male → Offspring inherit Wolbachia,

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spreading the trait.

Hayflick Limit is the maximum number of times a normal human cell can divide
before it stops dividing and enters a senescent (aging) state.

Health

Immunity Types
• Innate – non-specific, present since birth
Ex. Skin, acid in stomach, saliva in mouth

• Acquired – specific to a pathogen – (B-cell and T-cell are also

called lymphocytes)
o Humoral – involves role of B-cell lymphocytes through
production of antibodies. B-cell produce antibodies that
destroys invading pathogen
o Cell-mediated – involves role of T-cell lymphocytes by
directly attacking and destroying the pathogen. T-cells
destroy body’s own cells that have been taken over by
pathogen. T-cells produce cytokines that activate other
parts of the immune system

Vaccines • Inactivated - use the killed version of the germ that causes a
disease. Ex. Hepatitis, polio, rabies
• Live-attenuated - use a weakened (or attenuated) form of the
germ that causes a disease. Ex. MMR, smallpox, chickenpox,
yellow fever
• mRNA – use genetic material from pathogen to make proteins
in order to trigger an immune response. Ex. Pfizer and
Moderna covid vaccine
• Subunit, recombinant, polysaccharide, and conjugate - use
specific pieces of the germ—like its protein, sugar, or capsid
(a casing around the germ). Ex. Hib, Pneumococcal disease
• Toxoid - use a toxin (harmful product) made by the germ that
causes a disease. Ex. Diphtheria, Tetanus
• Viral vector - use a modified version of a different virus as a
vector to deliver protection. Ex. Covishield

Inverse Vaccine • In autoimmune diseases, the immune system attacks healthy

tissue e.g., psoriatic disease
• Inverse vaccine stops the immune system from attacking
good, healthy cells. Instead, it retrains the immune system to
save healthy cells.

About Antimicrobial • AMR occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites
Resistance (AMR) evolve over time and no longer respond to antimicrobials

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(such as antibiotics, antivirals and antimalarials).

• WHO has declared AMR as one of the top 10 global public
health threats facing humanity
• Causes of AMR : Over prescription, unregulated use of
antibiotics, adding excessive antibiotics to agricultural feed,
poor hygiene etc.
Steps by WHO against AMR Steps by India
Global Action Plan on National Action Plan on
Antimicrobial Resistance containment of Antimicrobial
(GAPAR) Resistance (NAP-AMR), 2017

AWaRe (Access, Watch, Delhi Declaration on AMR

Reserve) Tool

Global Antimicrobial Red Line Campaign on

Resistance and Use Antibiotics.
Surveillance System
(GLASS)

Schedule H1 to the Drugs and

Cosmetics Act

Nafithromycin India’s first Indigenous antibiotic

Biofilm • thin layer of microorganisms (as bacteria) that forms on

various surfaces (like medical implants, kitchen counters, food
and food processing surfaces, contact lenses, human and
animal tissue) and exhibits antimicrobial resistance.

Concept of ‘One Health’

Orphan diseases Diseases of low prevalence

ex. Thalassemia, sickle cell anemia etc

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Sickle Cell Disease inherited disorder that affects the shape of red blood cells
(RBCs), which carry oxygen to all parts of the body.
RBCs are usually round and flexible, so they move easily through
blood vessels. In sickle cell disease, some RBCs are shaped like
sickles or crescent moons which slows or blocks blood flow.

Human Papillomavirus HPV is a sexually transmitted virus that may cause cervical cancer.
(HPV) Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer of women in
India despite being largely preventable.

Cervical cancer can be eliminated if all prepubertal girls are given

HPV vaccination globally.

Cervavac, the India’s first quadrivalent human papillomavirus

vaccine (qHPV) has been Manufactured by Serum Institute of
India.

Zombie Virus Zombie virus is a virus emerged due to thawing of permafrost as

global temperature is rising.

Sickle cell anaemia Occurs due to a genetic mutation that causes hemoglobin in red
blood cells (RBCs) to clump together.Affects the shape of RBCs.
RBCs are usually round and flexible, so they move easily through
blood vessels. In sickle cell anaemia, some RBCs are shaped like
sickles or crescent moons. They become rigid and sticky, which
can slow or block blood flow.

Viral diseases Covid, Nipah, Zika, Polio, Influenza, Chikungunya, West Nile fever,
Dengue, Hepatitis, Kyasanur Forest disease (KFD), Measles-
Rubella

Chandipura Virus • It is an RNA virus belonging to the Rhabdoviridae family.

• Transmission by: vectors such as sandflies, mosquitoes, and
ticks.
• Symptoms: Fever, vomiting, loose motion and headache.
• Vaccine: No antiretroviral treatment or vaccine accessible for
treatment.

Dengue vaccine Dengvaxia - live-attenuated vaccine

TAK-003 - live-attenuated vaccine

Chikungunya vaccine Ixchiq

Malaria vaccine R21/Matrix-M

Hepatitis Type Transmission Vaccine

A Contaminated food and water (fecal-oral) Yes
B Infected body fluids Yes
C Infected body fluids No
D Infected body fluids Yes
E Contaminated food and water (fecal-oral) Yes

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Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) • LSD is a vector-borne pox disease that is caused by
Capripoxvirus.
• LSD infects cattle and water buffalo mainly through vectors
such as blood-feeding insects. The disease is not zoonotic,
meaning it does not spread from animals to humans.

Bacterial diseases TB, Leprosy (Hansen’s disease), Trachoma, Leptospirosis

Trachoma Eye infecting disease caused by bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis.

India has become the third country in the Southeast Asia Region
after Nepal and Myanmar that eliminated.
It is a Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) – a group of
communicable diseases common in low-income populations in
developing regions of Africa, Asia, and the Americas.

Guillain-Barré syndrome a rare neurological disorder where the body's immune system
(GBS) mistakenly attacks the peripheral nervous system, leading to
muscle weakness, tingling, and potentially paralysis.

Drugs price control Essential Commodities Act, 1955

⬇
Drug Price Control Order, 1995 à National Pharmaceutical Pricing
Authority (NPPA) controls prices of drugs mentioned in National
List of Essential Medicines (NLEM)

NPPA: not statutory, under M/o Chemicals and Fertilizers

NAMASTE Portal • National Ayush Morbidity and Standardized Terminologies

Electronic (NAMASTE) portal provides standardized
terminologies & morbidity codes for Ayurveda, Siddha and
Unani systems of medicine.
• Under Ministry of Ayush

Food Fortification Deliberately increasing the content of essential micronutrients in

food to improve the nutritional quality of to provide public health
benefit with minimal risk to health.

In India, wheat flour and rice are fortified with Iron, Vitamin B12
and Folic Acid, Milk and Edible Oil with Vitamins A and D and
Double Fortified Salt with Iodine and Iron

Biofortification breeding crops to increase their nutritional value. This can be

done either through conventional selective breeding, or through
genetic engineering.

Trans Fat • Partially unsaturated fats

• Can be natural or artificial
• increase shelf life, stabilize flavors
• raises LDL (bad cholesterol)
• found in vanaspati ghee, margarine, fried foods, burgers,
pizza etc.

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• WHO’s REPLACE program – eliminate trans-fat from food by

2025

Aflatoxin • Toxin and a potent carcinogen produced by Aspergillus flavus

fungi
• Mainly found in agri crops – rice, maize, groundnuts, figs,
spices
• found in milk too
• produced by improper handling of cereal grains & oilseeds

Non-Sugar Sweeteners • Contains few to no calories but has higher sweetness intensity
per gram than sugar
• Ex. acesulfame K, aspartame, xylitol, advantame, cyclamates,
neotame, saccharin, sucralose, stevia, and stevia derivatives.
• Xylitol - natural sugar alcohol found in plants, including many
fruits and vegetables
• Aspartame is used to sweeten diet colas that claim to have
‘no sugar, no calories.’

Methylcobalamin • activated form of Vitamin B12

• help with the proper functioning of the brain and nerves
as well as the production of red blood cells.
•

Glycemic Index • It is a measure of how quickly a food can make blood

sugar (glucose) rise.
• It ranks the carbohydrate-rich foods on a scale of 0 to 100
based on their ability to raise blood sugar levels as
compared to pure glucose (which has a GI of 100).

A1 and A2 Milk A1 Milk A2 Milk

Source European, American, indigenous Indian
and Indian hybrid cow breeds (Gir, Sahiwal)
breeds (Holstein, and some Asian/African
Jersey) cows
Beta- A1 beta-casein protein A2 beta-casein protein
casein
Protein
Digestion Produces Beta- Easier to digest as it
Casomorphin-7 (BCM- does not produce BCM-
7), which may cause 7
digestive discomfort
Effects Linked to lactose Considered healthier,
intolerance, may reduce digestive
inflammation, heart issues
disease, and diabetes
in some studies

Ethylene Oxide (EtO) It is a sterilizing agent, is used in the spice industry to reduce
microbial elements and pathogens like Salmonella and E. coli.

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FSSAI permits the use of ethylene gas for artificial fruit ripening,
but only at a concentration not exceeding 100 ppm (parts per
million), as a safer alternative to banned substances like calcium
carbide.

Food Safety and • Statutory body – FSS Act, 2006

Standards Authority of • Autonomous body under Ministry of Health & Family Welfare
India (FSSAI) • Lays standards for food and regulate their manufacturing,
storage, transport etc.

Codex Alimentarius • international food standards body jointly established by WHO

Commission (CAC) and FAO.
• HQ: Rome, Italy
• India is a member
• Aim: to protect consumer’s health and ensure fair practices in
food trade.
• Codex standards are voluntary.
• Agreement on Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measures (SPS) of WTO recognizes Codex standards

Xenotransplantation • transplantation, implantation or infusion of non-human

tissues or organs into human recipients.

GAVI alliance Global partnership with the goal of increasing access to

immunization in poor countries

Coalition for Epidemic global partnership launched in 2017 to develop vaccines to stop
Preparedness future epidemics
Innovations (CEPI) India – founding member

Information & Communication Technology

Nobel Prize in Physics • for foundational discoveries and inventions that enable
2024 machine learning with artificial neural networks
• An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a computational model
inspired by the human brain, consisting of interconnected
neurons that process information. It learns patterns from data
using layers of neurons and is widely used in AI applications
like image recognition, language processing, and decision-
making.

5G vs 4G 4G 5G
Latency 10ms <1ms
Speed 1 Gbps 10 Gbps
Max Bandwidth 100 MHz 1000 MHz

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mmWave • Millimeter Wave band is a particular segment of radio

frequency spectrum that range between 24 GHz and 100 GHz.
This spectrum has a short wavelength, and is apt to deliver
greater speeds and lower latencies.

• higher the frequency, faster the data transfer but lower the
range

Mobile Edge Computing • Technique to process data, close (location-wise) to the point
where it is generated to get faster analytics with minimal
latency. It provides near real time analytics and highly efficient
system performance.

WiFi v VLC vs LiFi WiFi VLC LiFi

Medium Radio Visible light Infrared/Visible
waves (375-780 nm) light
Speed 1-2 Gbps Few Mbps 1 Gbps
Direction Bidirectio One-way Bidirectional
nal
Privacy - Light is blocked
by walls, so more
secure
Range 30-100 m Few metres 10-30 m
Interference yes no no
issue

Virtual Private Network • Encrypted connection over internet from a device to a

(VPN) network in real time
• Offers anonymity, security as well as confidentiality

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Deep Web Vs Dark Web

Generative AI • type of artificial intelligence that can create new content or

data that is similar to what it has been trained on.
• It works by learning patterns and characteristics from a given
dataset and then generating new content based on that
understanding.
• Generative AI can be used to create text, images, music, and
more, often with impressive levels of realism and creativity.
• Ex. ChatGPT, Google Gemini, Dall-E

BharatGen Programme It is a government-funded, multimodal large language model

(LLM) initiative focused on developing generative AI technologies
tailored for India's linguistic, cultural, and socio-economic
diversity.

Bhashini Project • AI powered language translation platform, enabling easy

access to digital services and content in Indian languages.
• Part of National Language Translation Mission (NLTM)
• Nodal: MeitY

MuleHunter launched by RBI to help financial institutions identify mule

accounts and curb digital frauds

Deepfakes • video/image that has been edited using an algorithm to

replace a person in the original video/image with someone
else, in a way that makes the video look authentic.

4D Printing • 4D printing is the process through which a 3D printed object

transforms itself into another structure over the influence of
external energy input such as temperature, light or other
environmental stimuli.
• It can have applications in robotics, cancer treatment etc

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Brain Computer Interface It is computer-based system for direct communication between

the brain and an external device. It enables individuals to control
computers, prosthetic limbs, or other external systems using only
their brain activity.
Types – invasive (ex. Neuralink), non-invasive (ex. EEG, MRI)

Supercomputer Speed measured in FLOPS

Top 500 supercomputers – 6 supercomputers of India
#1 El Capitan - US
#2 Frontier
#3 Aurora

India’s supercomputers in Top500

#136 AIRAWAT (India) – developed by CDAC
#188 – Arka
#189 – Arunika
#268 – Pratyush
#400 - Arka AI/ML
#431 - Mihir

Quantum Computing Qubit: basic unit of information in quantum computing

Key Principles
• Superposition: quantum bits can represent 0/1 both at the
same time
• Entanglement: quantum bits affect each other even at great
distances

Quantum Key • a secure communication method that uses quantum

Distribution mechanics to generate and distribute cryptographic keys. It
(QKD) allows two parties to create a shared secret key that can be
used to encrypt and decrypt messages

Majorana 1 • developed by Microsoft

• It is the world's first quantum processor built on a Topological
Core architecture, utilizing a new class of materials called
topoconductors to create more stable and scalable qubits.

Ocelot Prototype quantum computing chip developed by Amazon

Proof Of Work And Proof • Terms related to consensus mechanism in cryptocurrencies

Of Stake that allow mining of new blocks by making sure valid/authentic
work is done
• Bitcoin uses Proof of Work while Ethereum uses the Proof of
Stake Mechanism

Markets in Crypto Assets • Passed by European Parliament

(MiCA) legislation • a legal framework for crypto-asset services providers as well as
consumer protection.

Web 3.0 • next evolution of the World Wide Web

• focus on decentralization, use of cryptocurrency, driven by AI

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and ML, AR & VR, enhanced privacy and security, smart

contracts etc.

Digi Yatra • Mobile Application developed by Ministry Of Civil Aviation for

seamless transit through airports
• With this, a passenger’s face acts as a boarding pass and there
is no need for carrying multiple documents

India Stack • A platform of open APIs (Application Programming Interface)

like - Aadhar, UPI, Co-WIN, digilocker etc

National Internet • Not for profit organisation, established in 2003

Exchange Of India (NIXI) • Facilitates exchange of domestic internet traffic between
Internet Service Providers
• Functions as India’s registry for ‘.in’ domain

Global Lighthouse • Led by McKinsey and WEF, it is a community of manufacturers

Network who showcase leadership in application of 4th Industrial
Revolution technologies like AI, Big Data etc.

Cryptojacking • A hard to detect cyber-attack, where a computing device is

hacked to illicitly mine cryptocurrency

E-SIM • Embedded SIM, where SIM card is physically soldered onto the
device PCB and cannot be easily removed

Bluebugging • Hacking a device via its bluetooth connection

RFID • RFID is the wireless non-contact use of radio frequency waves

to transfer data. RFID systems usually comprise an RFID
reader, RFID tags, and antennas.
• RFID doesn't need line of sight.

