Elements of Geography

Geography consists of at least two different sub-fields of knowledge with similar

methodology: Physical Geography and Human Geography. Table1 helps to
make the differences between these two types of Geography more apparent.
This table describes some of the phenomena or elements studied by each of
these sub-fields of knowledge. Knowing what kinds of things are studied by
Geographers provides us with a better understanding of the differences between
Physical and Human Geography.
Table 1 Some of the phenomena studied in Physical and Human Geography.
Physical Geography Human Geography
Rocks and Minerals Population
Landforms Settlements
Soils Economic Activities
Animals Transportation
Plants Recreational Activities
Water Religion
Atmosphere Political Systems
Rivers and Other Water
Social Traditions
Bodies
Environment Human Migration
Climate and Weather Agricultural Systems
Oceans Urban Systems

Geography is also a discipline that integrates a wide variety of subject matter.

Almost any area of human knowledge can be examined from a spatial
perspective. Figure 1 describes some of the main sub-disciplines within Human
and Physical Geography. Physical Geography's primary sub-disciplines study the
Earth's atmosphere (Meteorology and Climatology), animal and plant life
(Biogeography), physical landscape (Geomorphology), soils (Pedology), and
waters (Hydrology). Some of the dominant areas of study in Human Geography
include: human society and culture (Social and Cultural Geography), behavior
(Behavioral Geography), economics (Economic Geography), politics
(Political Geography), and urban systems (Urban Geography).

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Figure 1: Major subdisciplines of Physical and Human Geography.
The graphic model in Figure 1 indicates that the study of Geography can also
involve a holistic synthesis. Holistic synthesis connects knowledge from a variety
of academic fields in both Human and Physical Geography. For example, the
study of the enhancement of the Earth's greenhouse effect and the resulting
global warming requires a multidisciplinary approach for complete
understanding. The fields of Climatology and Meteorology are required to
understand the physical effects of adding addition greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere's radiation balance. The field of Economic Geography provides
information on how various forms of human economic activity contribute to the
emission of greenhouse gases through fossil fuel burning and land-use change.
Combining the knowledge of both of these academic areas gives us a more
comprehensive understanding of why this serious environmental problem occurs.
The holistic nature of Geography is both a strength and a weakness.
Geography's strength comes from its ability to connect functional
interrelationships that are not normally noticed in narrowly defined fields of
knowledge. The most obvious weakness associated with the Geographical
approach is related to the fact that holistic understanding is often too simple and
misses important details of cause and effect.
Scope of Physical Geography
We have now learned that Physical Geography examines and investigates
natural phenomena spatially. In the previous section, we identified some of the
key elements studied by Physical Geographers. Combining these two items, we
can now suggest that Physical Geography studies the spatial patterns of
weather and climate, soils, vegetation, animals, water in all its forms, and
landforms. Physical Geography also examines the interrelationships of these
phenomena to human activities.

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Physical Geography focuses on the physical landscape. It tasked is to describe
and explain the component of the natural environment, their distribution, and
processes involving their interrelationship. Physical geographers define natural
regions that are caused by and continuously affected by forces and processes of
nature. This sub-field of Geography is academically known as the Human-Land
Tradition. This area of Geography has seen very keen interest and growth in the
last few decades because of the acceleration of human induced environmental
degradation. Thus, Physical Geography's scope is much broader than the simple
spatial study of nature. It also involves the investigation of how humans are
influencing nature.
Academics studying Physical Geography and other related Earth Sciences are
rarely generalists. Most are in fact highly specialized in their fields of knowledge
and tend to focus themselves in one of the following well defined areas of
understanding in Physical Geography:
Geomorphology - studies the various landforms on the Earth's surface.
Pedology - is concerned with the study of soils.
Biogeography - is the science that investigates the spatial relationships of plants
and animals.
Hydrology - is interested in the study of water in all its forms.
Meteorology - studies the circulation of the atmosphere over short time spans.
Climatology - studies the effects of weather on life and examines the circulation
of the atmosphere over longer time spans.
The above fields of knowledge generally have a primary role in introductory
textbooks dealing with Physical Geography. Introductory Physical Geography
textbooks can also contain information from other related disciplines including:
Geology - studies the form of the Earth's surface and subsurface, and the
processes that create and modify it.
Ecology - the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their
environment.
Oceanography - the science that examines the biology, chemistry, physics, and
geology of oceans.
Cartography - the technique of making maps.
Astronomy - the science that examines celestial bodies and the cosmos.
Geography as an Environmental Science
Webster's 9th Collegiate Dictionary defines Environment "... as the complex of
physical, chemical, and biotic factors (such as climate, soil, and living
things) that act upon an organism or an ecological community and
ultimately determines its form and survival".

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Both Human and Physical Geography provide an important intellectual
background for studying the environment. Many environmental studies/science
programs offered by Universities and Colleges around the world rely on the
information found in various Geography courses to help educate their students
about the state of the environment.

