Environmental Science and Engineering

ES 223

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
CHAPTER 1

Group 1 Members:
Abayan, Abram Nathaniel C.
Alday, Magic Jhon Don J.
Baniaga, Carl Justine F.
Atayde, Jezari Mae B.
Bajacan, Piel Angel J.
Bautista, Leilani C.
(BSCE-2A)

Engr. Mark Anthony B. Aruta

(Professor)
 Chapter 1 - ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering

principles to the design of environmental protection and remediation strategies using
physical, chemical, and biological treatment methods. Environmental engineers aim to
minimize the adverse effects of human activities on the natural environment. While
environmental engineering is often defined by Core Disciplines, it can better be
described as a field of study dedicated to three primary objectives:

1. The first is to clean and protect the environment from pollution: think of this
as “fixing the past.” Before environmental regulations were introduced, chemicals
were released directly into the environment, and there remain tens of thousands
of contaminated sites throughout the world.

2. The second goal is to control waste streams generated as a result of

human activities. The treatment of dirty sewages represents environmental
engineers “dealing with the present,” or managing human-generated wastes and
byproducts so that they are not released in a way that threatens the integrity of
the environment.

3. The third goal is to provide and ensure safe water, air, and land for future
generations of humans and organisms. Pollution avoidance and future
resource protection can be viewed as “planning for the future.”

What do environmental engineers do?

Environmental engineers apply their broad understanding of engineering and the

sciences, such as chemistry, biology, soil science and more, to improve human and
ecological health through impactful engineering applications. They are involved in
ensuring good air quality, controlling water pollution and remediation of wastes at
contaminated sites. They also develop the means to protect the environment and
ensure environmental sustainability. Environmental engineers recognize the global
impact that local actions can have on people and their environments.

The goal of environmental engineering is to ensure that societal development

and the use of water, land and air resources are sustainable. This goal is achieved by
managing these resources so that environmental pollution and degradation is
minimized.

7 Different Types of Environmental Engineering Jobs

There are all different types of environmental engineering jobs with a wide range
of specialist positions, engineering roles, and consulting positions that you could
pursue.

1. Environmental Scientist: a.k.a. Environmental Specialists

Professionals in this broad area apply their knowledge of the natural

sciences to protect the environment and human health. Depending on the
industry they end up working in, key responsibilities will vary, but typically include
creating strategies that target either the (1) clean-up of polluted areas, (2)
reduction in waste, and (3) advisement to policymakers.

A typical day may include collecting samples, including soil, water, air, or
food, and bringing these to the lab to check for contaminants. Regardless of the
specifics of their job, working either in a governmental agency, consulting firm, or
private business, environmental scientists work to monitor the impact of human
choices on the environment and the impact of environmental changes on
humans in order for all both to maintain a healthy balance.
2. Natural Resource Specialist

This job calls for the study of sensitive habitats. A natural resource
specialists’ job may include the observance of wildlife and vegetation and the
surveying and mitigating of environmental impacts. This type of specialist builds
rules and regulations as it relates to natural resources.

Natural resource specialists have two key responsibilities. Their end goal
is to protect people, property, and resources from things like fires. They are
called to restore plants and protect threatened animals. You will often find natural
resource specialists within state or federal government agencies, working to
enforce protection laws and providing expertise on future ones.

3. Land Surveyor

A highly trained professional, this job involves the expert measurement of

a plot of land for the purposes of construction and design. The intent is to set up
boundaries, establish property lines that may be in dispute, and/or create maps.
Land surveyors are necessary in construction, real estate sales, and sometimes
are even required to help affirm a legal claim in court. They will often be
employed in government agencies or at architectural, engineering, mining,
construction, and utility companies.

4. Environmental Engineer

Environmental engineers act as advocates for the health and well-being of

their communities. They do this through advocating for environmental-friendly
policies and programs. An environmental engineer also works on construction or
logistics projects that may impact the public, performing tests to determine if
anything is or would be hazardous if it came in contact with people.
 Environmental Engineers can work with urban planners, be on-hand at
construction sites, or perform tests in labs.

Environmental engineers are brought in for the remediation and

elimination of hazards in the environment. They make sure there is clean drinking
water, help governments or businesses reach sustainability goals, assist in
rebuilding infrastructure, and planning for alternative energy solutions, just to
touch on a few of the industries and solutions they offer.

5. Public Health Engineer

Through the design of tools and systems, they follow through in

compliance of best practices in public health. A day in the life of a public health
engineer lies in the collection and analysis of data and lab reports.

Their goal is to bolster health and safety. This is accomplished through the
development of new policies and procedures, which means they are often
employed more often in governmental agencies, though some can be found in
the private sector. In doing so, this type of special engineer often plays an active
role shaping public health initiatives like educating the public on health topics,
pushing through new legislation, advising on policy, and developing solutions to
public health concerns.

6. Hydrologist

A hydrologist focuses on how water travels up and around the Earth. A

day-in-the-life includes office and field time spent analyzing data and modeling
key findings, and are often employed by governments (state or federal) and by
environmental consulting firms.
 Monitoring groundwater, working with governments on water resourcing
issues, finding solutions to droughts and rising sea levels, and consulting on
construction projects are some of the tasks hydraulic engineers can provide
expertise in. Hydrologists use monitoring equipment to collect and study samples
in various bodies of water. For example, they may research how snowfall impacts
erosion.