Space Technology

Orbits GEO – 35,786 km

MEO – 5000-2000 km
LEO – 160-1500 km

Polar orbit – type of LEO, usually travel past Earth from north to
south rather than from west to east, passing roughly over Earth's
poles.

GTO - special kind of orbit used to get from one orbit to another

ISRO’s launch vehicles PSLV

• 4 stages – solid, liquid, solid, liquid
• Carrying capacity – 1750 kg (LEO), 1500 kg (GTO)

GSLV
• 3 stages – solid, liquid, cryogenic

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• Carrying capacity – 6,000 kg (LEO), 2250 kg (GTO)

GSLV MkIII (LVM3)

• 3 stages – solid, liquid, cryogenic
• Carrying capacity – 8000 kg (LEO), 4000 kg (GTO)

Engines used in ISRO’s Type Example Fuel Used

LVs Solid S139, S200 Hydroxyl-terminated
Polybutadiene (HTBP)
Liquid Vikas UDMH + N2O4, MMH + N2O4
Cryogenic CE7.5, CE20 Liquid H2 + Liquid O2
Semi- SCE200 Refined Kerosene (RP-1) + Liquid
cryogenic O2
(upcoming)

ISRO’s Reusable Launch • ISRO completed its Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) technology
Vehicle demonstration.
• Test was conducted with a winged vehicle, named ‘Pushpak’.
Unlike SpaceX’s Falcon 9 which lands back vertically, Pushpak
has wings to help it glide horizontally.

POEM (PSLV Orbital • It allows for in orbit experiments during 4th stage of PSLV
Experimental Module)

Space Docking • technology demonstrator mission of ISRO for the

Experiment (SpaDeX) demonstration of in-space docking using two small spacecraft
launched by PSLV in LEO.
• India becomes 4th country to successfully conduct space
docking after the US, Russia, and China.

Bharatiya Antariksh • planned modular space station to be constructed and

Station (BAS) operated by ISRO

Analog Mission • India’s 1st analog space mission launched by ISRO in Ladakh
• Analog missions are Earth-based simulations designed to
replicate space-like conditions. They help astronauts,
scientists, and engineers prepare for real space missions by
testing equipment, human endurance, and mission protocols in
controlled environments that mimic the Moon, Mars, or deep
space.

Chandrayaan 3 • National Space Day (NSD) celebrated on 23rd August 2024 to

commemorate the successful landing of Chandrayaan-3 on the
Moon.
• Launch Vehicle: LVM3
• Objectives:
o Demonstration of a Safe and Soft Landing on the Lunar
Surface
o Demonstration of Rover roving on the moon.
o Conduct in-situ scientific experiments.

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• Payloads: RAMBHA, ChaSTE, ILSA, APXS, LIBS, SHAPE

• Landing site named Shiv Shakti point
• India – only 4th country to soft land on moon after US, Russia,
China.

NaVIC (Navigation with • Developed by ISRO, it is a regional (not global) navigational

Indian Constellation) system
• Earlier called IRNSS, it functions via a cluster of 7 satellites. ( 4
in geosynchronous, 3 in geostationary orbit)
• It provides navigational range of around 1500km from Indian
Landmass

Regional Navigation NavIC India

Systems Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) Japan

Global Navigational GPS USA

Systems GLONASS Russia
Galileo EU
Beidou China

Aryabhata ● 50th year of its launch (1975)

● India’s 1st satellite – built by ISRO, launched by Soviet Union
● To conduct experiments in X-ray Astronomy & Solar Physics

AstroSat ● Launched by ISRO in 2015 in LEO

● India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space telescope

TRISHNA (Thermal ● Collaborative mission of ISRO and CNES (French Space

infraRed Imaging Satellite Agency)
for High-resolution ● to deliver high spatial and high temporal resolution
Natural resource monitoring of earth’s surface temperature, emissivity, and
Assessment) mission biophysical and radiation variables for surface energy
budgeting

Major Atmospheric ● launched by Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) at Hanle,

Cherenkov Experiment Ladakh
(MACE) ● indigenously built by BARC
● It is a gamma-ray telescope designed to study high-energy
cosmic gamma rays. It is one of the largest and most
advanced telescopes of its kind, built to enhance our
understanding of astrophysical phenomena like black holes,
pulsars, and active galactic nuclei.

Artemis I ● Moon Mission planned by NASA

● It aims for deep space exploration and later to land 1st
woman on moon
● In Greek Mythology, Artemis is the twin sister of Apollo and
goddess of moon

James Webb Space ● It is NASA’s largest and most powerful space science
Telescope (JWST) telescope.

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● Built by International collaboration between NASA, European

Space Agency (ESA), and Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
● Webb views the universe in infrared,
● Its primary mirror is 6.5 metres in diameter.
● It will not be in orbit around Earth but will orbit the Sun, 1.5
million kilometres away from the Earth at the second
Lagrange point or L2.

JUICE Mission • To study Jupiter and its three moons – Ganymede, Callisto and
Europa.
• By European Space Agency (ESA)

OSIRIS-Rex Mission • To collect samples from asteroid Bennu and deliver them to
Earth.
• Bennu is small near Earth carbon rich asteroid.
• By NASA

GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO • Developed by Airports Authority of India And ISRO
Augmentation and • Possible uses in Air traffic control, crop spraying etc.
Navigation)

Tidal Locking • It is a gravitational phenomenon in which an astronomical

body (Moon) has the same rotational period as its orbital
period around a partner (Earth). This means the body rotates
around its axis in exactly the same time it takes to orbit its
partner, resulting in the same side always facing the partner.

Aditya L1 mission by ISRO • Successfully placed at L1 point

• It will study the Sun’s corona, solar emissions, solar winds and
flares, and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), and will carry out
round-the-clock imaging of the Sun.
• L1 stands for Lagrangian Point 1.

Structure of Sun Layers:

Core > Radiative zone > Convective zone > Photosphere >

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Chromosphere > Corona

Coronal Heating problem: temperature decreases away from

sun’s core but corona is far hotter than photosphere

Solar Cycle: cycle of sun’s magnetic field. Every 11 years, sun’s

magnetic field completely flips. Cycle tracked using sunspots
(darker, cooler areas on sun’s surface).

Moon craters Craters on the moon are of a more permanent nature than those
on earth. Why?
• Erosion, tectonics, and volcanism - keep the surface of the
earth crater-free and remove traces of collisions that have
happened in the past. Moon – no atmosphere, no tectonics,
no volcanism
• An absence of atmosphere on moon means no wind system
and no weather on the moon, and hence no cause for erosion
of existing craters.
• Absence of tectonics prevents the moon’s surface from
forming new rocks, or causing a shift in the existing surface
patterns, unlike that on earth.
• Absence of volcanism makes it impossible for craters to be
covered.

Blood Moon Blood Moon, commonly known as total lunar eclipse, occurs
when the moon passes through the darkest part of Earth's
shadow, known as the umbra. It is called blood moon
because of the reddish hue.

Super Blue Moon combines two phenomena:

• Supermoon – When the Moon is closest to Earth in its orbit
(perigee), making it appear larger and brighter.
• Blue Moon – Typically, a month has one full moon. Since the
lunar cycle is ~29.5 days, occasionally, two full moons can occur
in a month. The second full moon is called a Blue Moon (not
actually blue in color).

Universe composition • 5% - matter, 27% - dark matter, 68% dark energy

• Matter includes Earth, sun and other celestial bodies
• Dark matter doesn’t interact with electromagnetic force.
• Dark matter pulls galaxies together, while dark energy pushes
them apart.

Laser Interferometer observatory to detect cosmic gravitational waves

Gravitational-Wave operational: Hanford, Livingstone (US), GEO600 (Germany)
Observatory under construction: VIRGO (Italy), KAGRA (Japan)
(LIGO) approved: Hingoli (India)

Gravitational lensing • phenomenon predicted by Albert Einstein's general theory of

relativity

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• describes how the path of light bends when it passes near a

massive object - mass of the object warps the fabric of
spacetime around it, causing light from objects behind it to
follow a curved path.
• To an observer, this makes the light source appear distorted,
magnified, or multiplied.

Black Holes

Types of neutron stars Magnetar, Pulsar

Distance from sun Asteroid belt à Kuiper belt à Heliopause à Oort cloud

Dwarf planets Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Makemake, Haumea

Betelguese, Bellatrix Red supergiants

Goldilocks zone Habitable zone around a star.

Defence

Types of Missiles Ballistic Missile: A high-speed projectile designed for long-range

delivery, following a ballistic trajectory. Ex. Prithvi, Agni, Trishul
Cruise missile: A high-speed projectile designed for long-range
delivery, following a ballistic trajectory. Ex. Brahmos, Nirbhay

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Jet Engines

Integrated Guided Missile Started in 1983 by DRDO to attain self-sufficiency in missile

Development technology. Missiles developed under it:
Programme (IGMDP) • Prithvi: Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile.
• Agni: Intermediate-range ballistic missile (Agni V has a
range of over 5,000 km).
• Trishul: Short-range low-level surface-to-air missile.
• Akash: Medium-range surface-to-air missile.
• Nag: Third-generation anti-tank missile.

Agni-Prime • A nuclear-capable advanced variant of the Agni class of

missiles (surface to surface)
• Range: 1000-2000 km
• Uses solid fuel

Rudram II • New generation anti-radiation missile (NGARM)

• Air to surface
• Range: 300 km
• Indigenously developed by DRDO

S400 • world’s most Advanced air defence system.

• Mobile long-range surface-to-air missile system developed by
Russia
• Carries command and control centre, automatic tracking and
targeting systems, launchers and support vehicles.
• Carries separate radar systems which can detect aerial targets
to a range of 400 kms (surveillance range up to 600km).
• Simultaneously engages 80 aerial targets.

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• Can hit target up to altitude of 30km.

Other missile defence systems:

THAAD – USA
Iron Dome – Israel
Patriot – USA

India – VSHORADS, Akashteer, C-Dome

Astra Missile • Indigenously Developed by DRDO

• Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air missile
• Designed to engage and destroy highly manoeuvring
supersonic aircraft.
• All weather day and night capability
• Designed to mount on fighter aircrafts
• Range: 80-110 kms for version Mk1 and 160kms for version Mk2.
• Altitude: Up to 20 km.
• Max Speed: Mach 4.5

MQ-9B Reaper Drone • Country of origin: USA

• 2 variants – Sky Guardian, Sea Guardian

Project 75 India - P75(I) • Acquire diesel-electric submarine of scorpene class in Indian

Navy.
• Under it, Kalvari, Khanderi, Karanj, Vela, Vagir, Vagsheer
commissioned.

Varunastra Anti-submarine torpedo

Designed and developed by DRDO

Misc

Nobel Prize in Chemistry • for computational protein design and protein structure
2024 prediction
• used AlphaFold2 (AI model) for predicting protein’s complex
structures

Neutrinos • Second most abundant particles in universe after photons

• Interact very little with anything, hard to detect
• No electrical charge, nearly massless, travel close to
speed of light

Fundamental forces Strength: Strong nuclear > Electromagnetic > Weak nuclear >
Gravitational

Infinite Range: Gravitational, Electromagnetic

Short range: Strong, Weak nuclear

Goldene Layer of gold just 1 atom thick

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Created by sandwiching silicon between titanium carbide layers,

depositing gold, allowing gold atoms to replace silicon, forming a
monolayer.

Fluorescent nanometre-sized diamonds made of carbon nanoparticles with

Nanodiamond (FND) property of fluorescence.
Applications: High-resolution imaging, microscale temperature
sensing, and correlative microscopy,
and to track cells and their progeny over long periods.

Dark Oxygen Metallic nodules on the seafloor, rich in manganese and iron,
were found to generate oxygen by splitting seawater (H₂O)
without sunlight.
This challenges the belief that photosynthesis is the sole source of
oxygen and suggests oxygen-rich environments could exist on
other planets, potentially supporting life.

Pink fire retardant made of salts such as ammonium polyphosphate, which does not
evaporate easily like water and stays for longer.

Uranium Natural Uranium (2 isotopes) - 99.3% U-238 || 0.7% U-235

Enrichment - creates an effective nuclear fuel out of mined
uranium by increasing the percentage of uranium- 235 which
undergoes fission with thermal neutrons

Vanadium hard, silvery-grey, malleable metal

one of the 30 critical minerals, identified by India.
Derived from mined iron ore, shale, steel slag
Found in Karnataka > Maharashtra > Odisha
China – largest reserves
Brazil – largest exporter

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ECONOMY

Fiscal Policy
Union Budget 2025-26 Engines of development:
1. Agriculture
2. MSMEs
3. Investment
4. Exports

Data:
Tax collection: Income Tax > GST > Corporation Tax > Excise >
Customs
Subsidy: Food > Fertilizer > Fuel
Deficits: FD (4.4%) > RD (1.5%) > PD (0.8%)
Ministry-wise allocation: MoD > MoRD > MHA > MoA&FW
Indexation Benefit • It is a method of adjusting the purchase price of an asset
to account for inflation. This reduces the tax liability on
capital gain.
• Cost Inflation Index (CII) is used in the calculation of
Inflation adjusted price of an asset which estimates the
increase in an asset's price as a result of inflation.
• It’s notified each year by the Income Tax department and
is defined under Section 48 of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
Govt has discontinued indexation benefit on LTCG.
Government Debt Govt debt
1. Public Debt (against Consolidated Fund of India)
i. Internal – marketable, non-marketable
ii. External
2. Other Liabilities (against Public A/c of India)
3. Extra Budgetary Borrowings

Internal debt (94%) >> External debt (6%)

State govt debt (70%) > union govt debt (30%)
long-term debt > short-term debt
fixed interest debt (95%) >> variable interest rate
FRBM Act 2003 • enforced in 2004 with an objective of ensuring inter-
generational equity in fiscal management and ensuring
long-term macroeconomic stability.
• amended four times in 2004, 2012, 2015 and 2018.

Targets under the Act

• Fiscal deficit to be 3% of the GDP.
• Debt to GDP ratio (by 2024-25)
o Central govt – 40% of GDP
o State govts – 20% of GDP

India’s external debt (as External debt ($712 bn)

of Sep 2024) External Debt to GDP ratio – 19.4%
1. Non-financial corporations – 36%%
2. Deposit-taking corporations – 28%
3. General govt – 23%

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4. Other financial corporations – 8%

Non-government debt (78%) >> government debt (22%)

Long-term debt (80%) >> short-term debt (20%)

Acc to instruments: loans (33%) > Currency and Deposits (23%) >
Trade Credit and Advances (19%) > Debt securities (17%)
Acc to denomination: USD (54%) > INR (31%) > Yen (6%) > SDR (5%)
> Euro (3%)

State Finances: A Study of • Gross Fiscal Deficit: State governments contained their
Budget of gross fiscal deficit within 3% of GDP during 2021-22 to 2023-
2024-25 by RBI 24. GFD of the Indian States fell from an average of 4.3%
of GDP during 1998-99 to 2003-04 to 2.7% of GDP during
2004-05 to 2023-24.
• Revenue Deficit: States maintained the revenue deficit at
0.2% of GDP during 2021-22 to 2023-24.
• Expenditure quality improved: Capital outlay,
expenditure that leads to creation of physical/financial
• assets.
• Debt of States: Declined from 31.8% of GDP at end-March
2004 to 28.5% of GDP at end-March 2024. However, it
remains above the level of 20% recommended by the
FRBM Act.
Fiscal Health Index 2025 By NITI Aayog
To highlight fiscal status at the sub-national level and guide policy
reforms for sustainable and resilient economic growth.
Ranks states on 5 parameters: Quality of Expenditure, Revenue
Mobilisation, Fiscal Prudence, Debt Index, Debt Sustainability.
Top performers: OD > CH > GA > JH > GJ
National Infrastructure It has outlined plans to invest more than ₹102 lakh crore on
Pipeline infrastructure projects by 2024-25, with the Centre, States and
the private sector to share the capital expenditure in a 39:39:22
formula.
NIP includes both economic and social infrastructure projects.
National Monetisation NMP will help in evolving a common framework for monetisation
Pipeline of core assets. (Monetization through disinvestment and
monetization of non-core assets have not been included in the
NMP).