Future of Physical Geography

The following list describes some of the important future trends in Physical
Geography research:
(1). Continued development of Applied Physical Geography for the analysis
and correction of human-induced environmental problems. A student of Applied
Physical Geography uses theoretical information from the field of Physical
Geography to manage and solve problems related to natural phenomena found
in the real world.
(2). Remote Sensing - Advances in technology have caused the development of
many new instruments for the monitoring of the Earth's resources and
environment from airborne and space platforms (see three-dimensional image of
hurricane Andrew, Landsat image of San Francisco Bay, Landsat image of
Vancouver, British Columbia, and a space radar image of Victoria, British
Columbia). The most familiar use of remote sensing technology is to monitor the
Earth's weather for forecasting.
(3). Geographic Information Systems - A geographic information system (GIS)
merges information in a computer database with spatial coordinates on a digital
map. Geographic Information Systems are becoming increasingly more important
for the management of resources.

To understand the basics of physical geography we must comprehend the

general properties of our planet, not only deep below it surfaces but also far
beyond, as it orbit the sun as part of our solar system.

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DISCOVERY OF KNOWLEDGE
For discovery of geographical knowledge, two essential questions need to be
asked: Where: Location and Why: Process. To answer the questions where and
why requires going through research methods of carefully observing, collecting
data, experimentation and analysis.

However, the viewpoint of each discipline of science and social science can be
determined by questions it asks. Geologist may ask questions such as “How was
the valley formed?” “What mountain-building processes are at work?” “What
stage are the stream erosional processes?” “What is the age of the rock
structure?” Geographers have a different view on this issue on the valley and an
attempt to satisfy their curiosity they may ask some question geologist may ask
but with a broader purpose of understanding of the total environment.
 Where is it located?
 What physical and cultural forces have shaped it
 Which are currently functioning
 What is the rate of change
 What types of patterns or regions can be observed
 How has human activity affected this place
 How has the environment shaped human activity (spatial interrelationship)

In all Geography or Physical geography is interested studying: Patterns—

Processes---Interrelationships

From the geographical perspective about places on Earth, there is a great

variation between them and possess a unique mix of natural and cultural
features, therefore a place selected will not give a true picture of all places and
processes of nature. But the area selected brings together geographic viewpoint
and subject matter of geography. The selected place will aid us to examine 7
geographical tools for analysis.
1 Location 5 Spatial interaction
2 Scale 6 Spatial distribution
3 Regional Principle 7 Change
4 Internal coherence

Location: Where is it? Is the starting point in any geography, Polar co-
ordinates Cartesian plane?
Site: What are the internal aspects of the place both natural and cultural. Forces
interact to produce a character of a place that is different from others. Site
factors, the internal characteristics, forces and the processes of the place,
interact to produce a specific environment. Consider factors of comparing the
site to a piece of property for sale one may ask the following questions: What are
the internal aspects or characteristic of the property? What does the site include?
Accordingly, an inventory taken of a site may include: soils, geology, water
resources, plants, animal life, climate and cultural development on the property
or one considers all geographic elements that make up the site characteristics.

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Relative locations: All places of the Earth form interconnecting parts of other
regions, no pattern or process stand-alone. Therefore relative site or situation
describe how a place is related to other.
SCALE: A Scale can be defined as an expression of the relationship between
distance measured on the ground and the distance measured on the map.
It can also be said to be a comparison, or ratio, of reality to a corresponding
photograph or map. There are two major types of scales;

1.Large Scale Maps 2.Small Scale Maps

Large Scale Maps cover small areas, while small Scale Maps covers large areas.
When “full scale”is used, the map or photograph is said to have a ratio of one to
one, written 1:1 If a reduction is made one-tenth (1/10), one-twenty-four-
thousanth, or on-millionth, the scale can be expressed as the ratios
1:10,1:24000,AND 1:1000,000, correspondingly. It means one unit on the map
represents 10,24,000, or 1000,000 units on the land.

A map is classified as small scale or large scale or sometimes medium scale.

Small scale refers to world maps or maps of large regions such as continents or
large nations. In other words, they show large areas of land on a small space.
They are called small scale because the representative fraction is relatively
small.

Large-scale maps show smaller areas in more detail, such as county maps or
town plans might. Such maps are called large scale because the representative
fraction is relatively large. For instance a town plan, which is a large-scale map,
might be on a scale of 1:10,000, whereas the world map, which is a small scale
map, might be on a scale of 1:100,000,000.

By changing scales we gain access to new information. To gain a perspective of

relative location, or inventory of the site’s internal characteristics, knowledge of
the proper scale is of the utmost importance. The question one asks about a
place determines which scale will aid in answering that question. If we are
concerned about site factors of the valley, scales such as 1:1000 will be useful.
Small-scaled maps (such as 1:1000,000) answer external relationships (relative
location) where large areas of the earth can be viewed.

CLASSES OF SCALES: Scales can be grouped into three classes. They are the
Representative fraction scale. 2. The statement scale. 3. Linear scale.