7. Energy Auditor

Energy auditors inspect buildings and related systems with the purpose to
evaluate their energy usage. Based on these findings, they make
recommendations in order to improve efficiency while balancing costs. As
auditors, they use a variety of tools to analyze field data with regard to energy
use. Their work allows businesses, governments, and private homeowners to
find new ways to save on energy—resulting in not only money savings each
month, but also a reduced carbon footprint and environmental impact.

https://ep.jhu.edu/news/7-different-types-of-environmental-engineering-jobs/
 ECOLOGY OF LIFE

What Is Ecology? And what does ecology have to do with me?

Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including

humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections
between plants and animals and the world around them. Ecology also provides
information about the benefits of ecosystems and how we can use Earth’s resources in
ways that leave the environment healthy for future generations.

Brief History

Ecology first began gaining popularity in the 1960s, when environmental issues
were rising to the forefront of public awareness. Although scientists have been studying
the natural world for centuries, ecology in the modern sense has only been around
since the 19th century. Around this time, European and American scientists began
studying how plants functioned and their effects on the habitats around them.
Eventually, this led to the study of how animals interact with plants, other animals, and
shaped the ecosystems in which they lived. Today, modern ecologists build on the data
collected by their predecessors and continue to pass on information about the
ecosystems around the world. The information they gather continues to affect the future
of our planet.

Human activity plays an important role in the health of ecosystems all around the
world. Pollution emitted from fossil fuels or factories can contaminate the food supply for
a species, potentially changing an entire food web. Introducing a new species from
another part of the world into an unfamiliar environment can have unintended and
negative impacts on local lifeforms. These kinds of organisms are called invasive
species. Invasive species can be any form of living organism that is brought by
humans to a new part of the world where they have no natural predators. The addition
or subtraction of a single species from an ecosystem can create a domino effect on
many others, whether that be from the spread of disease or overhunting.

Who are Ecologists?

Ecologists study these relationships among organisms and habitats of many

different sizes, ranging from the study of microscopic bacteria growing in a fish tank, to
the complex interactions between the thousands of plant, animal, and other
communities found in a desert.

Ecologists also study many kinds of environments. For example, ecologists may
study microbes living in the soil under your feet or animals and plants in a rainforest or
the ocean.

The Role of Ecology in Our Lives

The many specialties within ecology, such as marine, vegetation, and statistical
ecology, provide us with information to better understand the world around us. This
information also can help us improve our environment, manage our natural resources,
and protect human health. The following examples illustrate just a few of the ways that
ecological knowledge has positively influenced our lives.

Types of Ecology

1. Molecular Ecology

At the molecular level, the study of ecology focuses on the production of proteins,
how those proteins affect the organism and the environment, and how the environment
in turn affects the production of various proteins. In all known organisms, DNA gives rise
to various proteins, which interact with each other and the environment to replicate the
DNA. These interactions lead to some very complex organisms. Molecular ecologists
study how these proteins are created, how they affect the organism and environment,
and how the environment in turn affects them.

2. Organismal Ecology

Taking a step back, the study of organismal ecology deals with individual
organisms and their interactions with other organisms and the environment. While
organismal biology is a division of ecology, it is still a huge field. Each organism
experiences a huge variety of interactions in its lifetime, and to study all of them is
impossible. Many scientists studying organismal ecology focus on one aspect of the
organism, such as its behavior or how it processes the nutrients of the environment.

The field of ethology, or the study of behavior, can also be studied as ecology.
Instead of just analyzing certain behaviors in animals, behavioral ecologists study how
those behaviors affect the organism evolutionarily, and how the environment puts
pressures on certain behaviors. For example, a behavioral ecologist might study the
way that an eagle hunts for prey, noting which behaviors lead to success and which to
failure. In this way, the scientist can hypothesize the forces that cause eagles to behave
the way they do. This information can be very important when trying to develop
conservation plans to protect animals in the wild.

3. Population Ecology

The next level of organism organization, populations, are groups of organisms of

the same species. Due to the wide variety of life on Earth, different species have
developed many different strategies for dealing with their conspecifics, or organisms of
the same species. Some species directly compete with conspecifics, while other
organisms form close social bonds and work cooperatively to secure resources. A
branch of ecology, social ecology, studies organisms like bees and wolves, which work
together to provide for the colony or pack. The complex interactions between these
organisms and their environment leads to different selective forces than in animals that
compete with conspecifics. In fact, scientists hypothesize that the increased success
found in human society may have been what led humans to be so communicative.
Population ecologists study populations of organisms and the complex interactions they
have with the environment and other populations.

4. Community Ecology

Different populations that live in the same environment create communities of

organisms. These communities create niches, or various spaces, for organisms to
occupy. For instance, several niches can be found in a wheat field. The wheat exists on
the sun’s rays and the nutrients in the soils. Various insects live off of the nutrients
collected by the wheat. Certain bacteria occupy a niche in the roots, where they convert
nitrogen for the plant. Community ecologists study these complex interactions and the
selective pressures they produce. Sometimes, organisms in communities will begin to
experience coevolution where two or more species both evolve in response to each
other. This can be seen in many species, from bees and the flowers they pollinate to
predators and the prey they eat.