National Land NLMC is an agency to monetise surplus land and building assets
Monetisation Corporation of Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) and other govt.
agencies.
Will be fully owned by the Centre and under the administrative
jurisdiction of the Finance Ministry.
PM Gati Shakti It is essentially a digital platform to bring 16 Ministries including
Railways and Roadways together for integrated planning and
coordinated implementation of infrastructure connectivity
projects.
Based on 6 pillars – Comprehensiveness, Prioritization,
Optimization, Synchronization, Analytical, Dynamic

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Terms Tax Elasticity: change in tax revenue in response to change in tax

rate
Tax Buoyancy: change in tax revenue with increase in GDP
Tax Expenditure: revenue forgone by the government due to tax
exemptions and concessions.
Pigouvian Tax: tax on any market activity that generates negative
externalities. Ex. Carbon tax
Tobin Tax: tax on the conversion of one currency into another

Monetary Policy & Banking

Monetary Policy • Under RBI Act, 1934 – amended by Finance Act, 2016
Committee (MPC) • 6 members
• Chaired by RBI Governor
• Monetary policy goal – inflation targeting
• Inflation target decided by Union govt in consultation with
RBI
• MPC fixes the benchmark policy interest rates (repo rate,
reverse repo) to restrain inflation within the inflation target.
Important rates CRR à 4 %
SLR à 18 %
Repo Rate à 6.25 %
SDF à 6 %
Reverse repo à 3.35 %
Bank rate, MSF à 6.5 %
Standing Deposit SDF allows the RBI to absorb excess cash from the economy by
Facility (SDF) sucking liquidity from commercial banks without giving
government securities in return to the lenders.
Banks park their money with RBI but without G-sec as collateral.
SDF rate – 3.75 %
RBI Retail Direct Scheme In 2021, RBI allowed retail investors to invest in G-sec by opening
Retail Direct Guilt (RDG) account on its e-Kuber platform
Retail investors can directly buy G-secs, T-bills in primary market
(i.e., directly from RBI)
NRIs also permitted to open this account
G-sec Acquisition Program It is an upfront commitment and clear communication about the
(G-SAP) OMO purchase calendar. Under this, the RBI purchases bonds
worth a specific amount, which reduces the uncertainty and
allows investors to bid better in the scheduled auction with a pre-
decided calendar set by the RBI.
PSL Norms • RBI revised Priority Sector Lending (PSL) guidelines to
promote small loan in economically disadvantaged
districts with low average loan sizes.
• More weight (125%) will be given to fresh priority sector
loans in districts where loan availability is low (less than
Rs 9,000 per person). In districts with high loan
availability (more than Rs 42,000 per person), the loans
will have a weight of 90%.
• MSME loans: All bank loans to MSMEs shall qualify for
classification under PSL.
Interbank Offer Rates benchmark interest rates at which banks lend funds to each other
in the interbank market for short-term loans.

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Ex. LIBOR, MIBOR, SOFR, SONIA, ESTR, TONAR

RBI’s Portals UDGAM Portal: search unclaimed deposits/accounts across
multiple banks at one place in a centralised manner.
PRAVAAH Portal: to apply for license to RBI by Banks/non-banks.
National Bank for Estd through NaBFID Act, 2021
Financing Infrastructure It is a development financial institution (DFI) to support
and Development development of long-term infrastructure in the country.
(NaBFID) It will fund projects from both public and private sectors.
NARCL-IDRCL (Bad Bank) National Asset Reconstruction Company (NARCL)
• Purchase bad loans from banks
• Ownership: Public Sector Banks (51%), Pvt banks (49%)

India Debt Resolution Company (IDRCL)

• handle the debt resolution process
• Ownership: Pvt banks (51%), PSBs (49%)
Prompt Corrective Action It is a framework under which scheduled commercial banks with
weak financial metrics are put under watch by the RBI.
3 parameters - capital ratios, asset quality and profitability.

RBI has introduced a PCA framework for Urban Cooperative

Banks (UCBs), effective from April 1, 2025, to improve their
financial health and replace the existing Supervisory Action
Framework (SAF).
Prompt Corrective Action PCA Framework for NBFCs came into effect from October 1, 2022.
for NBFCs It applies to:
a. All Deposit Taking NBFCs [Excluding Government
Companies],
b. All Non-Deposit Taking NBFCs in Middle, Upper and Top
Layers

NEFT, RTGS for non-banks RBI allowed non-banks to participate in its Centralised Payment
System [NEFT & RTGS]
Till now, only banks were allowed
SWIFT messaging system • SWIFT is a messaging network that financial institutions use
to securely transmit information and instructions through a
standardized system of codes.
It is not a financial institution itself: SWIFT does not hold or
transfer assets. Rather, it facilitates secure, efficient
communication between member institutions.
Project Nexus RBI joined Project Nexus
It is an initiative by the Bank for International Settlements (BIS)
that seeks to enhance cross-border payments by connecting
multiple domestic instant payment systems (IPS) globally.
It will connect the fast payment systems of 4 Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) — Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore, and Thailand; and India.
mBridge Project • It reached the minimum viable product (MVP) stage in
mid-2024.
• It is a multi-central bank digital currency (CBDC) initiative
led by the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in

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collaboration with the central banks of China, Hong Kong,

Thailand, and the UAE.
• It aims to create a blockchain-based platform for fast,
low-cost, and efficient cross-border payments using
CBDCs.
eRUPI Electronic voucher based digital payment system which is person-
specific and purpose-specific
Developed by NPCI on its UPI platform
Offline digital payments • RBI released framework for offline digital payments to
promote digital payments in rural and semi-urban areas
• It will enable small value digital payments in offline mode
• An offline digital payment means a transaction which does
not require internet or telecom connectivity. Under this new
framework, such payments can be carried out face-to-face
(proximity mode) using any channel or instrument like cards,
wallets, mobile devices, etc
Digital Payments Index By RBI
to capture the extent of digitisation of payments across the
country.
Financial Stability Report RBI
Bi-annual report that reflects risks to financial stability and
resilience of financial system
UPI123Pay instant payment system for feature phone users
3-step method
Call à choose mode of transaction à Pay
4 modes of transaction - IVR (interactive voice response) number,
missed call, app functionality in phone, sound based

Front Running • It is a trading practice where a broker executes a trade

based on advance, non-public information about an
upcoming large transaction that is expected to impact the
market price.
• It is illegal in India as per SEBI Regulations.
• It is different from insider trading. Insider trading refers
to using non-public, material company information by
insiders (company executives, employees) to trade.

External Sector
India’s largest trading US > China > UAE > Russia > Saudi > Singapore
partners (Apr-Dec 2024)
Top destination of Indian US > UAE > Netherlands > UK > China
exports (Apr-Dec 2024)
Top sources of Indian China > Russia > UAE > US > Saudi
imports (Apr-Dec 2024)
Trade Deficit India has trade deficit with 8 out of its top 10 trade partners –
USA and Netherlands.

Largest trade surplus with – US > Netherlands

Largest trade deficit with – China > Russia
Export Preparedness Index NITI Aayog

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to identify the fundamental areas critical for subnational

export promotion.
Ranks: TN > MH > KN > GJ
Foreign Trade Policy 2023 goal to take India's exports to $2 trillion by 2030.
Four Pillars of FTP 2023:
• Incentive to Remission: Focusing on financial
incentives to boost exports.
• Export Promotion through Collaboration: Leveraging
collaboration between exporters, states, districts, and
Indian missions abroad.
• Ease of Doing Business: Implementing measures to
simplify export processes and reduce transaction costs
through e-initiatives.
• Emerging Areas: Emphasizing the importance of e-
commerce, developing districts as export hubs, and
streamlining the SCOMET (Special Chemicals,
Organisms, Materials, Equipment, and Technologies)
policy.
Amendment in Jan 2025:
It is necessary to do consultation with stakeholders to seek
views, suggestions, comments or feedback from relevant
stakeholders, including importers/exporters/industry experts
concerning the formulation or amendment of the Foreign
Trade Policy.
Remittances According to World Bank, India secured 14.3% of Global
Remittances in 2024, highest share ever.

Top countries: India > Mexico > Philippines > France > Pakistan
> Egypt > China
De-dollarisation process of moving away from the world’s reliance on the U.S.
dollar (USD) as the chief reserve currency.

Agriculture
7 new schemes for • Digital Agriculture Mission
Agriculture • Crop Science for Food and Nutritional Security
• Strengthening Agricultural Education, Management
and Social Sciences
• Sustainable Livestock Health and Production
• Sustainable Development of Horticulture
• Strengthening of Krishi Vigyan Kendra
• Natural Resource Management
Clean Plant Programme (CPP) • Approved by Union Cabinet under the Mission for
Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH).
• Aims to enhance the productivity and quality of
horticultural produce by ensuring that farmers have
access to certified, disease-free planting material,
which can significantly reduce crop losses and improve
yields.
• Implementing Agency: National Horticulture Board
(NHB) + ICAR.
Horticulture Sector

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Ranked 2nd in fruits and vegetable production globally after

China and 1st in production of Bananas, Mangoes, & Papayas.
Exports: India is ranked 14th in vegetables and 23rd in fruits.
World's Largest Grain Prime Minister inaugurated pilot project of 'World's Largest
Storage Plan in Cooperative Grain Storage Plan in Cooperative Sector’ for 11 Primary
Sector Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) across 11 States.
Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Cooperation
SPICED (Sustainability in Launched by Spices Board (under Ministry of Commerce)
spice sector through aims to significantly enhance the export of spices and value
Progressive, Innovative and added spice products, as well as improving the productivity of
Collaborative interventions cardamom and upgrading the post-harvest quality of spices
for Export Development) across India for export.
Scheme
India is the world’s largest producer, consumer and exporter
of spices.
Chilli, cumin, turmeric, ginger and coriander makeup about 76%
of the total production
The largest spice-producing states - MP, RJ, GJ, AP, TL, KN

Cardamom – 2 varieties – Green (small) and Black (large)

Green Cardamom
Native to Western Ghats
Major producers: Kerala, Karnataka, TN

Black Cardamom
Grown in Sub-Himalayan region of North Eastern India, Nepal
and Bhutan
Fertilisers Fertiliser subsidy
• Urea – fixed price
o Urea sold at statutorily notified price
o Not governed by Nutrient based subsidy scheme

• Non-Urea – fixed subsidy

o Manufacturers allowed to fix the MRP at market rates
o Govt provides fixed amount of subsidy
Pulses Grown in both Rabi and Kharif season
Gram – most dominant pulse (40% share in pulses)
Top producers – MP, MH, RJ, UP, KN

India is the largest producer, consumer and importer of

pulses.
Canada – largest exporter of pulses.
Cotton India – largest cotton producing country, 2nd largest consumer
of raw cotton
US – largest exporter of raw cotton
The cultivation of cotton requires at least 210 frost-free
days to grow properly.
Largest cotton producing states in India: GJ > MH > TL
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) Native to South America
Conditions required for Plantation

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Tropical climate with annual rainfall of 200 – 450 cm is suited

for cultivation. Minimum and maximum temperature should
be ranged from 25 to 34°C with 80 % relative humidity is ideal
for cultivation. Regions prone to heavy winds should be
avoided.
Propagated by green budding, brown budding and crown
budding.

Kerala is the highest rubber-producing state in India,

accounting for nearly 90% of the country's total rubber
production, followed by Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
Palm Oil India – largest importer of palm oil
Indonesia – largest exporter
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) • Native to India and Southeast Asia
• Perennial herbaceous plant
• Rhizome (underground stem) of the plant is used as a
culinary spice and traditional medicine.
• India is the world's largest producer & exporter of
turmeric.
• The largest producing states of Turmeric
are Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu.

National Turmeric Board

HQ: Nizamabad, TL
Under Ministry of Commerce
Coffee Coffee Cultivation
• 2 major species — Coffea Arabica (Arabica) and Coffea
Canephora (Robusta).
• Climate: Hot and humid climate for its growth.
• Rainfall:150 to 250 cm.
• Temperature: Ranging between 15°C and 28 °C.
• It is generally grown under shady trees. Dry weather is
necessary at the time of ripening of the berries. It is
grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600
metres above sea level.
• Coffee growing states in India: Karnataka, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, among
which, Karnataka produces the most with over 70% of
the total output.

The Coffee Board of India

• Statutory body under the Coffee Act, 1942.
• under Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
functions from Bangalore.
Milkweed Fiber natural fiber extracted from the seed pods of milkweed plants
native to North America
In India, it is found as a wild plant in RJ, KN & TN
Fisheries India – 3rd largest fish producing country
Inland fish production > marine fish production
Largest fish producing state – Andhra Pradesh

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Portals Anna Chakra: PDS supply chain optimization tool to identify

optimal routes and ensure seamless movement of food grains.

WINDS portal: to centralize and manage hyper-local weather

data to enhance risk assessment, decision-making, and
support various aspects of the agricultural sector and rural
economy, including crop insurance, agriculture advisories, and
disaster mitigation.

Unified Portal for Agricultural Statistics (UPAg Portal): to

streamline and enhance data management in the agricultural
sector.

Industry and Mining

Rare Earth metals • Rare-earth metals are a set of 17 nearly-indistinguishable lustrous
silvery-white soft heavy metals. Despite their name, rare-earth
elements are relatively plentiful in Earth's crust, with cerium
being the 25th most abundant element at 68 parts per million,
more abundant than copper.
• Rare earths are abundant in the Earth’s crust but mineable
concentrations are less common, making reserves very valuable
and strategic.
• 17 rare earth elements are: lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce),
praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), promethium (Pm),
samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb),
dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm),
ytterbium (Yb), lutetium (Lu), scandium (Sc), and yttrium (Y).
• China provides more than 85 % of world’s rare earths
• Applications: consumer and industrial electronics, permanent
magnets, catalysts, battery etc
Coal Reserves: US > Russia > Aus > China > India
Producers: China > India > US
Exporters: Indonesia > Aus > Russia > US
Importers: Japan > India > China > s Korea
Steel Largest steel producers: China > India > Japan > US > Russia
Gold Largest gold exporters: Switzerland > US > UAE
Largest gold importers: Switzerland > China > UAE
Gold Producers: China > Australia > Russia > Canada > US
Largest Gold reserves: US > Germany > Italy > France > Russia > China

Switzerland is a major hub for gold refining and a leading exporter of

the metal, importing unrefined gold and exporting it in its refined
form.

India is the 2nd largest consumer after China.

