Global Cities

What is Global City?

Global cities are major nodes in the interconnected systems of information and money, and the
wealth that they capture is intimately related to the specialized businesses that facilitate those flows.
According to Sassen (2005), global cities are central sites for advanced services and facilities
of telecommunication which are necessary for the execution and the management of global economic
activities. In those sites, corporate headquarters tend to center, particularly companies that are
operative in more than one country. Examples of global cities are New York, London, Tokyo, Paris,
and Singapore.
The global city is, therefore, the main physical and geographic playground of the globalizing
forces: in this space of population concentration and mixing, the global flows of people, capital, and
ideas are woven into the daily lived experiences of its residents. Cosmopolitanism is a phenomenon
most readily associated with the global city: large, diverse cities attract people, material and cultural
products from all over the world. The idea of cosmopolitanism usually invokes pleasant images of
travel, exploration, and worldly pursuits enjoyed by those who have benefited from globalization and
who can, in some ways, consider themselves citizens of the world.
Globalization as a Spatial Phenomenon
Globalization happens in physical spaces-foreign investment, economic opportunities, and
human capital-move to cities. Globalization is spatial as it is based on places. Globalization acts on
cities and vice versa (example is New York City-home of the stock market, a significant center in
international trade). In other words, global cities are integral to globalization as it is essential to
these global cities.
General Characteristics of Global Cities
1. International, first-name familiarity like Paris, London
2. Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs like UN headquarters
in New York City
3. A large population
4. A major international airport like London Heathrow Airport that serves as an established hub for
several international airlines
5. Presence of an advanced transportation system that includes several freeways and/or a large
mass transit network offering multiple modes of transportation
6. Presence of international financial institutions, law firms, and stock exchanges like New York
Stock Exchange
7. Presence of advanced communications infrastructure on which modern transnational
corporations rely
8. Presence of world-renowned cultural institutions like museums and universities
 9. Presence of several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach like The
New York Times, Agence France-Presse
10. Presence of major sports facilities, home teams in major league sports, and the ability and
historical experience to host international sporting events like Olympics, and World Cups
Identification of Global Cities
In “The Global City” by Sassen (1996), she only identified three global cities-New York,
London, and Tokyo. An attempt to define and categorize world cities was made in 1999 by the
Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC). GaWC ranked cities based on
provision of advanced producer services such as accountancy, advertising, finance, and law by
international corporations.
The GaWC inventory identified three levels of world cities and several sub-ranks:
1. Alpha world cities (full-service world cities)
 12 points: London, New York, Paris, Tokyo
 10 points: Chicago, Frankfurt, Hongkong, Los Angeles, Milan, Singapore

2. Beta world cities (major world cities)

 9 points: San Francisco, Sydney, Toronto, Zurich
 8 points: Brussels, Madrid, Mexico City, Sao Paulo
 7 points: Moscow, Seoul

3. Gamma World Cities (minor world cities)

 6 points: Amsterdam, Boston, Caracas, Dallas, Dusseldorf, Geneva, Houston, Jakarta,
Johannesburg, Melbourne, Osaka, Prague, Santiago, Taipei, Washington
 5 points: Bangkok, Beijing, Montreal, Rome, Stockholm, Warsaw
 4 points: Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Copenhagen, Hamburg,
Istanbul, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Miami, Minneapolis, Munich, Shanghai

In 1994, GaWC redefined and re-categorized the classification as follows:

1. Well-rounded global cities
 Very large contribution: London and New York City
 Smaller contribution and with cultural bias: Los Angeles, Paris, and San Francisco
 Incipient global cities: Amsterdam, Boston, Chicago, Madrid, Milan, Moscow, Toronto
2. Global niche cities- specialized global contributions
  Economic: Hongkong, Singapore, Tokyo
 Political and social: Brussels, Geneva, Strasbourg, Washington
3. World Cities
 Subnet articulator cities
o Cultural: Berlin, Copenhagen, Melbourne, Munich, Oslo, Rome, and Stockholm

o Political: Bangkok, Beijing, Vienna

o Social: Manila, Nairobi, Ottawa

 Worldwide leading cities

o Primarily economic global contributions: Frankfurt, Miami, Munich, Osaka, Singapore,
Sydney, Zurich
o Primarily non-economic global contributions: Abidjan, Addis Ababa, Atlanta, Basle,
Barcelona, Cairo, Denver, Harare, Lyon, Manila, Mexico City, Mumbai, New Delhi,
Shanghai

What makes a city a global city?