The statement scale: is expressed in the form of a statement and it does not
involve any complex mathematical calculation. For example: ten centimeters on
the map represent one kilometer on the ground. For one to be able to understand
a statement scale, one needs to be literate in the language for which it is written.

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The representative scale: is the most appropriate scale and commonest scale
used. It does not need complex training to understand it. It also has the
advantage of language barrier. R.F scales are expressed in fractions or ratios.
For example 1/10000 or 1:10000

Linear scale: This type of scale involves some mathematical calculations and all
people from different background can use it. It also has an advantage over
language barrier. Its major disadvantage is that one need to know the
computations involved in constructing a linear scale.

THE REGION: The earth’s surface is a quilt of patterns cultural landscape,

including houses, roads and agriculture. The natural region includes patterns of
physical environment, including forest, soils, climate and geologic or landform
features. A region then is a part of the earth that is alike in terms of the specific
criteria chosen to set it a part from other regions. Regions can cover only a small
area, or span a continent. Therefore, sub regions can exist as parts of larger
regions. For example the Kakum forest can be said to be a sub-region. The
forest is a series of patterns, not isolated, but interwoven into a cohesive whole.
Each pattern is linked to the other and held together.

A region is a mappable element of the earth that is similar in terms of specific

criteria. These include drainage and vegetation, as well as cultural patterns such
as land use.

INTERNAL COHERANCE: The pattern of one element is related to the pattern

of other elements. A valley for example is a web of internal, cohesive elements
interacting to produce bonding relationships between patterns. For, the coastal
low clouds and fog in a valley help to produce the climatic environment outlining
the belt of coastal redwoods. Where the fog belt stops, red woods also become
sparse or absent. The vegetation in the northern parts of Ghana is different from
those in the western parts. This is so because there is an interrelationship
between the climate at northern parts and the vegetation there. Axim for instance
experiences heavy amounts of rainfall the vegetation there is thick.
Landforms and the erosional processes also influence the bonds of the place.
Redwoods thrive on stream terraces that are subject to frequent flooding and the
resultant silt deposits, which bring new life to the soil while killing competitive
species of trees. The more complex the region is, the greater the potential
internal coherence it possesses. The bonding forces are more numerous.
Fragile environments are often those with fewer complexities and interacting
forces and processes.

SPATIAL INTERACTION: Spatial interaction, or the dynamics within places and

between places, is important to recognise when studying a region. Activity occurs
on all levels or scales. If the earth is viewed from space activity is difficult to
detect. Only long-term changes are observable. Spatial interaction, or even the

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dynamics of places or between places, gives us the mobility dimension of things
on the earth. The earth, the valley or even a small soil sample is not static.

All activity is not uniformly spread over the surface of an area. Airflow in a valley
is a good example of a phenomenon that is highly variable. As the sea breeze
moves onshore, it is channeled up the valley, then moves up-slope and spills
over the lower divides, flowing with greater velocity in the central channels and
through the passes. Places in the valley sheltered by landforms or vegetation
receive little wind. Some places are centrally located, while others are on the
margin of activity or removed from the flow of things. Isolation versus central
location is important to recognize in geographic analysis. Therefore, the spatial
arrangement of things can determine the dynamics of a place.

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION: Places are unevenly populated by the fundamental

phenomena that make up the site. If any sets of properties are selected to be
mapped at any location, the distribution will be seen to possess two aspects:
frequency and pattern.
Frequency: is defined as a number of occurrences of a phenomenon within a
region. The most significant economic resources in the valley at Kwahu Ridge is
the various tree species. The number of trees per area (square kilometre or
square mile ) describes the frequency, or density.
Pattern : Clearly reveals the distribution, or arrangement. In the Kwahu valley
for example, wawa trees dominate the valley floor but begin to thin out above the
valley on steeper slopes. If only frequency is considered, this variation in
distribution will be overlooked in the analysis. The spatial distribution of a place
continually changes throughout time. The pattern of the past is not the pattern of
today. The rain forest and the Amazon forest are classic examples of this
concept. Logging activities have removed some of these redwood giants of trees
of the past. The secondary growth forest is very different. Light, temperature, and
soil moisture are modified. Nothing is static. Even the rate of change itself is
variable.

CHANGE: The concepts (1) scales (2) regions (3) internal coherence (4)
spatial interactions, and (5) spatial distribution, have an underlying assumption:
the earth is continually changing. Solar energy converted to other forms does the
work. It is the result of energy and materials flowing through the systems.
As redwoods in the valley reach maturity, the microclimate below slowly
changes. When tress are shaded, competition for light becomes severe. Only
those trees able to compete continue to grow. When timber fallers clear an area,
removing the giants, in effect they suddenly turn on the lights of the forest,
allowing energy to flood the forest floor. Thus environmental change occurs
again. Trees that once were almost choked out began a rapid growth. Growth is
constant for all patterns.