PLI scheme • give companies incentives on incremental sales (over a base
year) from products manufactured in domestic units.
• Incentives disbursed after the production has taken place
• PLI 1.0 : 13 Sectors covered
• Mobile Manufacturing and Specified Electronic
Components

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• Critical Key Starting materials/Drug Intermediaries and

Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients and Manufacturing of
Medical Devices.
• Advance Chemistry Cell (ACC) Battery
• Electronic/Technology Products
• Automobiles & Auto Components
• Pharmaceuticals drugs
• Telecom & Networking Products
• Textile Products: MMF segment and technical textiles
• Food Products
• High Efficiency Solar PV Modules
• White Goods (ACs & LED)
• Specialty Steel
• PLI 2.0: IT Hardware - (i) Laptops (ii) Tablets (iii) All-in-One PCs
(iv) Servers and Ultra Small Form Factor (USFF).

Inflation & Economic Growth Indices

CPI (R), CPI(U), CPI (All India) National Statistics Office(NSO), MoSPI

CPI (AI): weights [base year - 2012]

Food & Beverages (45%) > Services (20%) > Housing (10%) >
Fuel & Light (7%) > Clothing, footwear (6.5%) > Personal care
(4%) > Household goods services (4%) > Pan masala, tobacco
(2.4%)
Consumer Food Price Index Includes: cereals, meat, fish, egg, milk, oats, fats, vegetables,
(CFPI) pulses, sugar, spices
Does not include: pan, tobacco, intoxicants
CPI (Industrial Workers) Labour Bureau, MoL&E
CPI (Rural Labourer)
CPI (Agri Labourer) CPI (IW) – used for fixing dearness allowance to central/state
govt employees
CPI (AL) – used for fixing MGNREGA wages
WPI Economic Advisor to DPIIT, Min of Commerce

WPI weights: [base year 2011-12]

1. Manufactured products – 64%
Processed food, edible oil, paper products, chemicals,
plastic, cement, metal products etc
2. Primary articles – 23%
Unprocessed food, eggs , meat, oilseeds etc
Crude petroleum
Minerals
3. Fuel & power – 13%
High speed diesel, petrol, LPG

** no services included
IIP NSO, MoSPI

IIP weights (based on type of goods):

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Primary goods (34%) > intermediate goods (17%) > consumer

non-durables (15%) > consumer durables (13%) > capital goods
(8%)

IIP weights (based on sector):

Manufacturing (77%) > Mining (14%) > Electricity (8%)
Index of Eight Core Industries Economic Advisor to DPIIT, Min of Commerce

weights:
Refinery products > Electricity > Steel > Coal > Crude Oil >
Natural Gas > Cement > Fertilizers
House Price Index RBI
Preston Curve Depicts relationship between a country's life expectancy and
its per capita income

Nobel Prize in Economics 2024 Awareded to Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A.
Robinson for “studies of how institutions are formed and
affect prosperity”
Their book – Why Nations Fail

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POLITY

Basic Structure Doctrine • Article 13 is a limitation on a “law” which takes away or

abridges the rights conferred by Part III of the
Constitution.
• “Law” includes ordinance, order, bye-law, rule,
regulation, notification, custom or usage having in the
territory of India the force of law.
• “Law” doesn’t include Constitutional Amendment under
Article 368.
• Basic Structure acts as a limitation on Constitutional
Amendment under Article 368.
• Propounded in Keshavanand Bharti case – 24 April, 1973
• Independence of district judiciary – part of basic
structure (All India Judges Association vs UoI, 2023)

Right to be Forgotten • empowers individuals to request the removal of

their personal data from the internet, search
engines, or databases if it is no longer relevant or
necessary.
• Article 17 of the EU General Data Protection
Regulation (GDPR) explicitly grants individuals the
Right to Erasure (Right to Be Forgotten).
• Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 does not
mention the ‘right to be forgotten’.

Personality Rights • right of a person to protect his/her personality under the

right to privacy or property.
• It includes name, voice, signature, images or any other
feature easily identified as markers of personality.
• Personality rights or their protection are not expressly
mentioned in any statute in India but are traced to fall
under the right to privacy and the right to property.

Plea Bargaining ● It refers to a person charged with a criminal offence

negotiating with the prosecution for a lesser
punishment than what is provided in law by pleading
guilty to a less serious offence.
● As per section 289 BNSS, plea bargaining is permissible
in India after a charge sheet has been filed or when a
magistrate has taken cognizance of the offence.
However, it is prohibited for offences that carry a death
penalty, life imprisonment, or a prison term longer than
seven years.

Zero FIR ● It is an FIR (First Information Report) that can be lodged

at any police station, regardless of jurisdiction. It
ensures immediate action and prevents delays in
registering complaints, especially in cases of serious
crimes. The case is later transferred to the appropriate
police station.

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Places of Worship Act, 1991 ● It was passed as a special law to “to prohibit conversion
of any place of worship and to provide for the
maintenance of the religious character of any place of
worship as it existed on the 15 August, 1947
● The law kept the Ayodhya temple out of its purview,
mainly because it was the subject of prolonged
litigation.
● Doesn’t apply to monuments and sites covered by
Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and
Remains Act, 1958.

Digital Data Protection Act 2023 ● Applicability

○ Applies to personal data collected in digital form or
digitized later.
○ Covers both Indian and foreign entities processing
data of Indian individuals.
○ Does not apply to anonymized data or non-digital
data.
● Rights of Individuals (Data Principals)
○ Right to Access Information – Know how their data
is being used.
○ Right to Correction & Erasure – Request
corrections or deletion of personal data.
○ Right to Grievance Redressal – Complain to the
Data Protection Board (DPB).
○ Right to Nominate – Appoint a nominee in case of
death or incapacity.
● Obligations of Data Fiduciaries (Entities Handling Data)
○ Obtain clear and explicit consent from users before
collecting personal data.
○ Maintain data security and prevent misuse.
○ Collect only necessary data (Data Minimization
Principle).
○ Delete personal data once the purpose is fulfilled.
● Exemptions: Rights of data principal and obligations of
data fiduciaries will not apply in specified cases,
including:
○ For notified agencies, in the interest of security,
sovereignty, public order, etc.
○ For research, archiving or statistical purposes;
○ For start-ups or other notified categories of Data
Fiduciaries;
○ To enforce legal rights and claims;
○ Prevention and investigation of offences;
○ To perform judicial or regulatory functions;
○ To process in India personal data of non-residents
under foreign contract.
○ Central government may exempt certain activities
in interest of security and public order.
● Cross-Border Data Transfer - allowed, except to
"blacklisted" countries (to be notified by the

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government).
● Data Protection Board of India (DPBI) – statutory body
responsible for enforcing and administering the Act

RTI Act, 2005 – 20 years ● Applicability

○ Applies to all public authorities, including
government departments, ministries, public sector
units (PSUs), local bodies, and NGOs substantially
funded by the government.
○ Covers central, state, and local governments but
excludes private organizations, unless they receive
substantial government funding.
● Right to Seek Information
○ Any Indian citizen can file an RTI application to
obtain information from public authorities.
○ Information can be sought in any form, including
records, documents, emails, circulars, orders,
contracts, reports, and data held by the
government.
○ Public authorities must respond within 30 days; in
life and liberty cases, within 48 hours.
● Each department must appoint a Public Information
Officer (PIO) to handle RTI requests.
● Exemptions from Disclosure (Section 8 & 9)
○ National security and sovereignty concerns.
○ Information related to foreign relations.
○ Trade secrets and intellectual property.
○ Personal information without public interest.
○ Information that would impede an investigation or
endanger life and safety.
Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023:
Amended section 8(1)(j) of RTI law to exempt all personal
information from disclosure.

Uniform Civil Code ● UCC refers to same set of civil laws applicable to all
citizens of India in their personal matters such as
marriage, divorce, custody, adoption and inheritance
● Under Article 44 (Directive Principles of State Policy) of
the Constitution
● Different religious communities are currently governed
by a system of personal laws, which have been codified
over the years through various pieces of legislation
● States with UCC - Goa (Portuguese Civil Code of 1867),
Uttarakhand (1st state to pass a law on UCC)
● ‘Personal Laws’ are a subject under concurrent list of
constitution.

Minority Institutions • The term ‘minority’ not defined in the Constitution but
mentioned in Art 29, 30, 350A, 350B.
• National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992 defines
‘minority’ as any community notified as such by the

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Central government.
• Currently, 6 communities notified – Muslims, Christians,
Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsi, Jains

Right to Property • Article 300A - No person shall be deprived of his

property save by authority of law.
• Article 39(b) - The State shall direct its policy towards
securing that the ownership and control of the material
resources of the community are so distributed as best
to subserve the common good.
• Sanjeev Coke Manufacturing Company v Bharat Coking
Coal Ltd. (1983) – SC held that the material resources of
the community includes private property also.
• Property Owners Association v State of Maharashtra
(2024) - not all privately owned property is a material
resource of the community. The privately owned
property could be a material resource if it fulfils certain
criteria.

US Presidential Election • U.S. follows an indirect election system, where voters

elect Electors, who then vote for the President.
• General Election is held on the first Tuesday of
November every four years.
• Citizens cast their ballots for their preferred candidate.
• The popular vote refers to the total number of votes
cast by individual voters nationwide. However, winning
the popular vote does not guarantee victory, as the
President is chosen through the Electoral College.
• Each state has a set number of Electoral College votes
Congress (total of 538 electors).
• Most states follow a winner-takes-all system: the
candidate who wins the most votes in a state gets all of
that state’s electoral votes.
• The candidate who secures at least 270 out of 538
electoral votes wins the presidency.
• California – state with highest electoral votes - 54

Delimitation Commission • Supreme court in Kishorchandra Chhanganlal Rathod

case (2024) held that constitutional courts have the
power to review orders of the Delimitation Commission
if an order is manifestly arbitrary.
• Article 82: Parliament enacts a Delimitation Act after
every Census to establish a Delimitation Commission.
• Function: To determine the number and boundaries of
constituencies to make population of all constituencies
nearly equal. To identify seats to reserve for SC/ST
• Constituted 4 times: 1952, 1962, 1972, 2002

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• Composition: retd. SC judge, CEC, State EC

• Powers of a civil court
• Orders have force of law and cannot be questioned
before any court.

No Confidence Motion • Article 75(3)/Article 164(2) of the Constitution - the

Council of Ministers are collectively responsible to the
Lok Sabha
• For testing this collective responsibility, the rules of Lok
Sabha provide a particular mechanism – a motion of no-
confidence. The procedure is specified under Rule 198 of
the Lok Sabha. Constitution does not mention either a
Confidence or a No Confidence Motion.
• Any Lok Sabha MP, who can garner the support of 50
colleagues, can, at any point of time, introduce a motion
of no-confidence against the Council of Ministers
• A no-confidence motion can be moved only in the Lok
Sabha. It cannot be moved in the Rajya Sabha.
• If a no-confidence motion is passed, the government
must resign.
• There have been 28 no-confidence motions introduced
in the Lok Sabha since independence. The first no-
confidence motion against the administration of the
then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was presented in
the Lok Sabha in August 1963.

Parliamentary Privileges • Parliamentary privileges are certain rights and

immunities enjoyed by MPs/MLAs, individually and
collectively, so that they can “effectively discharge their
functions”.
• These rights are also given to those individuals who
speak and participate in any committee of the
Parliament, which includes the Attorney General of India
and the Union Ministers.
• not available to President/Governor.
• When any of these rights and immunities are
disregarded, offence is called a breach of privilege and is
punishable under law of Parliament.
• Special privileges are enshrined under Article 105 (for
Parliament) and Article 194 (for state legislature) of
Constitution.
• Parliament, till now, has not made any special law to
exhaustively codify all the privileges.
• One of the privileges is that a member of Parliament
cannot be arrested in a civil case 40 days before the
commencement of the session or committee meeting
and 40 days thereafter.
• Parliament is the sole authority to ascertain if there has
been a breach or contempt of the House— no court is
entrusted with this power. A member of the House can

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raise a question involving a breach of privilege with the

consent of the Chairman or Speaker.

Privilege Committee • It is a parliamentary standing committee present in both

Houses of Parliament.
• LS: consists of 15 members nominated by Speaker
• RS: consists of 10 members nominated by Chairman
• Function: Investigate questions involving the breach of
privileges of House or members, as referred to it by
presiding officer of Houses.

Ethics Committee of Lok Sabha • Consists of not more than 15 members

• members nominated by the Speaker for a term of one
year.
• Functions:
o To examine a complaint relating to the unethical
conduct of a member referred to it by the
Speaker.
o Make recommendations and formulate a code of
conduct for Members.
o Suggest amendments to the code of conduct.
• The First Ethics Committee of Lok Sabha was set up in
2000 and of Rajya sabha in 1997.

Rule 176 and Rule 267 of Rules of • Rule 176 allows for a short-duration discussion, not
Procedure and Conduct of exceeding two-and-a-half hours, on a particular issue.
Business in the Council of States. • Under Rule 267, a Rajya Sabha MP has the special power
to suspend the pre-decided agenda of the House, with
the approval of the Chairman.

Anti-Defection Law • Tenth Schedule inserted in the Constitution in 1985 by

the 52nd Amendment Act.
• It lays down the process by which legislators may be
disqualified on grounds of defection by the Presiding
Officer of a legislature based on a petition by any other
member of the House.
• The decision on question as to disqualification on
ground of defection is referred to the Chairman or the
Speaker of such House, and his decision is final. Subject
to judicial review (Kihoto Hollohan v Zachillhu, 1992)

Grounds of Defection
• If a member of a House belonging to a political party:
o Has voluntarily given up his membership of such
political party, or
o Votes, or abstains from voting in such House,
contrary to the direction of his political party.
• If an independent candidate joins a political party after
the election.
• If a nominated member of a house joins any political
party after the expiry of six months from the date when

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he becomes a member of the legislature.

Exemptions from disqualification

• If a member's original party merges with another party:
o The member is not disqualified if they join the new
merged party.
o The member is also not disqualified if they choose
not to join the merged party and decide to
function as a separate group. For the merger to be
valid, at least two-thirds of the members of the
original party in the legislature must agree to the
merger.
• If a person is elected as the Speaker of Lok Sabha or the
Chairman of Rajya Sabha then he could resign from his
party, and rejoin the party once he vacates that post.

Parliamentary Secretariat • Article 98/187: Each House of Parliament/State

Legislature shall have a separate secretarial staff.
• Function: to provide secretarial assistance, prepare and
publish a record of day to day proceedings, serve
parliamentary committees, payment of salaries and
allowances.
• Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment, and
the conditions of service of persons appointed, to the
secretarial staff of either House.
• Speaker and Chairman can create new posts in
respective secretariat.
• Secretary-Generals of both houses hold ranks
equivalent to that of the Cabinet Secretary. However, in
the table of precedence, the Cabinet Secretary is placed
at the 11th position, whereas the Secretary, Lok Sabha/
Rajya Sabha are placed at the 23rd position.

Article 142 • provides Supreme Court power, to do “complete

justice” in any matter pending before it.
• While powers under Article 142 are sweeping in nature,
SC has defined its scope and extent through various
judgments.

Article 299 • Contracts made by Union or State are in the name of

President or Governor.
• Recently, the Supreme Court has held that the
government cannot claim immunity from the application
of law to a contract merely because one of the parties to
it is the President of India.