5. Ecosystem Ecology

The largest scale of organismal organization is the ecosystem. An ecosystem is a

network of interconnected biological communities. The largest ecosystem, the
biosphere, encompasses all ecosystems inside of it. Ecosystem ecologists study the
complex patterns produced by interacting ecosystems and the abiotic factors of the
environment. They may study water, nutrients, or other chemicals that cycle through the
ecosystem. Ecosystem ecology is a very complex and large-scale science that includes
many disciplines

https://biologydictionary.net/ecology/
Ecosystem Collapse

Humankind’s demand for resources and growth overwhelms nature, our steady
diminishment of ecosystems abruptly changes climate, and this is collapsing the
biosphere. Global ecosystems - water, air, food, forests, oceans, wetlands, and more -
are collapsing and dying under the burden of human industrial and population growth.

Human destruction of natural ecosystems and disintegrating climatic integrity are

already past critical thresholds. Humanity (meaning each of us) can’t dump filth into air,
defecate into water, kill and diminish natural vegetation, plunder oceans, and expect a
habitable Earth and decent lives. Abrupt climate change is indicative of much broader
decline, both ecological and social - habitat loss, water shortages, inequitable
overconsumption, dead oceans, nationalistic injustice, and industrial agriculture - that
threatens life itself.

Comforts of modern life for some come at the expense of utterly decimating
natural ecosystems required to sustain life; such comforts cannot last. Mass chaos and
death are sure to ensue. No one will survive abrupt climate change, ecosystem loss,
and biosphere collapse.

Ecosystems are being wantonly liquidated based upon the myth that we can
grow forever. Yet we know perpetual exponential economic growth is impossible on a
finite planet. Humanity is systematically dismantling Earth’s environmental life support
systems, and at most a few more decades of industrial growth will be inevitably followed
by ecosystem and biosphere collapse.

The human family is epically failing to protect and restore ecosystems and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions fast enough to avert global ecosystem collapse,
achieve ecological sustainability, and enjoy universal well-being forever. The brutal
manner in which humankind treats Earth, other species, and each other makes a
mockery of claims of being civilized. At our worst, we have become out-of-control
vermin destroying our own habitat for momentary pleasure.

The human family is in ecological overshoot, having exceeded Earth’s carrying

capacity, and is pulling down all species and the biosphere with us, as Earth’s life
collapses into nothingness. There is no easy way out, as together we face an end to
ecology, and thus life itself.

Sustainability Solutions Exist

Workable solutions to climate change and broad-based environmental decline

exist; they include ending fossil fuels, protecting and restoring ecosystems,
agro-ecological food production, reducing population and inequity, and establishing a
steady state economy. Plainly, however, such a transition is not going to be easy.
Solutions to avert global ecosystem collapse will be disruptive. Yet there is no
alternative if together humanity is to survive and enjoy well-being within Earth’s
ecological boundaries.

We each must nurture a sense of enoughness, realizing more isn’t always better,
particularly if it undermines our natural habitat, and thus our ability to persist. It is not too
late to embrace an ecology ethic. But the longer we wait, the more limited our options.

Ignorance and superstition must be banished through education and promoting a

love of truth, justice, knowledge, wisdom, and fairness. For capitalism to have any future
and avoid social, ecological, and economic collapse on a dead planet, it must learn to
price external costs and environmental risk now, while rejecting its obsession with
growth as the ultimate measure of well-being. Otherwise industrial capitalism will have
to be replaced soon just so most may survive, let alone thrive.

Alternatives exist that are fair and reward hard work, but sadly we find it easier to
consider the end of life on Earth, rather than embrace essential social change. For
human survival and well-being, committing acts of ecocide that destroy ecosystems
must somehow be made unacceptable, and this must be enforced.

Either humanity finds a way together to implement difficult ecological policies to

end fossil fuels, protect ecosystems, and achieve a steady-state economy - or it is the
end. No measures except indiscriminate terrorism targeting innocents can be off the
table in efforts to together protect ecology.

https://theecologist.org/2013/oct/27/ecology-meaning-life

Conclusion

Ultimately, all humanity and all life have is the biosphere, the thin layer of life just
above and below Earth’s surface, composed of ancient, miraculously evolved natural
ecosystems. The natural Earth is a marvel - a complex coupling of species within
ecosystems, whereby life begets life.

Ecology is far more than the study of life and its environment. The word is used
here as a synonym for ecosystems - the vibrant connections that emerge between
species across scales, which cumulatively make life on Earth possible.

Nature is far, far more than pretty plants and animals. Ecosystems make Earth
habitable, providing water, food, air, shelter, and more - everything that we need and
desire to live well.

All species uniquely express evolutionary brilliance and have a purpose, a

reason for being, a right to exist, and are necessary to maintain life’s full potential. From
the lowly worm to soaring eagles, to the human race - all naturally evolved life has value
and relies upon all the rest. Even seemingly noxious disease organisms and man-eating
predators have a role to play in maintaining ecological balance.
The Earth as a whole is a living organism, similar biologically to a cell, plant, animal, or
ecosystem. Without large intact ecosystems, Earth becomes uninhabitable. Yet sadly,
she is being murdered by industrial human growth at the expense of ecosystems. Past
certain planetary boundary conditions, like any life, Earth can die. Ecology is the
meaning of life.
 VALUE OF ENVIRONMENT

Why It’s Important That We Value Nature?