The Global Cities Index (GCI) assesses how globally engaged cities are across five dimensions:
1. business activity,
2. human capital,
3. information exchange,
4. cultural experience, and
5. political engagement.
The Global Cities Outlook (GCO), on the other hand, examines those creating the conditions for
future status as major global players. This analysis covers four dimensions:
1. personal well-being – key determinants of a city’s ability to attract talented human capital
2. economics – key determinants of a city’s ability to generate economic growth
3. innovation – key determinants of a city’s ability to increase competitiveness
4. governance – key determinants of a city’s ability to ensure stability and security
The most recent rankings include 151 cities across all continents, compared to 130 in 2019, reflecting
the increasing importance of emerging geographies such as the Middle East, China, and Central
Asia.
New metrics to reflect changing global dynamics
As the world around us continues to evolve, so do the characteristics of global cities, and the 2020
GCI includes two new metrics:
1. The number of unicorn companies (privately held start-up companies valued at more than
$1 billion): We can no longer consider a city global if it is not at the forefront of
entrepreneurship and innovation. As a measure of that characteristic, this metric is now
included within the Business Activity dimension, highlighting cities that thrive on pioneering
residents.
2. The number of medical universities: As COVID-19 has shown, the well-being of residents,
and access to cutting-edge medical knowledge and technologies, can make or break a city. To
account for this, medical universities are now included under the Human Capital dimension as
a measure of how globally connected its healthcare system is.

2020 Global Cities Index: New priorities for a new world

As cities pick up the pieces and plan for life after COVID-19, we reveal how the pandemic has
shattered the status quo, and outline the new challenges and priorities facing city leaders.
The 2020 Global Cities Report provides a snapshot of where cities stood as they entered the COVID-
19 crisis. Incorporating the Global Cities Index (GCI) and Global Cities Outlook (GCO), this year’s
results reveal intensifying competition for global status and future prospects in an increasingly
fragmented and volatile environment.
Entrepreneurial cities on the rise
The most striking change in the GCI was Beijing’s rise to displace Hong Kong among the top
five global cities, suggesting the impact of combining stability and growth with aggressive investments
in human capital (see table below). Shanghai and San Francisco also made significant jumps, thanks
in part to their scores on entrepreneurship and innovation, which now incorporate a new metric of the
number of unicorn companies in a city. However, despite these surprises, those in the highest
positions—New York, London, Paris, and Tokyo—retained the top four places. This enduring strength
highlights the breadth of advantages needed to reach and stay at the top of the Index, and the self-
reinforcing power of global city status.
Early signs of a global reordering
This year’s GCO paints a more dynamic picture (see table below). While London maintained its top
ranking in 2020, most cities rose or fell fairly dramatically in the Outlook’s rankings. One example is
Toronto, which climbed nine spots to take second place. For many of the rising cities, long-term
investments in governance and economics have begun to pay off. This is particularly true of cities in
China and the Middle East, which are rapidly catching up with their European and North American
peers.
Thriving in a post-COVID future
At this part of the lesson, we shall discuss the impact of COVID-19 in “global cities”. A separate
discussion about COVID-19 in general and its impact to Globalization will be discussed in Lesson 7.
Recognizing COVID-19 as a definitive turning point, we also discuss its impact on global cities and
the radically altered future they now face. The crisis has fueled a number of trends already creating
tremendous strain on cities, from growing fiscal pressure and economic inequality to the effects of
increasing deglobalization and environmental disruption. Meeting these challenges will require city
leaders to reconsider many long-standing assumptions and priorities.
The Report suggests that to emerge from the current crisis stronger and more resilient, city leaders
will need to reimagine what is next for their cities. In particular, they must drive progress in the
following three key areas:
1. Urban value creation. To remain relevant and competitive in a post-pandemic world, global
cities will have to deepen their focus on creating public value—that is, value centered on the
common good across all sectors and segments of society. By doing this, city leaders have an
opportunity to reverse trends that have undermined cities’ stability, equity, and value creation
for decades.
2. Global city connectedness. The international flows of goods, ideas, and people that are so
central to global cities are under threat from both the near-term fallout from the pandemic and
the long-term trend away from a globalized international order. To sustain these vital flows in
increasingly challenging conditions, city leaders must revitalize and expand their cities’ global
connectedness in a variety of ways.
3. The transformation of urban space. Finally, city leaders have a responsibility to address the
many challenges tied to physical space that have been so starkly revealed by the pandemic.
They range from how to restart economies safely while complying with the need for social
distancing, to addressing the environmental inequalities linked to poor health outcomes in
lower-income neighborhoods. The overall aim should be to reimagine city planning in a way
that makes the lived environment more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive.