Judicial Appointment SC HC
No. of judges Decided by Decided by
Parliament President
Chief Justice Appointed by Appointed by
President President

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Other judges Pres in Pres in consultation

consultation with CJI + 2
with CJI + 4

75 years • Constitution of India

• Supreme Court
• Election Commission of India

50 Years of Internal Emergency • internal Emergency proclaimed on June 25, 1975

• emergency provisions taken from GoI Act, 1935
• suspension of rights during emergency – Weimar
Constitution of Germany

Procedure
• proclaimed by President on recommendation of Cabinet
in writing
• Proclamation must be approved by both Houses of
Parliament within one month of its issuance.
• If approved, Emergency remains in force for 6 months
and can be extended indefinitely with parliamentary
approval every six months (as per the 44th Amendment
Act, 1978)
• A resolution to approve or continue Emergency must be
passed by a special majority in each House (majority of
total membership and at least two-thirds of members
present and voting).

Revocation
• President can revoke the proclamation anytime through
a subsequent declaration. This does not require
parliamentary approval.
• If Lok Sabha passes a resolution to disapprove
continuation of Emergency, it must be done by a simple
majority.

Special Category Status (SCS) • Bihar and Andhra Pradesh demanding SCS
• It is classification granted by the Government of India to
certain states that require special financial assistance
and support due to economic, geographical, and social
disadvantages.
• Introduced in 1969 based on recommendations of the
Fifth Finance Commission.
• Criteria:
• Hilly & difficult terrain
• Low population density or large tribal population
• Strategic location along international borders
• Economic and infrastructure backwardness
• Non-viable state finances
• Granted to 11 states (before 2015)
• 14th FC(2015) removed the provision for new SCS grants.

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Narco Analysis Test • In narco test, sodium pentothal, also called ‘truth
serum’, is injected into a person which lowers a person’s
self-consciousness, allowing them to speak without
inhibition.
• Supreme Court in Selvi & Ors vs State of Karnataka &
Anr (2010) ruled that narco analysis, brain mapping and
polygraph tests cannot be conducted on any person
without his or her consent.
• Narco analysis report is not admissible as primary
evidence in the court. However, any information or
material that is subsequently discovered with the help
of voluntary administered test results can be admitted,
in accordance with Section 27 of the Evidence Act, 1872.

Chief Election Commissioner and • SC, in Anoop Baranwal v Union of India case, 2023 laid
other Election Commissioners down that the CEC and ECs shall be appointed by a
(Appointment, Conditions of committee consisting of the Prime Minister, the CJI and
Service and Term of Office) Act, the Leader of the Opposition of the largest opposition
2023 party in the Lok Sabha.
• The Act addresses the appointment, salary, and removal
of the CEC and ECs.
• Search Committee - panel of five persons for
appointment as the CEC and other ECs. To be headed by
the Minister of Law and Justice and comprising two
other members not below the rank of Secretary to the
Government of India.
• Selection Committee: consists of the Prime Minister, a
Union Cabinet Minister, and the Leader of
Opposition/leader of the largest opposition party in Lok
Sabha.
• The salary and conditions of service of the CEC and ECs
will be equivalent to that of the Cabinet Secretary.
Under the 1991 Act, it was equivalent to the salary of a
Supreme Court Judge.
• The Act retains the constitutional provision (Article
324(5)) that allows the CEC to be removed like a
Supreme Court Judge, while ECs can only be removed
on the recommendation of the CEC.

National Party Status • 6 parties recognised by ECI as national parties – BJP,

INC, BSP, CPI(M), NPP, AAP.
• Criteria: fulfil any of the three conditions:
o Winning 2% seats or 11 seats in the Lok Sabha from
at least three different states in the latest general
election;
o Recognition as a state party in at least four states
o Polling 6% of the total valid votes in at least four
states, in addition to winning four Lok Sabha seats.
• Benefits:
o reserved symbol for its candidates contesting from
across the country.

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o only one proposer to file nominations of

candidates.
o two sets of electoral rolls free of cost
o dedicated broadcast slots on public broadcasters
Doordarshan and All India Radio during the general
elections.
o 40 ‘star campaigners’ while a registered
unrecognized party can nominate a maximum of 20
‘star campaigners’.

Star Campaigners • They are nominated by political parties to campaign in

each set of constituencies for a specified duration.
• There is no law governing who can or cannot be made a
star campaigner.
• List of star campaigners must be communicated to Chief
Electoral Officer and ECI within a week from election
notification date under section 77(1) of Representation
of People Act (RPA), 1951.
• Recognised political party can have 40 Star campaigners
and an unrecognised (but registered) political party can
have 20.
• Poll Expenditure: As per section 77(1) RPA, 1951, their
travel by air or any other means of transport for
propagating programme of a political party shall not be
counted as expenditure by candidate.

Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) • EVM consists of 2 units - Control Unit and a Balloting
Unit.
• The control unit is with the Election Commission-
appointed polling officer; the balloting unit is in the
voting compartment into where voter casts her vote in
secret.
• It runs on a single alkaline battery fitted in the control
unit, and can even be used in areas that have no
electricity.
• manufactured by Electronics Corporation of India
Limited (ECIL) and Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
• can record a maximum of 2,000 votes.
• EVMs were 1st used in 1982 Kerala Assembly elections
(by-election).
• RP Act 1951 was amended in 1988 to allow usage of
EVMs.
• In 2004, EVMs were used for the 1st time in Lok Sabha
elections.

Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail • independent verification system designed to allow
(VVPAT) voters to verify that their votes were cast correctly.
• a paper slip is generated bearing name and symbol of
the candidate. The printed slip is visible for 7 seconds in
a viewing window attached to BU in voting

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compartment.

Electoral Bonds (EB) • Supreme Court declared EB Scheme unconstitutional.

• Union Budget 2017-18 introduced EBs as interest-free
bearer instruments to cleanse the system of political
funding in the country.
• can only be issued by SBI
• can be purchased only by citizen or body incorporated in
India in multiples of 1K, 10K, 1L, 10L, 1C
• available for purchase for 10 days in Jan, Apr, Jul, Oct
• Political Party eligible to receive funds – registered
under RPA, 1951 & >1% votes in last Lok Sabha or state
election.

Electronically Transmitted Postal • Developed by ECI + CDAC

Ballot System (ETPBS) • Voter receives postal ballot in electronic format. He
downloads it, casts the vote and sends it to Returning
Officer through post.
• Electors eligible for ETPBS
o Service voters - armed forces, employed by GoI
outside India
o Overseas electors.

NOTA • Not a right to reject

• NOTA votes not counted while deciding winner.
• No fresh elections if NOTA secures max votes. Candidate
with highest votes wins.

Section 62 - RPA, 1951 • Prisoners are not allowed to vote but people under
preventive detention can cast their vote through postal
ballot.

Two Constituency norm • RPA, 1951 allows a candidate to contest from more than
one seat.
• Amendment in 1996 – set the limit to 2 seats

Custodian of Enemy Property for • a quasi-judicial Authority under the Enemy Property Act,
India 2017 under Ministry of Home Affairs.
• Enemy property refers to property or assets held or
managed on behalf of an enemy, enemy subject or an
enemy company.
• Enemy means person or country which is an enemy
under Defence of India Act, 1962.
• Function: to manage and preserve the enemy
• properties.

Model Prisons Act 2023 • to replace a British-era Prisons Act, 1894 to overhaul the
prison administration
• focus on the reformation and rehabilitation of inmates
• Prisons is a State subject.
• Terms:
o Parole is a system of conditional release of a

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prisoner with suspension of the sentence for a

specific period.
o Furlough is given in cases of long term
imprisonment. The period of furlough granted to a
prisoner is treated as remission (reduction) of his
sentence.
o Bail means procurement of release from prison of
a person awaiting trial or an appeal.

CBI • non-statutory body under Ministry of Personnel, Pension

and Public Grievances
• estd in 1963 on recommendations of Santhanam
Committee.
• governed by Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE)
Act, 1946.
• Headed by CBI Director – appointed by selection
committee (PM, LoP(LS), CJI).
• To investigate crimes in states, CBI needs consent of the
states. It can be – general consent or case specific.
• Recently, states like WB, PB, MN withdrew general
consent.

ED • Estd in 1952
• Under Deptt of Revenue, Ministry of Finance
• Headed by ED Director – appointed as per provisions of
CVC Act, 2003
• Responsible for enforcement of:
o Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA)
o Prevention of Money Laundering (PMLA)
o Fugitive Economic Offenders Act (FEOA)
o COFEPOSA

Competition Commission of • Statutory body under Competition Act, 2003

India • Under Ministry of Corporate Affairs
• Replaced Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices
(MRTP) Commission
• Function: eliminate practices having adverse effects on
competition

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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

UN Specialised Agencies 17 Specialized Agencies:

• FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations
• ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization
• IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural
Development
• ILO: International Labour Organization
• IMF: International Monetary Fund
• IMO: International Maritime Organization
• ITU: International Telecommunication Union
• UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
• UNIDO: United Nations Industrial Development
Organization
• UN Tourism: World Tourism Organization
• UPU: Universal Postal Union
• WHO: World Health Organization
• WIPO: World Intellectual Property Organization
• WMO: World Meteorological Organization
• World Bank Group
UN Peacekeeping • It deploys troops and police from around the world,
integrating them with civilian peacekeepers to
address a range of mandates set by the UN Security
Council (UNSC) and the General Assembly.
• The financial resources of UN Peacekeeping
operations are the collective responsibility of UN
Member States.
• According to the UN Charter, every Member State is
legally obligated to pay their respective share for
peacekeeping.
• India is a major contributing nation to UN
peacekeeping activities, 2nd highest amongst troop-
contributing countries. In 2007, India became the
first country to deploy an all-women contingent to a
UN peacekeeping mission.
• Action for Peacekeeping (A4P): initiative of UN
Peacekeeping.
UN Commission on International • It is a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly,
Trade Law (UNCITRAL) established in 1966.
• HQ at Vienna, Austria.
• Mandate: harmonization and unification of law of
international trade.
• Commission is composed of 60 member States
elected by the General Assembly. The 60 member
States include 14 African States, 14 Asian States, 8
Eastern European States, 10 Latin American and
Caribbean States and 14 Western European and
other States.

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• The General Assembly elects members for terms of

six years; every three years, the terms of half of the
members expire.
• India is a founding member of this organisation.
International Maritime • specialized agency of the UN.
Organisation (IMO) • responsible for measures to improve the safety and
security of international shipping and to prevent
pollution from ships It is the global standard-setting
authority for the safety, security and environmental
performance of international shipping.
• It currently has 175 Member States.
• Headquarters: London
International Coffee Organization • Established in 1963 under the aegis of UN
(ICO) • ICO is the only intergovernmental organization for
coffee, bringing together exporting and importing
Governments.
• It currently represents 93% of world coffee
production and 63% of world consumption.
• Member countries: 49 (42 coffee exporting and 7
importing countries). India is a member of this
organisation.

Coffee Cultivation
• 2 major species — Coffea Arabica (Arabica) and
Coffea Canephora (Robusta).
• Climate: Hot and humid climate for its growth.
• Rainfall:150 to 250 cm.
• Temperature: Ranging between 15°C and 28 °C.
• It is generally grown under shady trees. Dry weather
is necessary at the time of ripening of the berries. It
is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to
1,600 metres above sea level.
• Coffee growing states in India: Karnataka, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, among
which, Karnataka produces the most with over 70%
of the total output.

The Coffee Board of India

• Statutory body under the Coffee Act, 1942.
• under Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
• functions from Bangalore.
International Criminal Court (ICC) • established as per Rome Statue (1998) in 2002
• HQ: the Hague, Netherlands
• It is the first and only permanent international court
with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the
international crimes of genocide, crimes against
humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.
• India, US, Russia, China, Israel – not members
Geneva Conventions (1949) • 4 conventions that relate to protecting
sick/wounded soldiers, prisoners of war and civilians.
It talks about humane and fair treatment to them.

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L69 Grouping • aims to achieve comprehensive reform of UNSC and

strengthen multilateralism.
• includes developing countries from Africa, Latin
America and the Caribbean, Asia and the Pacific.
• India is a leading country in L.69.
G7 • inter-governmental political forum consisting of
Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United
Kingdom, and United States.
• accounts for over 50% of global net wealth, 32-46% of
global GDP and 10% of the world's population.
• Aim to discuss and coordinate solutions to major
global issues, especially in the areas of trade,
security, economics, and climate change.
• Russia has been a formal member (as part of the
Group of Eight/G8) from 1997 to 2014.
• The G7 is not based on a treaty and has no
permanent secretariat or office.
• Presidency rotates annually among member states.
G20 • Formed in 1999 following the Asian Financial Crisis of
the 1980s as a forum for Central bank governors and
finance ministers.
• Raised to summit level in 2008 to address the global
financial and economic crisis of 2008.
• G20 Presidency rotates annually.
Canada UK Turkey Russia Japan
USA France Saudi China S Korea
Mexico Germany South India Indonesia
Africa
Brazil Italy AU Australia
Argentina EU
• It has NO permanent secretariat or headquarters.
• India held the Presidency of the 18th G20 summit for
the first time at New Delhi, with the theme
“Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” or “One Earth, One
Family, One Future”.
• Outcomes:
• Delhi Declaration: Accelerating progress on
SDGs, Women empowerment, Reforms of
Multilateral Institutions, International
taxation and Global Peace.
• Global Biofuels Alliance (GBA)
• India – Middle East – Europe Economic
Corridor (IMEC)
• African Union inducted in G20.
• Troika: It is working association between the current
presidency, past presidency and next presidency.
African Union • It is a continental body consisting of 55 member
states in Africa.
• Aims to promotes political and socio-economic
integration, peace, stability, security, and human
rights.

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• officially launched in 2002 and replaced its

predecessor, the Organization of African Unity
(OAU), which was founded in 1963.
• Headquarters: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi- • regional organisation established in June 1997 with
Sectoral Technical and Economic the signing of the Bangkok Declaration.
Cooperation • Initially, established as BIST-EC with 4 countries:
(BIMSTEC) Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
• Myanmar joined in December 1997 and the group
was renamed BIMST-EC.
• Secretariat: Dhaka, Bangladesh
• Aim: To create an enabling environment for rapid
economic development and social progress and
maintain peace and stability in the Bay of Bengal
region.
• Current Members: 7- Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan (both joined
in 2004).

ASEAN • established in 1967 with signing of ASEAN

Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
• Secretariat: Indonesia, Jakarta
• Members: Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines,
Malaysia, Brunei, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos,
Myanmar, Vietnam.
• Dialogue Partners: Australia, Canada, China, India,
the EU, Japan, Republic of Korea, New Zealand,
Russia, the U.K, the U.S.

East Asia Summit: ASEAN + 6 (India, China, Japan, S.

Korea, Aus, NZ) + 2 (US, Russia)
BRICS • acronym BRIC was coined by economist ‘Jim O’Neill’
of Goldman Sachs in 2001 to indicate the emerging
powers that would be, alongside the United States,
the five largest economies of the world in the 21st
century
• Secretariat: No permanent secretariat or office
• Current Members: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South
Africa + 5 new members: Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi
Arabia and the UAE.
• Major initiatives of BRICS
• New Development Bank (NDB).
• Contingency Reserve Arrangement (CRA) to
provide short-term liquidity support to the
members.