The natural world is an incredible wonder that inspires us all. It underpins our
economy, our society, indeed our very existence. Our forests, rivers, oceans and soils
provide us with the food we eat, the air we breathe, the water we irrigate our crops with.
We also rely on them for numerous other goods and services we depend on for our
health, happiness and prosperity.

Because nature is free, we often take it for granted and overexploit it. We clear
forests, overfished oceans, pollute rivers and build over wetlands without taking account
of the impact this will have. By not taking into account the benefits we get from nature,
we create huge social and economic costs for ourselves.

We need to look at the value of nature in economic and social terms to help us
better understand the full implications of the choices we make. Instead of making
decisions based on short-term financial interests, we can look at the longer-term
benefits for people and the economy – and of course nature itself. Using this argument,
we’re persuading governments and businesses to take better care of the natural world,
so that it can continue to sustain us all into the future.

Why It's Important to Protect our Environment

Primarily, we all should be aware of the term environment. All living things survive
within their own favorable zones of the environment - thus the environment is not
something that can be neglected easily without caring for it. Indeed, the Lord hath
created a flexibility in the environment for all organisms existing on Earth. Although the
environment can continue to survive in its natural state, human intervention has caused
extensive destruction in many ecosystems. It is very important for us to protect our
environment, so that we can continue to live on this planet - in a healthy and safe
atmosphere.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is playing a major role in protecting the
environment, and they carry out an extensive range of functions to do so. Their primary
responsibilities include:

❖ Environmental licensing
❖ Enforcement of environmental law
❖ Environmental planning, education and guidance
❖ Monitoring, analyzing and reporting on the environment
❖ Regulating Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions
❖ Environmental research development
❖ Strategic environmental assessment
❖ Waste management
❖ Radiological protection

The EPA is holding its proper position in different countries throughout the world.
The responsibilities mentioned above carry out responsibilities to protect the
environment, and lead our lives towards safety and security from environmental
hazards.

We should have to protect the environment not only for living creatures, but for
the plants and trees that provide even more benefits to us directly - they provide us with
oxygen which we need to breathe. Industrial and developed countries are also facing
threats of being polluted and affected by the detrimental environmental impact made by
human actions.

Waste disposed in our water sources, is brutalizing aquatic life and pollution from
factories, our usage of plastic bags, and pollutants released from vehicles, are all
factors that are contributing to climate change. Many of Earth’s resources are being
depleted by humans, the results of which are hazardous to the lives of many globally.

Here are some actions we can take to do our own part in contributing towards a
greener future. We should not think that a single person can not make a difference,
because change always originates from the actions started by a single person; we have
to start somewhere to reach our goals.

❖ Using reusable bags

❖ Taking all protection measures that are necessary for saving the environment
from pollution (using public transit, reducing electricity use when possible, etc.)
❖ Planting more and more trees.
❖ Reducing our use of artificial fertilizers in our gardens/farms. Using fertilizers
multiple times results in the loss of soil fertility, they get washed away in rains too
and can contaminate nearby water sources like rivers, streams, and lakes.

If we all do our part, and work towards reducing our negative environmental
impact, we will benefit ourselves. This would allow us to rebuild a healthy relationship
with nature. A cleaner environment would also reduce the health problems humans
face, including lung diseases, heart attacks, infections, and cancer caused by the
pollutants existing in our environment.
 BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Biological resources can be found in macro- and micro-ecosystems around the

world. The main categories are terrestrial and aquatic, although they branch out into
various other forms. The sustainable use of biological resources is essential to maintain
the health and productivity of ecosystems and to ensure the continued provision of
valuable services to humans.

Biological Resources Definition

Biological resources are the biologically derived renewable and non-renewable

resources that ecosystems provide. They include certain minerals, plants, animals and
all of their derivatives such as genetic information. However, some minerals are not
biological resources, for example, gold. Biological resources are essential for human
survival and well-being, as they can provide food, shelter provisions, clothing, fuel, etc.

The Importance of Biological Resources

Biological resources provide important ecosystem services such as air and water
purification, pollination and pest control. Ecosystem services include regulating (e.g.
water purification), cultural (e.g. recreational and spiritual benefits), provisional (e.g.
food, water and resources) and supporting (e.g. water and nutrient cycles).

Biological resources are useful in many different ways:

1. Essential data about the natural world - This includes information about
the diversity of plant and animal life, the structure of ecosystems, and the
way that species interact with one another.

2. Used to combat climate change - Trees and other plants help to

regulate the Earth's temperature by absorbing carbon dioxide and
 releasing oxygen into the atmosphere.

3. Major source of food, fuel, medication, and other materials - Many

fruits and vegetables are grown using biological pesticides (baking soda,
capsaicin, mint oil) rather than chemical pesticides, making them better for
both human health and the environment.

In short, biological resources are essential for both scientific research and
human wellbeing.

Conservation of Biological Resources

Biological resources may be lost or their quality may be lowered, where pressure
due to loss of habitat and resources causes increased competition between species.