The 2020 GCI and GCO: cities on the verge of disruption

Global Cities Index results
For the fourth year in a row, New York City topped the Global Cities Index, followed by London, Paris,
and Tokyo (see table below). The consistency of these results highlights the wide range of positive
attributes a city must have to reach the top of the Index, and the difficulty of building such a broad
platform of strengths. It also shows that for those cities able to do so, global status has so far been
self-reinforcing. Even in a year marked by relatively low levels of business activity, New York City’s
momentum across all metrics enabled the city to maintain its number 1 position.

The Top 30 cities in the Global Cities Index 2020

A major shift at the top of the rankings, however, was Beijing unseating Hong Kong from its long-
held top five position, which could prove to be a sign of further changes to come. While Beijing’s
strong economic growth and human capital investments paid off, the political chaos in Hong
Kong undoubtedly dampened its performance across all dimensions, with significant drops in
business activity, information exchange, and cultural experience.
Four out of five stay steady at the top

New York City widened its lead over other cities on the Index slightly, receiving its highest
score in human capital due to strong performance in number of international schools,
international student population, and the new medical universities metric.

London, while still in second place, has had a falling score on the Index since 2017. Though the
sharp drop-off in economic activity predicted after the Brexit vote has yet to materialize, so too
have any new rules surrounding trade, which will not become clear until at least the end of this
year.

Paris’s consistent performance in information exchange (in which it leads the ranking), cultural
experience, and political engagement ensured the city’s solid hold on the number 3 position this
year.

Tokyo continued its slow but steady improvement on the Index, demonstrating strong year-on-
year performance in the business activity dimension. What will happen in the aftermath of Prime
Minister Shinzo Abe’s exit from government remains to be seen.

Finally, Beijing’s new position reflects higher scores across most metrics. It ranked second in
the business activity dimension, partly thanks to a number 2 spot on the new unicorn
companies metric. Investments in education and the city’s rising status as a cultural center
also led to a large jump in the human capital dimension.

Global Cities Outlook results

Having determined the year’s global leaders in the GCI, the GCO identifies cities on the rise—
those creating the right conditions for future global status (see table below). This time, London
maintained its top ranking, but from there all bets were off. Toronto jumped an impressive 9
places to the number 2 spot, driven by a large upswing in innovation and continued strong
governance. Tokyo’s consistently high scores in personal well-being took it up 2 places to
number 4, and Abu Dhabi jumped 13 places to number 7, driven by long-term investments in
economic performance and diversification. The much more dynamic results of the GCO, in
comparison to the GCI, reveal the fierce competition between global cities to advance their
future prospects.