Shanghai Cooperation • founded at the Shanghai summit in 2001 by Russia,

Organisation (SCO) China, the Kyrgyz Republic, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan

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and Uzbekistan as a permanent intergovernmental

organization.
• HQ: Beijing, China
• aim: to address security related concerns, Resolving
border issues, Military Co-operation and intelligence
sharing, Countering terrorism, Co-operation in
education, energy, transportation, etc.
• Members: Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India, Pakistan and Iran.
• 3 observer states: Belarus, Mongolia and
Afghanistan
• 6 dialogue partners: Armenia, Turkey, Azerbaijan,
Nepal, Sri Lanka and Cambodia
• India and Pakistan became full members at Astana
Summit in 2017.
I2U2 • grouping of India, Israel, USA and UAE.
• formed in October, 2021 following the Abraham
Accords between Israel and the UAE, to deal with
issues concerning maritime security, infrastructure
and transport in the region.
• Also referred as the ‘West Asian Quad’.
AUKUS (Australia, UK, US) • trilateral security partnership, launched in 2021.
• Aims to strengthen the ability of each government
to support security and defence interests; promote
deeper information sharing and technology sharing;
and foster deeper integration etc.
Indo-Pacific Economic Framework • economic initiative launched by United States
for Prosperity (IPEF) President in 2022.
• 14 member states: Australia, Brunei, Fiji, India,
Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, New
Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, United
States and Vietnam.
• IPEF is based on 4 pillars: Trade; Supply Chains; Clean
Economy; Fair Economy
• IPEF partners are not required to join all four pillars
(India has not joined trade pillar).
• intends to advance resilience, sustainability,
inclusiveness, economic growth, fairness, and
competitiveness for member economies.
North Atlantic Treaty Org (NATO) • military alliance established by the North Atlantic
Treaty (also called the Washington Treaty) of April,
1949, by the United States, Canada, and several
Western European nations.
• HQ: Brussels, Belgium
• Aims to provide collective security against the
Soviet Union.
• Article 5 of Treaty states that attack on one member
is to be considered an attack on all members. That
effectively put Western Europe under the "nuclear
umbrella" of the US.

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• Members: 32 (30 European nations, US and Canada).

EU members that are not a part of NATO are:
Austria, Cyprus, Ireland and Malta.
• 31st member: Finland, 32nd member: Sweden
Collective Security Treaty (CSTO) • an intergovernmental military alliance that signed in
1992.
• HQ: Moscow, Russia
• Members: Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan.
• Objectives: To strengthen peace, international and
regional security including cybersecurity and
stability, the protection on a collective basis of the
independence, territorial integrity and sovereignty
of the member states.
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) • a political and economic alliance of countries in the
Gulf region.
• GCC was established in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia in 1981.
• HQ: Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
• Members: 6 - Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Kuwait,
Oman, and Bahrain

Arab League • 2024 Arab League summit held in Bahrain

• It is a multilateral organisation consisting of all
Arab states in West Asia and North Africa (22
members)
• Established in 1945
• India has observer status
Five Eyes Alliance Multilateral intelligence sharing network
Members: Canada, US, UK, Australia, NZ
FATF • An inter-governmental body to combat money
laundering, terrorist financing and other related
• threats to the integrity of the international financial
system.
• Established by the G-7 Summit held in Paris in 1989.
• HQ: Paris
• Members: 37 member jurisdictions (including India)
and 2 regional organisations (Gulf Co-operation
Council and European Commission).
• India joined FATF in 2010.
• Maintains 2 lists: Grey List (Jurisdictions under
increased monitoring), Black List (High-risk
jurisdiction subject to call for action)
INTERPOL • It was established in 1923 to help police work
together to make the world a safer place.
• HQ: Lyon (France)
• Aim: To facilitate information-exchange between
national police forces.
• Members: 196 member countries (including India)

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• Each of the member countries hosts an INTERPOL

National Central Bureau (NCB).
• Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) is designated
as the National Central Bureau of India.
• It issues 8 types of notices which are in the form of
alerts/requests allowing police in member countries
to share critical crime-related information.

Indian Ocean Rim Association • Inter-governmental organisation of countries

(IORA) bordering the Indian Ocean.
• established in 1997, based on vision of Nelson
Mandela.
• Aim: To strengthen regional cooperation and
sustainable development within Indian Ocean region
(IOR).
• Members: 23 members(including India).
• Not members: Pak, Myanmar

Organization of the Petroleum • a permanent intergovernmental organization that

Exporting Countries (OPEC) coordinates and unifies the petroleum policies of its
Member Countries.
• HQ: Vienna, Austria.
• Members (12): Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,
Algeria, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Libya, Nigeria,
Republic of Congo, and Venezuela.
• Other key information: OPEC uses Brent Crude as a
benchmark for quality.
OPEC+
• created in 2016
• Members: OPEC + 10 (Russia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain,
Brunei, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Oman, South
Sudan and Sudan)
International Organization of Legal • India has become an OIML certificate-issuing
Metrology (OILM) authority.
• OIML-Certificate system is a system for issuing,
registering, and using OIML certificates, and their
associated test or reports for measuring instruments
e.g., thermometers, clinical thermometers, etc.
• Significance: increase in exports, earning of foreign
exchange, and generation of employment.
• OILM was Established in 1955 and headquartered in
Paris.
Paris Club • An informal group of mostly western creditor
countries. All 22 are members of the Organisation for

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Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

group.
• Created in 1956
• Objective: To find sustainable debt-relief solutions
for countries that are unable to repay their bilateral
loans.
• India is not a member
International Atomic Energy • intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical
Agency (IAEA) cooperation in the nuclear field.
• HQ: Vienna, Austria
• It applies nuclear safeguards– consisting of
monitoring, inspection, information analysis, and
other activities – to verify that nuclear activities
remain peaceful and detect and deter their
diversion, including to weapons-related purposes.
• implements comprehensive safeguards agreements
mandated by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT).
India-Middle East-Europe Corridor • announced at the G20 Summit in New Delhi
(IMEC) • part of the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and
Investment (PGII)
• The proposed IMEC will consist of Railroad, Ship-to-
Rail networks and Road transport routes extending
across two corridors, that is, The East Corridor –
connecting India to the Arabian Gulf, The Northern
Corridor – connecting the Gulf to Europe
• Signatories: India, the US, Saudi Arabia, UAE, the
European Union, Italy, France, and Germany.
Partnership for Global • Initiative of G7 to fund critical infrastructure projects
Infrastructure and Investment (roads, ports, bridges, communication setups) in
(PGII) developing countries through public and private
investment and enhance global trade and
cooperation
Global Biofuels Alliance • launched by India at G20 Summit along with the
leaders of Singapore, Bangladesh, Italy, USA, Brazil,
Argentina, Mauritius and UAE.
• Aim: To serve as a catalytic platform, fostering
global collaboration for the advancement and
widespread adoption of biofuels.
Chip 4 Alliance (Fab4) • Grouping of four of the world’s top producers of
semiconductors: the U.S., Japan, Taiwan, and South
Korea
• It aims at reducing the world’s reliance on chips
made in China.
European Free Trade Association • intergovernmental organisation of Iceland,
(EFTA) Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.
• Signed an FTA with India
MERCOSUR • Bolivia became its member
• Southern Common Market in Latin America

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• Members: Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay,

Bolivia
Voice of Global South Summit • India hosted the 2nd VOGSS
(VOGSS) • The term “Global South” refers to various countries
often described as “developing,” “less developed”
or “underdeveloped.”
• The concept of the Global South can be traced to the
Brandt report of 1980.

Places in News
Israel-Palestine

Philadelphi Corridor 14 kilometres long strip of land that represents the

entirety of the border area between Gaza and Egypt.

Nagorno-Karabakh Disputed region between Armenia and Azerbaijan

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Russia-Ukraine War

Snake island - Ukraine

Kursk region – in Russia, bordering Ukraine
Nord Stream pipeline – supplies
natural gas from Russia to northen
Germany

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Countries bordering Baltic Sea - Denmark, Sweden,

Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and
Germany
Lebanon Blue Line – border between Israel and Lebanon

Senkaku Islands Disputed islands between China and Japan in East China
Sea
Chagos Islands UK to cede Chagos to Mauritius

Saint Martin island A small coral island in the northeastern part of the Bay of
Bengal.
Belongs to Bangladesh
Ports in Indian Ocean

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Countries arranged as per Border • Bangladesh (4096 km)

Length with India • China (3488 km)
• Pakistan (3323 km)
• Nepal (1850 km)
• Myanmar (1600 km)
• Bhutan (699 km)
• Afghanistan (106 km)

India-China • Border: 3488 Km border divided into 3

sectors - Western, Eastern and Central
• No Mutual Agreement on what constitutes
the LAC (Line of Actual Control, came into
existence post 1962 war)
• Western Sector: India considers Johnson
line to be the border while China considers
the McDonald Line to be the border.
• Eastern Sector: dispute over McMahon Line
and over areas of Tawang and Chumbi
Valley.

India-Pakistan • Indus Water Treaty: Signed in 1960

between India and Pakistan, brokered by
World Bank
• Water sharing arrangement : Waters of
eastern rivers (Ravi, Sutlej and Beas) have
been allocated to India and that of Western
Rivers (Indus, Chenab and Jhelum) have
been allocated to Pakistan

India-Bangladesh • India is the second biggest trading partner

of Bangladesh after China.
• Maitri Setu = India-Bangladesh friendship
bridge built over the Feni River, which flows
between the Indian boundary in Tripura and
Bangladesh. It spans 1.9 kilometres joining
Sabroom (in Tripura) with Ramgarh in
Bangladesh.

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• Feni River forms part of the India-

Bangladesh border. It originates in the
South Tripura district. flows into Bay of
Bengal. Some of the tributaries of the Feni
River include the Muhuri River, Raidak River,
Chandkhira River, Ryang River and
Kushiyara River.
• Agartala-Akhaura Railway Project recently
inaugurated. It will dramatically reduce
travel time between Agartala and Kolkata
from 31 hours to just 10 hours. Funding for
the project is entirely provided by India,
with contributions from the Ministry for
Development of North East Region and the
Ministry of External Affairs.

India - Sri Lanka Territoriality of Katchatheevu island remains a

friction point between 2 nations

India-France “Horizon 2047” is a roadmap signed in 2023

between India and France to outline the course
of their bilateral relationship until 2047. The
roadmap, signed on Bastille Day in Paris, marks
the 25th anniversary of the two countries'
partnership and aims to strengthen their
scientific cooperation, trade, and investment.

Key Operations by India over last few • Operation Raahat: In 2015 to evacuate
years: foreign and Indian citizens from conflict hit
Yemen
• Operation Devi Shakti: To evacuate people
from Afghanistan after Taliban Takeover
• Operation Ganga: in 2022 to evacuate
Indians from Ukraine. (Feb 2022)
• Operation Dost: to help Turkey and Syria to
recover from Earthquake. (Feb 2023)

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• Operation Kaveri: to bring back Indian

nationals from Sudan following a crisis that
erupted in Sudan. (Apr 2023)
• Operation Ajay to facilitate return of Indian
citizens from Israel. (Oct 2023)

Military Exercises in News

Branch
Exercise
Partner Country (Army/Navy/Air Key Focus
Name
Force/Tri-service)
Counter-terrorism, joint
Yudh Abhyas ! USA Army
operations
Close-combat & special ops
Vajra Prahar ! USA Special Forces
training
Air combat and
Cope India ! USA Air Force
interoperability
HADR (Humanitarian
Tiger Triumph ! USA Tri-service Assistance & Disaster
Relief)
Joint combat and counter-
Indra " Russia Tri-service
terrorism
Advanced aerial combat
Garuda # France Air Force
training
Naval warfare &
Varuna # France Navy
interoperability
Counter-terrorism and
Shakti # France Army
urban warfare
Counter-insurgency & high-
Ajeya Warrior $ UK Army
altitude warfare
Maritime security and naval
Konkan $ UK Navy
operations
Air defense and
Indradhanush $ UK Air Force
interoperability
Dharma Joint military training &
% Japan Army
Guardian counter-terrorism
Anti-submarine & maritime
JIMEX % Japan Navy
security
Shinyuu Transport & special ops
% Japan Air Force
Maitri coordination
Anti-submarine & maritime
AUSINDEX & Australia Navy
warfare
Counter-insurgency and
Maitree ' Thailand Army
jungle warfare
Counter-terrorism
Hand-in-Hand ( China Army
(Suspended post-2020)

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Counter-insurgency &
Sampriti ) Bangladesh Army
disaster response
Naval operations and
Bongosagar ) Bangladesh Navy
coordination
Mountain warfare and
Surya Kiran * Nepal Army
disaster relief
Counter-terrorism & joint
Mitra Shakti + Sri Lanka Army
training
Maritime security
SLINEX + Sri Lanka Navy
operations
Joint training & border
IMBEX , Myanmar Army
security
Counter-terrorism and
Ekuverin - Maldives Army
disaster response
Bold Mechanized infantry
. Singapore Army
Kurukshetra operations
Anti-submarine & naval
SIMBEX . Singapore Navy
warfare
Peacekeeping and counter-
VINBAX / Vietnam Army
insurgency
Lamitiye 0 Seychelles Army
Nomadic
1 Mongolia Army
Elephant

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SOCIAL ISSUES

Vulnerable Sections
• released by the World Economic Forum (WEF)
• 4 dimensions – educational participation and opportunity,
educational attainment, health & survival, political
Global Gender Gap
empowerment
Report 2024
• Top 3 Countries: Iceland, Finland, and Norway
• India ranked 129th out of 146 countries, behind Bangladesh,
Nepal, Sri Lanka and Bhutan
• released by UNDP
• GII Score ranges from 0 (equality) to 1 (extreme inequality)
Gender Inequality • Dimensions and indicators: reproductive health (MMR,
Index 2022 adolescent birth rate), empowerment (female population with
at least secondary education, female share of parliamentary
seats) and labour market (LFPR)
Justice Hema To investigate the issues related to sexual violence and gender
Committee Report inequality, in the Malayalam cinema industry
Created in 1919 as part of Treaty of Versailles
Became UN’s 1st specialised agency in 1946
It is the only tripartite UN agency that brings together -
governments, employers, workers.
8 core conventions of the ILO are:
o Forced Labour Convention (No. 29)
o Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (No.105)
o Equal Remuneration Convention (No.100)
International Labour o Discrimination (Employment Occupation) Convention
Organisation (ILO) (No.111)
o Minimum Age Convention (No.138)
o Worst forms of Child Labour Convention (No.182)
o Freedom of Association and Protection of Right to
Organised Convention (No.87)
o Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention
(No.98)

India ratified 6 out of 8 conventions – 29, 105, 100, 111, 138, 182
Social Media Australia has become the first country to pass a law banning
Addiction social media use for children under the age of 16.
• Ministry of Tribal Affairs
• Aims to improving the socio-economic condition of tribal
PM Janjatiya Unnat
communities.
Gram Abhiyan (PM
• It envisions saturation of critical gaps in social infrastructure,
JUGA)
health, education, livelihood, through different schemes by
convergence and outreach.
• 75 PVTGs spread across 18 states and one UT
Particularly • based on the recommendations of the Dhebar Committee
Vulnerable Tribal (1960-61)
Group (PVTG) • Criteria for identifying PVTG:
o Forest-based livelihoods,

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o Pre-agriculture level of existence

o A stagnant and declining population
o Extremely low literacy and
o A subsistence economy
• Highest number of PVTGs – Odisha – 13

• DNTs are communities that were ‘notified’ as being ‘born

criminal’ during British regime under the Criminal Tribes Act,
Denotified Tribes 1871.
(DNTs) • Idate Commission (2017) recommended to immediately
repeal Habitual Offenders Act by respective States as it gives
scope for harassment of the members of DNTs.
• Beijing Declaration (1995) – Gender equality and women's
empowerment.
• Istanbul Convention (2011) – Combating violence against
women and domestic violence.
• CEDAW (1979) – Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
Important of Discrimination Against Women.
Conventions • Alma-Ata Declaration (1978) – Focus on primary healthcare
as a key to universal health coverage.
• Astana Declaration (2018) – Strengthening primary
healthcare.
• Yogyakarta Principles (2006) – Rights related to sexual
orientation and gender identity.
Education
• Established under the ANRF Act 2023 and erstwhile Science
and Engineering Research Board (SERB) is subsumed into
Anusandhan National ANRF.
Research Foundation • Aims to seed, grow and foster a culture of research and
(ANRF) innovation throughout the country as per recommendations
of National Education Policy.
• Under Department of Science and Technology (DST)

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• Executive Council chaired by the Principal Scientific Adviser

(PSA) to GoI
Launched in 2015 by the Ministry of Education
Outlines a methodology to rank educational institutions across
the country based on 5 parameters – Teaching, Learning and
NIRF
Resources; Research and Professional Practices; Graduation
Outcomes; Outreach and Inclusivity; and Perception.