Climate change, characterized by elements such as climate instability, warmer

air and water, and increased water pH, affects biological resources in the following
ways:

❖ Organism death rates become higher than birth rates

❖ The quality of life of organisms is reduced, while stress and infertility are
increased.
❖ Enzyme synthetisation rates are affected
❖ There might be a build-up of waste products in the environment
❖ The incidence of diseases increases

List of Biological Resources

Some key considerations for compiling a list of biological resources include:

❖ The geographical location of the resource.
❖ The species or taxonomic group to which the resource belongs.
 ❖ The physical characteristics of the resource.
❖ The chemical composition of the resource.
❖ The biological function of the resource.

The ecological condition of all biological resources can be improved

through: investing funds in conservation and research, biological control of
invasive species, habitat restoration following removal or destruction, raising
public awareness and education.

Biological Resources of Biodiversity

Biological resources are the materials derived from living organisms that can be
used to benefit humans. These resources include food, fuel, fiber, medicines and
ecological services. We will go into more detail below.

Terrestrial

Terrestrial biological resources will have a tendency to be affected by similar

anthropogenic factors and display similar degradation patterns, depending on climatic
zones. Let's have a look below at what defines them.

Forest Biological Resources

Terrestrial forest resources are those that are found on land. They can include
both renewable and nonrenewable resources. Trees are terrestrial forest resources,
from which fruits, timber, sap and wood can be obtained. Other terrestrial forest
resources include minerals, fossil fuels, and freshwater. Terrestrial forest resources also
form and exist in desert ecosystems, near tundras, around the equator, etc.

Their main recognisable feature is the presence and density of trees. Each
country has its own definition of woodland or forest. Terrestrial forest resources play an
important role in human societies, providing fuel, building materials, foraging, shelter,
and other essential goods and services.

Effects of using forest resources:

❖ Promoting the formation of open land ecosystems (prairies, meadows, etc.)

❖ Loss of moisture and shade
❖ Soil erosion
❖ Loss of species
❖ Release of carbon dioxide
❖ Economic gains
❖ Improved vehicle accessibility and travel options
❖ The discovery of novel resources
❖ Increased water turbidity

Agricultural Biological Resources:

Agricultural resources are defined as those natural resources that are necessary
for the production of agricultural goods. The most common type of agricultural practice
worldwide is intensive subsistence agriculture.

For this, the land itself must be able to support the growth of crops or the grazing
of animals, and it must have the necessary nutrients to nourish them. In addition,
agricultural land must have access to fresh water for irrigation, as well as a source of
labor to tend to the crops and animals. The conservation and management of
agricultural resources are essential to ensuring a stable food supply.

An example of this is that agriculture can be practiced in all physical

environments/land formations, but typically requires flat areas of land, such as plains
and grasslands, that require little conversion.
Aquatic

Aquatic biological resources are living aquatic organisms that are used for
various purposes, including food, medicine and recreation. These resources can be
harvested from both freshwater and saltwater environments. Aquatic animals such as
fish, crabs, and shrimp are some of the most commonly harvested aquatic biological
resources. Algae, such as seaweed and kelp, are also important aquatic biological
resources. Aquatic environments include freshwater, saltwater and brackish waters (e.g.
in estuaries).

General considerations are needed, especially by allowing natural improvements

to take place within water ecosystems, which are known to be very dynamic.

Measures that can prevent the loss of biological aquatic resources while still
enabling human activities include:

❖ Suspended or raised houses built above predicted flood water levels

❖ Rotational, pharmaceuticals-free aquaculture, through the use of biological pest
removers (e.g. ducks and geese in rice paddies, Ciclopterus lumpus as a
parasite-control for Salmo salar, food waste-consuming fish like trout or carp
Cyprinus carpio in streams that pass by or through households, etc.)
❖ Switching to renewable energy engines as opposed to fossil fuels, which often
leak into waterways.

Biological Resources - Key takeaways

❖ Everything that is biologically derived makes up the biological resources,

including the valuable genetic material of living things.
❖ One surprising benefit of protecting biological resources is offering the option of
resource choice to future generations.
 ❖ Biomedical sciences, the study of climate change, and recreational parks all have
in common the need for good biological resources to keep evolving.
❖ Overexploitation and pollution are common anthropogenic themes that affect
biological resources, regardless of their type.
❖ Agricultural, forestry and aquatic biological resources can be considered the
most important for the human species

https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/environmental-science/biological-resource
s/
 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Environmental ethics is a branch of ethics that studies the relationship between

human beings and the environment and how ethics plays a role in this. Environmental
ethics believes that humans are a part of society as well as other living creatures, which
include plants and animals. These items are a very important part of the world and are
considered to be a functional part of human life. Therefore, it is essential that every
human being respect and honor this and use morals and ethics when dealing with these
creatures.

In environmental philosophy, environmental ethics is an established field of

practical philosophy “which reconstructs the essential types of argumentation that can
be made for protecting natural entities and the sustainable use of natural resources.”

Global warming, global climate change, deforestation, pollution, resource

degradation, and the threat of extinction are a few of the issues from which our planet is
suffering. Environmental ethics is a key feature of environmental studies that
establishes the relationship between humans and the earth. With environmental ethics,
you can ensure that you are doing your part to keep the environment safe and
protected.