• It is a Central Sector Scheme under Ministry of Education.

• Aims to provide country-wide access to international high
One Nation One
impact scholarly research articles and journal publications to
Subscription
students, faculty and researchers of all government-
managed Higher Education Institutions and R&D Institutions.
• It is a Central Sector Scheme
• It seeks to provide financial support to meritorious students
so that financial constraints do not prevent anyone from
PM Vidyalaxmi pursuing higher studies.
Scheme • Eligibility: Any student who gets admission in Quality Higher
Education Institution (QHEIs) - based on NIRF ranking.
• Loan amounts up to Rs.7.5 lakhs will be provided a 75% credit
guarantee by the Government of India.
Health & Nutrition
• released by Concern Worldwide and Welthungerhilfe
• India is ranked 105th out of 127 countries (up from 111th in
Global Hunger Index
2023), falling under "serious" hunger category.
2024
• 4 dimensions - undernourishment, child stunting, child
wasting, and child mortality
Food Waste Index By UNEP

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ART & CULTURE

UNESCO World Heritage Sites • sites are designated as having outstanding universal value
under the World Heritage Convention of 1972.
• 3 categories - cultural, natural, and mixed.
• 43 World Heritage Sites in India.
• #1 Italy (60 sites), #2 China (59 sites)
Charaideo Moidams - Mound- • 43rd UNESCO WHS of India
Burial System of the Ahom • Location: Foothills of Patkai Ranges, Eastern Assam.
Dynasty • Home to the royal necropolis of the Tai-Ahom dynasty
(13th–19th century CE)
Sacred Ensembles of Hoysalas • 42nd UNESCO World Heritage site of India
• includes the temples of Chennakeshava temple (Belur)
and Hoysaleshwara temple (Halebidu) and Keshava
temple (Somanathapur)
• Chennakeshava Temple (also called Vijayanarayana
Temple)
o Built by King Vishnuvardhana in 12th c
o Banks of river Yagachi
o Dedicated to Lord Vishnu
• Hoysaleshwara Temple (Halebid Temple)
o Built by King Vishnuvardhana in 12th c
o Banks of Dwarasamudra lake
o Dedicated to Lord Shiva
• Keshava Temple
o Built by Somanatha Dandanayaka in 13th c
o Dedicated to Lord Krishna
Santiniketan • 41st UNESCO World Heritage site of India
• a residential school and centre for art based on ancient
Indian traditions
• Established in rural West Bengal in 1901 by the renowned
poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore
• Santiniketan was an experimental settlement in
education and communal life in a rural setting. The
community was in many ways meant to represent a
uniquely Indian example of a ‘total work of art’
(Gesamtkunstwerk) where life, learning, work and art
along with the local and the global intertwined
seamlessly.
Konark Sun Temple Built during the 13th century under the reign of Eastern
Ganga King Narasimhadeva-I.
Also known as Black Pagoda
Kalinga architecture – temple consists of 2 parts – Deul and
Jagmohan.
Other sun temples in India: Martand (J&K), Katarmal
(Uttarakand), Surya pahar (Assam), Dakshinaaka (Bihar),
Arasavalli (Andra Pradesh), Suryanar Kovil (TN),
Modera(Gujarat), and Brahmanya (MP).
Martund Sun Temple, Jammu ● Built by King Lalitaditya Muktipada of Karkota Dynasty in
And Kashmir around 750 AD

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● It was destroyed by Sikander Bushti Khan in 15th century

AD
Lingaraj Temple, ● Built by kings of Somvanshi Dynasty in 10th - 11th century
Bhuvaneshwar, Odisha AD
● Example of Kalinga Architecture, which is a substyle of
Nagara Architecture
● Shivling here is called ‘HariHara’ which represents a
syncretic mix of Vaishnavism and Shaivism
Jagannath Temple, Puri, ● Built by Anantavarman Chodaganga in 12th Century and is
Odisha famous for its ‘Rath Yatra’
● Also called ‘Yamanika Tirtha’
Ramappa Temple, Telangana ● Dedicated to Shiva or Rudreshawar
● Built by sculptor Ramappa under Kakatiyas in 12th
century CE
● It is a UNESCO WHS
Abathsahayeswarar Temple, • 1,300-year-old temple dedicated to Abathsahayeswarar
Tamil Nadu (Lord Shiva)
• constructed by Kings Vikrama Chola and Kulothunga
Chola.
12 Jyotirlingas

Mahakumbh Mela • Kumbh Mela is a religious pilgrimage that is celebrated

four times over 12 years.
• It has been listed as an Intangible Cultural Heritage under
UNESCO in 2017.
• Types of Kumbh Mela & Their Cycles
o Purna Kumbh Mela (Every 12 years)
o Ardh Kumbh Mela (Every 6 years)
o Maha Kumbh Mela (Every 144 years, held only in
Prayagraj)
• As per planetary positions, mela is held in Prayagraj
(Ganga river), Ujjain (Shipra river), Haridwar (Ganga
river), Nasik (Godavari river).
• Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang (visited India in the 7th
century during the reign of King Harshavardhana) was the
first to mention Kumbh Mela.
• Saint Shankaracharya gave Kumbh Mela its final shape in
9th century.

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Statues Name Dedicated to Location

Statue of Adi Omkareshwar
Oneness Shankaracharya (MP)
Statue of Sardar Patel Kevadia (GJ)
Unity
Statue of Ramanujacharya Hyderabad (TL)
Equality
Statue of Jain monk Vijay Pali (RJ)
Peace Vallabh Surishwar
Statue of Kempegowda Bengaluru (KN)
Prosperity
UNESCO Creative Cities It has 350 creative cities in more than 100 countries, spanning
Network (UCCN) seven creative fields: Crafts and Folk Art, Design, Film,
Gastronomy, Literature, Media Arts, and Music.
8 Indian cities: Gwalior (Music), Kozhikode (Literature),
Mumbai (Film), Chennai (Music), Hyderabad (Gastronomy),
Varanasi (Music), Jaipur (Crafts and Folk art) and Srinagar
(Crafts and Folk art)
City of Literature Kozhikode (Calicut) recognised as India’s first UNESCO ‘City
of Literature’
located on the Malabar coast
World Craft City Srinagar became the 4th Indian city to get this tag (others are
Jaipur, Malappuram and Mysore)
Tag given by World Crafts Council International (WCCI)
UNESCO’s Prix Versailles • ‘Smritivan Earthquake Memorial Museum’, India’s largest
Award. memorial and museum, was shortlisted for the award.
• Located in Bhuj, GJ
• Prix Versailles Award is granted annually at UNESCO since
2015, the Prix Versailles consists of architecture awards
that showcase the finest contemporary achievements
worldwide.
UNESCO List of Intangible 15 items from India:
Cultural Heritage Garba Of Gujarat, Kutiyattam Sanskrit theatre, Tradition of
Vedic chanting, Ramlila, Ramman: ritual theatre of the
Garhwal Himalayas, Chhau dance, Kalbelia folk dance of
Rajasthan, Mudiyettu ritual theatre of Kerala, Buddhist
chanting of Ladakh, Sankirtana, Traditional brass and copper
craft of utensil making of Thatheras of Jandiala Guru in
Punjab, Nawrouz, Yoga, Kumbh Mela, Durga Puja in Kolkata
Garba • Folk dance performed on the occasion of the Hindu festival
of Navaratri, which is dedicated to the worship
• of the feminine energy or ‘Shakti’
• Takes place around a perforated earthenware pot called a
garbha deep ("womb lamp"), or an image
• of the mother goddess Amba.
• Dancers move around the pot in an anti-clockwise circle.
Ol Chiki Script • created in 1925 by Raghunath Murmu (1905-1982) as a way
to write Santhali

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• Santhali is a Munda language spoken mainly in Jharkhand,

West Bengal, Odisha, and also in Bangladesh, eastern
Nepal and Bhutan.
• There are about 7.3 million speakers of Santhali in India,
according to the 2011 census.
Kui language Kui Language belongs to the Dravidian Family of languages
and is spoken mainly by people of the Kondh Tribe of Odisha
Ahilyabai Holkar (1725–1795) • 300th birth anniversary
• Born on 31 May 1725 in Chaundi, Maharashtra.
• Married Khanderao Holkar, son of Malhar Rao Holkar, the
ruler of the Indore region under the Marathas.
• After her husband’s death in battle (1754), she was trained
in administration and warfare by her father-in-law.
• Became the ruler of Malwa in 1767, after the death of
Malhar Rao and the assassination of her son.
• Restored Kashi Vishwanath Temple (Varanasi) and
Somnath Temple (Gujarat)
Mihir Bhoja • 9th century ruler from Gurjar – Pratihara dynasty.
• adopted the title of Adivaraha (devotee of Lord Vishnu)
• Rajsekhara - his court poet
• involved in tripartite struggle for Kannauj with Palas in the
East and Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.
Meera Bai (1498-1546) • Saguna Bhakti saint – devotee of Lord Krishna
• born as Princess of Mewar, married to Rana Bhoj Raj - son
of Rana Sanga.
• poems in Braj language
Rani Durgavati • Born in 1524 in Chandela Dynasty of Mahoba (present day
UP)
• married to Dalpatshah of Gond Dynasty of Garha Katanga
in 1542.
• She ruled the kingdom of Garha-Katanga after the death of
her husband in 1550
• Fought against Akbar's commander Asaf Khan and the
neighboring Malwa Sultan Baz Bahadur.
Dayanand Saraswati • Born in 1824 in Morvi, Gujarat
• Taught by Swami Virjanand Saraswati
• Wrote Satyarth Prakash, Veda Bhasya, Veda Bhasya
Bhumika
• gave the slogan "Go back to Vedas"
• established Arya Samaj in 1875
• In 1893, the Arya Samaj members of Punjab were divided
on the question of vegetarianism. The group that refrained
from eating meat were called the "Mahatma" group and
the other group, the "Cultured Party".
Birsa Munda • born in 1875 in Munda tribe at Ulihatu, Khunti district of
• Chotanagpur Plateau region (Jharkhand).
• started the faith of Birsait.
• started a movement called 'Ulgulan', or 'The Great Tumult'
against the exploitation and discrimination against tribals.

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Alluri Sitarama Raju • Born in 1897 in Andhra Pradesh

• Led the Rampa rebellion (also called Manyam rebellion) –
1922-24
• Referred as “Manyam Veerudu” (Hero of the Jungles)
• martyred on May 7, 1924.
Nobel Prize in Literature 2024 awarded to the South Korean author Han Kang “for her
intense poetic prose that confronts historical traumas and
exposes the fragility of human life”
Sahitya Akademi Award • literary honour, conferred annually on writers of most
outstanding books of literary merit published in any of the
major Indian languages.
• Besides 22 languages enumerated in Constitution, English
and Rajasthani language are also recognised.
• Award includes a casket containing an engraved copper
plaque, a shawl and an amount of Rs. 1,00,000/-
• Sahitya Akademi functions as an autonomous organisation.
It is registered as a society under Societies Registration
Act, 1860.
Indian Civilian Awards Bharat Ratna
• India’s highest civilian award, instituted in 1954.
• Awarded for exceptional service in any field of human
endeavor.
• Originally limited to arts, literature, science, and public
services, later expanded to sports (2013).
• Conferred by the President of India, on the
recommendation of the Prime Minister.
• No monetary grant, recipients receive a medallion and a
certificate.
• Maximum of 3 awards per year.
• First recipients (1954): C. Rajagopalachari, S.
Radhakrishnan, C.V. Raman.
• 2024 recipients: P. V. Narasimha Rao, Chaudhary Charan
Singh, MS Swaminathan

Padma Awards
• Instituted in 1954, these are the second-highest civilian
honors after Bharat Ratna.
• Announced annually on Republic Day (26 January) except
for brief interruption(s) during the years 1978 and 1979 and
1993 to 1997.
• Given in three categories, in ascending order of prestige:
o Padma Shri – Distinguished service in any field.
o Padma Bhushan – High-order distinguished service.
o Padma Vibhushan – Exceptional and distinguished
service.
• Awarded for contributions in arts, science, social work,
public affairs, medicine, literature, sports, and more.

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GOVERNMENT SCHEMES LAUNCHED IN 2024-2025

Scheme Ministry Description
National Mission on Natural M/o Agriculture & • Centrally Sponsored -> Core scheme
Farming Farmers’ Welfare • Provides financial assistance of
₹15,000/ha/year for three years for
the creation of on-farm input
production infrastructure. Promotes
cluster-based natural farming
practices and aims to set up 15,000
Bio-input Resource Centres (BRCs).
• Beneficiaries: Farmers, FPOs, SHGs.
• Implementing Authority: National
Steering Committee, chaired by the
Agriculture Minister.
SPICED (Sustainability in Spice M/o Commerce & • Centrally Sponsored
Sector through Progressive, Industry • The objective is to enhance the
Innovative, and Collaborative export of spices and value-added
Interventions for Export spice products, improve cardamom
Development) scheme productivity, and upgrade the post-
harvest quality across India. Focus
on farmers’ groups, FPOs, Farmers
Clusters identified under One
District One Product (ODOP) and
Districts Export Hub(DEH), SC/ST
community, exporters from the NE
region, and SMEs.
• Implementation Period- 2023-24 till
2025-26
• Implemented by- Spice Board
UNNATI (Uttar Poorva M/o Commerce & • Central Sector
Transformative Industry • The scheme aims to foster
Industrialization) Scheme economic growth and
industrialization in the North
Eastern Region (NER) of India.
• Capital Interest and Investment
Incentive is provided for Plant
machinery and construction for
both Greenfield and Brownfield
units.
• Manufacturing and Services linked
Incentive is applicable to new units
Project ASMITA (Augmenting M/o Education • Centrally sponsored
Study Materials in Indian • One of the initiative under NEP 2020
languages through The project aims to produce 1,000
Translation and Academic books in 22 languages within five
Writing) years, resulting in 22,000 books in
Bharatiya Bhasha (Indian
languages).
• Implementing Agency- UGC and
Bharatiya Bhasha Samiti

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Vishvasya-Blockchain M/o Electronics & IT • Designed to offer Blockchain-as-a