Every time a tree is cut down to make a home or other resources are used, we
are using natural resources that are becoming more and more sparse to find. It is
essential that you do your part to keep the environment protected and free from danger.
It is not as difficult to do as you may think, so long as you’re willing to make a few simple
and easy changes. With the rapid increase in the world’s population, the consumption of
natural resources has increased several times. This has degraded our planet’s ability to
provide the services we humans need. The consumption of resources is going at a
faster rate than they can naturally replenish.
Environmental Ethics and Its Principles

There are several approaches or principles to determine how we are to value our
environment. It is such a huge field, and it is so vast that it is difficult for one principle to
cover all the ground. Many theories have emerged over the years, and each one has
stressed various principles of environmental ethics. The list below states all the
principles that have been predominantly found in those theories.

1. Anthropocentrism - It suggests that human beings are the most important

beings. All other living beings are only accessories that would assist in their
survival. Now, there are two further divisions of anthropocentrism. They are weak
anthropocentrism and strong anthropocentrism. While weak anthropocentrism
believes that human beings are the center because it is only through their
perspective that environmental situations can be interpreted. Strong
anthropocentrism, however, believes that human beings are at the center
because they rightfully deserve to be there. Peter Vardy made this distinction.

2. Non-Anthropocentrism - As opposed to anthropocentrism and

non-anthropocentrism, this principle gives value to every object, every animal in
nature. It is a principle that believes in everything that sustains itself in nature.

3. Psychocentrism - Psychocentrism is the principle that believes that human

beings hold more value in the environment since their mental capacities are
better developed and far more complex than any other element in the
environment.

4. Biocentrism - It is a term that holds not only an ecological but also a political
value. It is a philosophy that imparts importance to all living beings. In terms of
environmental ethics, biocentrism is the principle that ensures the proper balance
of ecology on the planet.
5. Holism - The term holism had been coined by Jan Smuts in his book called
Holism and Evolution (1926). Holism considers environment systems as a whole
rather than being individual parts of something. It considers these environmental
systems to be valuable.

6. Resourcism - The principle of resourcism says that nature is considered to be

valuable only because it has resources to provide with. Thus, nature ought to be
exploited.

7. Speciesism - The principle of speciesism justifies the superiority of the human

race. Thus, it also justifies the exploitation and maltreatment of animals by
humankind.

8. Moral Considerability - This, too, is an important principle of environmental

ethics. Intrinsic value is added to every being, which makes us consider being
moral. Moral consideration towards a being means that we agree that all our
interactions whatsoever with the being is bound by moral laws.

9. Instrumental Value - The instrumental value is the value imparted to a being as

long as it can serve us with resources.

10. Intrinsic Value - Intrinsic value is the value attached to a being just for itself and
not only for its resourcefulness.

11. Aesthetic Value - Aesthetic value is imparted to a being by virtue of its looks or
its beauty.

12. Animal Liberation or Animal Rights - As is evident from its name, animal
liberation or rights tries to secure animal life and ensure their welfare by
enforcing certain laws.
 13. Animal Welfare - It ensures that the animals are treated well and humanely.

Why is Environmental Ethics Important?

Environmental ethics is quite important because it serves as the moral ground to

protect our planet’s environment and continuously fix the environmental degradation
that we have caused over the years. Through environmental ethics, we are being
reminded of our environmental responsibilities and our ecological consciousness is
being awakened. Without environmental ethics, people would continue to degrade and
destroy our planet and live life as if they are not dependent on nature.

But with the ecological consciousness provided by environmental ethics, we can

lead towards a sustainable future, an ecological balance, and the enrichment of our
environment’s diversity. While humans are the most dominant and superior beings in
nature, we are also expected to be the most responsible for keeping our environment,
or planet, habitable and clean. That is where the importance of environmental ethics
comes in.

With environmental ethics, humans are being humbled and reminded of their
main responsibilities to nature. With the capacity of humans, the imbalances that are
occurring in the environment can be fixed by some minor or major actions. Through
environmental ethics, humans are considerate of not only themselves but also plants,
animals, and every object in nature. With the moral grounds and values that
environmental ethics provides, humans are responsibly using nature and not in a way
that results in resource degradation and destruction.

Every object in nature has its own purpose and use, neglecting its uses for
humans. With that being said, it is just right to be a responsible consumer as humans do
not have the right to destroy nature’s richness and diversity.
 To sum it up, environmental ethics is a safeguard against cruelty to all creatures.
It helps maintain ecological balance and provides a peaceful and beautiful living
environment. Instead of polluting our environment, degrading our resources, and
destroying our planet, environmental ethics lead humans to act accordingly for the
welfare of all in our environment and nature.
 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATIONS OF NATURE

The scientific study of the different levels of organization of living beings, helps
us gain an insight into the complexities of their structure and functioning. Every
organism on Earth, from the smallest to the largest one, follows this establishment. This
topic is of great importance in the field of environmental science, as it helps in
establishing the significance of every living being on this planet. Environmentalists
devise ways to preserve the ecosystem through knowledge of these levels of
organization.

The life that exists on Earth is complex and varied in its forms. Living beings
have evolved from single-celled or unicellular forms, into complex and giant multicellular
bodies. In this process of development, their body systems and mechanisms have
become specialized in nature. Thus, in the course of evolution, different stages of
increasing complexity were formed.

13 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

1. Atom: It is the most basic and fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a

positively charged nucleus that is made up of protons and neutrons, and
revolving around them are the negatively charged electrons. An atom that
consists of an equal number of protons and electrons is neutral and stable. In
case of an unequal number of protons and electrons, it is termed as an ion. Ions
are either positive or negative.