Technology Stack Service.
• It is part of the broader National
Blockchain Framework
(NBF) provided under the National
Strategy on Blockchain.
• Other Initiatives include-
o NBFLite- Is a Blockchain
sandbox platform, developed
especially for
startups/academia for rapid
prototyping of applications,
carrying out research and
capacity building.
o Praamaanik: A solution that
harnesses Blockchain
technology to verify mobile app
origins and is powered by the
NBF.
o National Blockchain Portal: It is
developed on the theme based
on Content Management
System to manage the contents
related to the NBF initiative.
BhashaNet Portal • Developed by the Centre for
Development of Advanced
Computing (CDAC) with support of
National Internet Exchange of India.
• Launched by MEITY and the
National Internet Exchange of India
To provide an ecosystem to enable
citizen to easily create,
communicate, transact, process and
retrieve information with ease in
digital medium without language
barrier.
Vivad se Vishwas II M/o Finance • It is a voluntary settlement
scheme to resolve long-standing
contractual disputes involving
government agencies.
• The scheme will cover all disputes
with Central government agencies,
including autonomous bodies,
public sector banks and financial
institutions, central public sector
firms, union territories, and the
National Capital Territory of Delhi,
along with their respective
agencies.
• Implemented by - Government e-
Marketplace (GeM) Portal

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Pradhan Mantri Matsya Kisan M/o Fisheries, Animal • Central Sector sub-scheme of PM
Samridhi Sah-Yojana (PM- Husbandry & Dairying Matsya Sampada Yojana
MKSSY) • Total outlay of ₹6,000 crore.
• Funding: 50% from public finance
(World Bank and French
Development Agency) and 50% from
the private sector.
• Promotes adoption of aquaculture
insurance.
• Beneficiaries: Fishers, aquaculture
farmers, fish vendors, SHGs, FPOs,
and startups.
• Implementing Authority:
Department of Fisheries.
• Sub-schemes: National Fisheries
Digital Platform.
Kilkari programme M/o Health & Family • It is a Mobile Health (m-health)
Welfare initiative.
• It is a centralized interactive voice
response (IVR) based mobile health
service which delivers free, weekly,
time-appropriate 72 audio messages
about pregnancy, childbirth, and
childcare directly to families’ mobile
phones from the second trimester
of pregnancy until the child is one
year old.
National Forensic M/o Home Affairs • The objective of the scheme is to
Infrastructure Enhancement meet the country's heightened
Scheme demand for Forensic Science
Laboratories (FSL).
• Includes establishment of campuses
of the National Forensic Science
Universities, Central Forensic Lab
and Enhancement of existing
infrastructure of Delhi Campus of
the NFSU
Swachhata Green Leaf Rating M/o Jal Shakti • Government initiative to ensure
(SGLR) initiative world class hygiene and sanitation
in the hospitality sector
• Objective is to prevent pollution in
water bodies and maintain a clean
environment Its rating system
applies to all types of
accommodations, assessing
compliance with guidelines.
Pradhan Mantri Suryodaya M/o New and • Target: Annual 40GW for next 5
Yojana Renewable Energy years by installation of rooftop solar
panels on one crore households.

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Revamped Programme of Rooftop

Solar Programme.
• Implementation by: Rural
Electrification Corporation (REC).
PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli M/o New and • Supports installation of grid-
Yojana Renewable Energy connected rooftop solar (RTS)
systems for residential sectors with
central financial assistance.
• Develops one model village per
district to promote rooftop solar
systems in rural areas.
• Beneficiaries: Indian citizens with
rooftops suitable for solar panel
installation, valid electricity
connections, and no prior solar
subsidy.
• Implementing Authority: National
Programme Implementation
Agency.
Pradhan Mantri Janjatiya M/o Tribal Affairs • It is for the welfare of tribal families
Unnat Gram Abhiyan (PM in tribal-majority villages and
JUGA) aspirational districts.
• It will cover 549 districts and 2,740
blocks spread across all tribal
majority villages across 30
States/UTs.

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REPORTS/INDICES

UN Agencies
Report/Index Published by Insights
Gender Inequality Index 2022 UNDP India's value is 0.437 and was
ranked at 108 out of 193
countries
Human Development Report UNDP India #134/193
SL #78, China #7, Bhutan
#125, Bang #129, Nepal #146,
Pak #164
Multidimensional Poverty Index UNDP + Oxford Poverty and 3 dimensions, 10 indicators:
2024 Human Development Education: Years of
Initiative (OPHI) schooling, School
Attendance
Health: Child mortality,
Nutrition
Standard of living:
Electricity, Housing, Drinking
Water, Sanitation, Cooking
Fuel, Assets

415 million people moved

out of poverty in India within
just 15 years from 2005/2006
to 2019/2021

World Economic Situation and UNDESA

Prospects (WESP) Report 2025
World Investment Report 2022 UNCTAD Top Sources of FDI in India:
Mauritius > Singapore > USA
> Netherlands > Switzerland
State of World Population UNFPA (United Nations • The world population is
Report 2024 Population Fund) 8.2 billion in 2024 and
projected to peak at 10.3
billion by the 2080s.
• India's population is
expected to peak at 1.7
billion in the 2060s.
• Countries facing elderly
crisis: Japan, Italy,
Germany, S. Korea,
Eastern Europe
Global Education Monitoring UNESCO
Report
World Food Price Index FAO measure of the monthly
change in international
prices of a basket of food
commodities

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Global Wage Report 2024 ILO After falling in 2022, global

real wage growth recovered
in 2023.
State of Food Security and FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP,
Nutrition in the World (SOFI) WHO
2024
State of the World's Forests FAO
(SOFO) 2024
State of Food and Agriculture FAO
(SOFA) 2024
World Water Development UN Water
Report
World Happiness Report 2025 United Nations Sustainable India - #118 out of 147, China -
Development Solutions #60, Nepal - #92, Pak - #109,
Network Myanmar - #126
Last rank: Afghanistan
Global Innovation Index 2024 World Intellectual Property India - #39/133
Organization(WIPO)
Gender Social Norms Index UNDP quantifies biases against
(GSNI) 2023 women, capturing people’s
attitudes toward women’s
roles
World Drug Report 2023 UN Office on Drugs and
Crime (UNODC)
State of Climate Services Report World Meteorological
2023 Organization (WMO)

World Economic Forum (WEF)

Report/Index Insights
Global Competitiveness Report/Index
Global Risks Report 2025 Major global risks
• In the next 2 years: misinformation &
disinformation, extreme weather events;
societal polarisation, cyber insecurity
• In the next 10 years: extreme weather
events, critical change to Earth’s systems,
biodiversity loss
Global Gender Gap Index 2024 ● India’s rank – 129 out of 146
● 4 dimensions: Economic Participation and
Opportunity, Educational Attainment,
Health and Survival, Political
Empowerment
Global Travel and Tourism Index ● India ranked at 39th out of 119 countries
● Top ranks: #1 US, #2 Spain, #3 Japan
Energy Transition Index 2024 • Shift from fossil-based energy production
and consumption (including oil, natural
gas, and coal) to renewable energy (RE)
sources like wind and solar.

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• 3 parameters: equity, security,

sustainability
• India - #63/120

Environment-related
Report/Index Published by Insights
State of the Global World Meteorological
Climate Report 2024 Organization (WMO)
Adaptation Gap Report UNEP
2024
Emissions Gap Report UNEP Top GHG emitters: China > US > India >
2024 EU27
Per capita emitters: US > Russia > China
Living Planet Report World Wide Fund for 73% decline in the wildlife populations of
2024 Nature (WWF) mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles
and fish, across the globe in the last 50
years
Climate Change Germanwatch, New 4 parameters: greenhouse gas
Performance Index 2025 Climate Institute, emissions, renewable energy, energy
Climate Action Network use, climate policy

India ranked #10

No country in top 3 positions
Global Climate Risk Germanwatch
Index
Global Biodiversity Convention on
Outlook Biological Diversity
(CBD)
Global Land Outlook UNCCD
Food Waste Index 2024 UNEP • measures food waste at retail and
consumer level.
• In 2022, the world wasted 1.05 billion
tonnes of food.
Global Drought UNCCD
Snapshot Report 2023
Plastic Overshoot Day Swiss-based research • Plastic Overshoot Day - day when the
Report consultancy Earth amount of plastic waste surpasses
Action (EA) the capability of waste management
systems to effectively manage.
• Recently, the Earth witnessed Plastic
Overshoot Day on July 28, 2023
State of Finance for UNEP Tracks public and private finance flows
Nature report 2023 to Nature-based solutions (NbS)
Ecological Threat Institute of Economics Threats due to population growth, water
Report 2023 and Peace (IEP) stress, food
insecurity, droughts, floods, cyclones,
and rising temperature.

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Most vulnerable: Middle East and North

Africa, sub-Saharan Africa and South
Asia
Environment Yale Univ + WEF + India ranked 180th
Performance Index Columbia Univ

Miscellaneous
Report/Index Published by Insights
Global Hunger Index 2024 Concern Worldwide, 4 indicators: undernourished,
Welthungerhilfe child wasting, child stunting,
child mortality
India's rank => 105 among 127
countries behind Sri Lanka
(56), Nepal (68), Pakistan
(109), Bangladesh (84)
India Energy Outlook IEA
World Energy Outlook IEA
Global EV Outlook IEA
Global Energy & CO2 Status IEA
report
Democracy Index 2024 Economist Intelligence Unit based on 5 categories:
(EIU) electoral process and
pluralism, civil liberties,
functioning of government,
political participation, political
culture
four regime types: full
democracies, flawed
democracies (INDIA), hybrid
regimes and authoritarian
regimes.
Global Liveability Index 2023 EIU Vienna - #1
Delhi, Mumbai - #141
Global Peace Index Institute for Economics and
Peace
Global Terrorism Index Institute for Economics and
Peace
Freedom in the World 2023 Freedom House (USA based India has been termed as
human rights watchdog) ‘partly free’ country in terms
of democracy and free society
Academic Freedom Index Global Public Policy Institute
World Press Freedom Index Reporters without Borders India's rank => 161 out of 180
2023
Corruption Perception Index Transparency International India's rank => 85th among
2023 180
Democracy Report 2025: 25 Varieties of Democracy (V- 4 regime types: Liberal
Years of Autocratisation – Dem) Institute, Sweden Democracy, Electoral
Democracy Trumped? Democracy, Electoral

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Autocracy, and Closed

Autocracy

India’s rank=> 104 (Electoral

Autocracy)
World Competitiveness Institute for Management
Report/Index Development (IMD)
Henley Passport Index 2025 Henly India – 85th most powerful
passport
visa-free/visa-on-arrival travel
to 57 countries
Global Tuberculosis Report WHO ● TB is the second leading
2024 killer after COVID 19
● Highest global TB
caseload: India (26%),
Indonesia (10%), China
(6%)
Global Slavery Index 2023 Walk Free Foundation ● Modern slavery is an
umbrella term and
includes a whole variety
of abuses such as forced
labour, forced marriage,
debt bondage, sexual
exploitation, human
trafficking, slavery-like
practices, forced or
servile marriage, and the
sale and exploitation of
children.
● worst offenders: North
Korea, Eritrea, Mauritania,
Saudi Arabia

Domestic
Report/Index Published by Insights
National Multidimensional NITI Aayog 3 dimensions, 12 indicators
Poverty Index Health: Nutrition, Child &
Adolescent Mortality,
Antenatal Care
Education: Years of
Schooling, School Attendance
Standard of living: Cooking
Fuel, Sanitation, Drinking
Water, Electricity, Housing,
Assets, Bank Account
• India's multidimensional
poverty has decreased
from 29.17% in 2013-14 to
11.28% in 2022-23
NFHS-5 MoH&FW Data 2019-21
Sex ratio: 1020 w per 100 m

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SR @ birth: 952
TFR: 2

Child nutrition
Underweight: 32%
Wasting: 19%
Stunting: 36%

Anemic women: 53%

Export Preparedness Index NITI Aayog + Institute of 4 parameters: policy, business
Competitiveness ecosystem, export
ecosystem, export
performance
Public Affairs Index Bangalore-based think tank Based on three pillars of
Public Affairs Center (PAC) governance - growth, equity
and sustainability
#1 Haryana
Financial Stability Report RBI • bi-annual report
• reflects risks to
• financial stability and
resilience of Indian
financial system
Financial Inclusion Index RBI 3 dimensions:
• access to financial
services
• usage of financial services
• quality of the products
and the service delivery
Digital Payments Index RBI to capture the extent of
digitisation of payments
across the country
LEADS Report DPIIT, M/o Commerce To gauge the logistics
performance of states and
Union Territories (UT) and
identifying areas where they
can improve logistics
performance
Swachh Survekshan 2024 MoHUA Cleanest City: Indore (7th
time)
State Food Safety Index FSSAI
Tiger Status Report 2022 National Tiger Conservation India’s tiger pop => 3682
Authority (NTCA) statewise: MP > KN > UK
Tiger reserves: Corbett >
Bandipur > Nagarhole

largest Tiger Reserve:

Nagarjun Srisailam TR
Smallest TR: Orang TR
India State of Forests report Forest Survey of India, Forest cover:
2023 MoEFCC

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Absolute à MP > Arunachal >

Chhattisgarh > Odisha >
Maharashtra

%age à Lakshadweep (91%) >

Mizoram (84%) > A&N (81%)

Indian Landslide Susceptibility IIT Delhi • Sikkim has the highest

Map (ILSM) percentage of land area
(57.6 %) susceptible to
landslides.
• Arunachal Pradesh has the
highest absolute area
susceptible to landslides
UDISE+ (Unified District Ministry of Education UDISE+ has a mandate of
Information System for collecting information from
Education) all recognized schools
imparting formal education
from Pre-primary to class XII.
Information collected
through the digital platform,
UDISE+ is utilized for
planning, optimizing resource
allocation and implementing
various education-related
programs and assessing
progress.
Performance Grading Index Ministry of Education assess the performance of
(PGI) for School Education school education system at
System State and District level
All India Survey on Higher Ministry of Education • gross enrolment ratio
Education (AISHE) 2021-2022 (GER) in higher education
for the age group 18-23
years increased to 28.4%,
from 27.3%in 2020- 21 and
23.7% in 2014- 15,
• Female GER increased to
28.5% (2.07 crore) in 2021-
22 from 27.9 (2.01 crore) in
2020-21 and 22.9 percent in
2014-15.
Sample Registration System Office of the Registrar MMR: 103 per 1 lakh live births
(SRS) Bulletin Report General of India, M/o Home Kerala: 30
Affairs UP, BH, RJ – showed
improvement
WB, HR, CH, UK - worsened
National Achievement Survey, Ministry of Education , India MCQ based survey every 3
2024 years for students of class 3 ,
5 , 8 and 10 to judge learning
outcomes.
National Health Account Ministry of Health and Family ● 3.2% of GDP is being spent

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Estimates , 2018-19 Welfare on healthcare (a decline

from 2014)
● Out of pocket
Expenditure of
Healthcare has declined
from 60% to 48.2 % in
2018-19
Crime in India Report, 2024 NCRB under Ministry of Home ● Overall crime rate per
Affairs lakh population has
declined
● Crime against women,
children, elderly, SC and
ST has increased
● Cyber-crime , economic
and environmental
offences too have
increased
Prison Statistics India Report NCRB ● 67% of prisoners are
undertrials (those whose
cases are pending)
● Prisons in India are
overcrowded , with 130%
occupancy rate
● 66% inmates are either
SC,ST or OBC
Accidental Deaths and NCRB ● Deaths and suicides show
Suicides Report an increasing trend ,
pandemic seems to have
taken a toll on emotional
well being of people
National Coal Index (NCI) Ministry of Coal ● to track coal prices

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