2. Molecule: The formation of chemical bonds between two or more atoms leads to
the formation of a molecule. It is one of the most fundamental and stable
components of matter. Chemical compounds exist as molecules.

3. Organelle: It is the subunit of a cell, and consists of a group of functioning

biomolecules. Organelles take part in the chemical reactions and interactions in
 the cellular processes of an organism. Organelles in eukaryotic cells are different
from those in prokaryotic ones. A few examples include nucleus and chloroplasts
(plant cells), and golgi bodies and mitochondria (animal cells).

4. Cell: It is considered as the basic unit and building block of life. It is bound by a
cell membrane, and possesses a nucleus which acts as its brain. Cytoplasm
surrounds the nucleus, which contains cell organelles like mitochondria,
ribosomes, vacuole, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, peroxisomes, and
ventricles. The average number of cells in a human body is 100 trillion. They are
known to bring about conversion of nutrients into energy, reproduction (cell
division), and to carry out specialized functions.

5. Tissue: This level is a combination of different types of cells which perform

specialized functions. The group of cells that form a tissue need not be identical,
but they should have the same origin. Different types are the nervous, muscle,
connective, and epithelial tissues.

6. Organ: It performs certain functions with the help of different tissues. The major
organs of animals include lungs, brain, liver, etc., whereas roots, stem, and
leaves are the different organs of plants. Organs can be classified on the basis of
the functions they perform. For example, in the case of animals, the tongue, ears,
eyes, skin, and nose are sensory organs. Flowers and seeds are the
reproductive parts of plants. These units are formed by tissues that serve a
common function.

7. Organ System: Organs working together to perform certain functions form organ
systems. Examples are the circulatory system in animals, and the vascular
system in plants. The organs in an organ system are interdependent, i.e., they
work in harmony to carry out various body functions. For example, the digestive
system that carries out the process of digestion consists of salivary glands,
stomach, esophagus, gallbladder, liver, intestines, pancreas, rectum, and anus.
8. Organism: An organism could either be unicellular or multicellular. The ones that
are closely related can be grouped together under a single genus. An organism
can be defined as the fully functional form of a living being that can thrive in a
particular environment.

These are the basic levels of organization of living things. However, in

addition to the above, there are others like population, community, ecosystem,
biome, and biosphere. It is necessary to note that the higher we go in this
manner, it becomes difficult and more complicated to clearly explain the levels,
which means they are not as simply defined as cells, tissues, and organs. For
example, though the ecosystem is placed one level above a community, the
former is not a group of communities. Roughly defined, it is an environment
where organisms of different populations live together and evolve.

9. Population: It is the term used in reference to a group of organisms which

belong to the same species. They undergo interbreeding, and share food and
space. The population of a particular species indicates a close interaction
between its organisms.

10. Community: Two or more populations together constitute a community. It is

characterized by interactions that take place between constituent populations of
different species. There are various ways like competition, parasitism, predation,
commensalism, and mutualism, by which populations belonging to different
species interact with each other. A community can thrive in the same region, but
within the territory marked by the particular constituent populations.

11. Ecosystem: As we move up on this ladder of organization, the complexity tends

to increase. The term ecosystem is defined as an area or environment, where
one or more communities can thrive and flourish. However, this stage is not the
same as community. In fact, it is a greater entity that provides space for different
 communities. Thus, the populations of many species can together thrive in a
particular ecosystem like a desert, grassland, rainforest, etc.

12. Biome: It is an entity that is similar to an ecosystem. The definition of this stage
is made in terms of the conditions (and not just space) that are suited to a group
of communities (plants, animals, microbes, etc.). Classification of this level is
carried out on the basis of certain criteria like the environmental conditions in
which the constituent organisms thrive. The structure of plants is an important
criterion used for classifying biomes. It divides the plants into groups like shrubs,
trees, grasses, etc.

13. Biosphere: It is simply defined as the place, area, and zone where the entire life
on Earth exists. The hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere, along with all the
above-mentioned levels, together constitute the biosphere. It is the
amalgamation of all the life forms on Earth, right from the microscopic viruses,
bacteria, algae, etc., to the largest animals like blue whales and elephants.
 ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms,

as well as weather and landscape, work together to form a bubble of life. Ecosystems
contain biotic or living, as well as abiotic factors, or nonliving parts. Biotic factors include
plants, animals, and other organisms. Abiotic factors include rocks, temperature, and
humidity.

Every factor in an ecosystem depends on every other factor, either directly or

indirectly. A change in the temperature of an ecosystem will often affect what plants will
grow there, for instance. Animals that depend on plants for food and shelter will have to
adapt to the changes, move to another ecosystem, or perish.

The whole surface of Earth is a series of connected ecosystems. Ecosystems are

often connected in a larger biome. Biomes are large sections of land, sea, or
atmosphere. Forests, ponds, reefs, and tundra are all types of biomes, for example.
They're organized very generally, based on the types of plants and animals that live in
them. Within each forest, each pond, each reef, or each section of tundra, you'll find
many different ecosystems.

The biome of the Sahara Desert, for instance, includes a wide variety of
ecosystems. The arid climate and hot weather characterize the biome. Within the
Sahara are oasis ecosystems, which have date palm trees, freshwater, and animals
such as crocodiles. The Sahara also has dune ecosystems, with the changing
landscape determined by the wind. Organisms in these ecosystems, such as snakes or
scorpions, must be able to survive in sand dunes for long periods of time.

Even similar-sounding biomes could have completely different ecosystems. The

biome of the Sahara Desert, for instance, is very different from the biome of the Gobi
Desert in Mongolia and China. The Gobi is a cold desert, with frequent snowfall and
freezing temperatures. Unlike the Sahara, the Gobi has ecosystems based not in sand,
but kilometers of bare rock. Some grasses are able to grow in the cold, dry climate. As a
result, these Gobi ecosystems have grazing animals such as gazelles and even takhi,
an endangered species of wild horse.

Threats to Ecosystems

For thousands of years, people have interacted with ecosystems. Many cultures
developed around nearby ecosystems. Many Native American tribes of North America's
Great Plains developed a complex lifestyle based on the native plants and animals of
plains ecosystems, for instance. Bison, a large grazing animal native to the Great
Plains, became the most important biotic factor in many Plains Indians cultures, such as
the Lakota or Kiowa. Bison are sometimes mistakenly called buffalo. These tribes used
buffalo hides for shelter and clothing, buffalo meat for food, and buffalo horn for tools.
The tallgrass prairie of the Great Plains supported bison herds, which tribes followed
throughout the year.

In the tropical rain forest ecosystems surrounding the Amazon River in South
America, a similar situation is taking place. The Amazon rain forest includes hundreds
of ecosystems, including canopies, understories, and forest floors. These ecosystems
support vast food webs.

Canopies are ecosystems at the top of the rainforest, where tall, thin trees such
as figs grow in search of sunlight. Canopy ecosystems also include other plants, called
epiphytes, which grow directly on branches. Understory ecosystems exist under the
canopy. They are darker and more humid than canopies. Animals such as monkeys live
in understory ecosystems, eating fruits from trees as well as smaller animals like
beetles. Forest floor ecosystems support a wide variety of flowers, which are fed on by
insects like butterflies. Butterflies, in turn, provide food for animals such as spiders in
forest floor ecosystems.

Human activity threatens all these rain forest ecosystems in the Amazon.
Thousands of acres of land are cleared for farmland, housing, and industry. Countries of
the Amazon rainforest, such as Brazil, Venezuela, and Ecuador, are underdeveloped.
Cutting down trees to make room for crops such as soy and corn benefits many poor
farmers. These resources give them a reliable source of income and food. Children may
be able to attend school, and families are able to afford better health care. However, the
destruction of rain forest ecosystems has its costs. Many modern medicines have been
developed from rainforest plants. Curare, a muscle relaxant, and quinine, used to treat
malaria, are just two of these medicines. Many scientists worry that destroying the
rainforest ecosystem may prevent more medicines from being developed.

Rebounding Ecosystems

Ecosystems can recover from destruction, however. The delicate coral reef
ecosystems in the South Pacific are at risk due to rising ocean temperatures and
decreased salinity. Corals bleach, or lose their bright colors, in water that is too warm.
They die in water that isn't salty enough. Without the reef structure, the ecosystem
collapses. Organisms such as algae, plants such as seagrass, and animals such as
fish, snakes, and shrimp disappear.

Most coral reef ecosystems will bounce back from collapse. As ocean
temperature cools and retains more salt, the brightly colored corals return. Slowly, they
build reefs. Algae, plants, and animals also return.
 BIOLOGICAL CYCLES

❖ Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle:

The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface
of the ocean. As moist air is lifted, it cools and water vapor condenses to form
clouds. Moisture is transported around the globe until it returns to the surface as
precipitation. Once the water reaches the ground, one of two processes may
occur; 1) some of the water may evaporate back into the atmosphere or 2) the
water may penetrate the surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either
seeps its way into the oceans, rivers, and streams, or is released back into the
atmosphere through transpiration. The balance of water that remains on the
earth's surface is runoff, which empties into lakes, rivers and streams and is
carried back to the oceans, where the cycle begins again.

❖ Carbon-Cycle:

Most of the carbon dioxide enters the living world through photosynthesis.
The organic compounds synthesized are passed from the producers (green
plants) to the consumers (herbivores and carnivores). During respiration, plants
and animals release carbon back to the surrounding medium as carbon-dioxide.
The dead bodies of plants and animals as well as the body wastes, which
accumulate carbon compounds, are decomposed by microorganisms to release
carbon dioxide. Carbon is also recycled during burning of fossil fuels.

❖ Nitrogen Cycle:

Nitrogen of the atmosphere is in the elemental form and cannot be used

as such by living organisms. It has to be “fixed” i.e. combined with other elements
such as hydrogen, carbon or oxygen to become usable for the green plants.
 Nitrogen is continuously entering into the air by the action of denitrifying bacteria
and returning to the cycle through the action of lightning and electrification.

❖ Oxygen Cycle:

Oxygen required for respiration in plants and animals enters the body
directly from the surrounding medium (air or water). Oxygen returns to the
surroundings in the form of Carbon-dioxide or water. It also enters the plant body
as carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis and is released in the form of
molecular oxygen as a by-product in the same proc­ess for use in respiration.
Thus, the cycle is completed.