Economics and innovation lead the way

Cities that saw a rise in their outlook performance mainly improved in the areas of innovation
and economics, where long-term investments were beginning to show results. Abu Dhabi and
Dubai topped the economics metric in infrastructure, thanks to their openness to the private
sector and robust engagement in public–private partnerships. Combined with increases in GDP
per capita, FDI inflows, and foreign investments, this took Abu Dhabi to seventh place overall,
and Dubai from 32 to 18. Others who gained ground include Chicago, thanks to increased private
investments and university-sponsored incubators; Madrid, which jumped 14 places with
improved scores in patents and FDI inflows; and Shenzhen, where patents and university-
sponsored incubators also saw an uptick.

Precarious US positions

Though several US cities were prominent in the GCI, the GCO suggests that their outlook is
uncertain, with most experiencing a drop across the dimensions related to personal well-being,
economics, and governance. San Francisco and Boston, formerly two leading cities on the
GCO, both lost grounds, going from 3 to 11 and 7 to 15 respectively. New York City dropped
out of the top 25, Washington D.C. and Houston fell from the top 30, and Los
Angeles, Philadelphia, and Miami exited the top 50. It’s perhaps no surprise that these shifts
occurred in parallel with the US’s withdrawal from international agreements such as the Paris
Climate Accord and Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), indicating that American city leaders will face
heightened challenges as they seek to reap the benefits of international flows of individuals,
goods, and capital. In addition, a spring and summer of urban unrest across the United States
has highlighted citizen dissatisfaction with many dimensions of city governance, and pressure on
local governments is at an all-time high.

Global Demography
Preface

Demography is the scientific study of the determinants and consequences of human population
trends. By the beginning of the 21st century, world population reached 6 billion. Most growth has
occurred in the past 200 years.

A massive increase of billions of people occurred no less than 200 years ago. This is the global
demographic transition, brought by momentous changes, reshaping the economic and
demographic life cycles of individuals and restructuring populations. Clearly, before the
transition, the growth of world population is close to stationary, depicting that life is short, births
were many, growth is slow, and the population is young.

Since 1800, global population size has already increased by a factor of six and by 2100 will have
risen by a factor of 10. There will then be 50 times as many elderlies but only five times as many
children; thus, the ratio of elders to children will have risen by a factor of 10. The length of life,
which has already more than doubled, will have tripled, while births per woman will have
dropped from six to two.

Malthusian Theory

Thomas Malthus was the first person to draw widespread attention to the two components of
natural increase-births and deaths (fertility and mortality). Malthus formulated an essay titled
“Essay on the Principle of Population”, initially published in 1789, wherein he postulated that
population tended to grow geometrically, while the means of subsistence grew only
arithmetically. Thomas Malthus also argued that the difference between geometric and
arithmetic growth created a tension between the team between the growth of population and
that of means of subsistence-this gap could not persist indefinitely.

Also, in the said essay, it was mentioned that population was held in equilibrium with the slowly
growing economy. Faster population growth would depress wages, causing mortality to rise due
to famine, war or disease-in short, misery. Depressed wages would also cause postponement of
marriage, resulting in prostitution and other vices, including contraception; this he called the
preventive check.

Since population could potentially grow more rapidly than the economy, it was always held in
check by misery and vice, which was therefore the inevitable human lot. Economic progress
could help only temporarily because population could soon grow to its new equilibrium level,
where misery and vice would again hold it in check. Only through moral restraint-that is, the
chaste postponement of marriage-did Malthus believe that humanity might avoid this fate, and
he thought this an unlikely outcome.
Population Explosion

Contrary to what Malthus predicted, mortality has not risen to curb world population growth. As
mentioned, the world population boomed up to near a billion in 1800 and reached 6 billion by the
end of the 20th century. Apparently, Malthus did not recognize the force of the Industrial
Revolution, which produced exponential growth in the means of subsistence.

The Demographic Transition

During the first half of the 20th century, demographers conceived the notion of the demographic
transition. The Demographic Transition Framework illustrates population growth in terms of
discrepancies and changes in two crude vital rates-mortality and fertility.

Stripped off the essentials, demographic transition refers to the transition from high birth and
death rates to low birth and death rates as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an
industrialized economic system. The stages are as follows:

1. Pre-industrial Society: high and unstable birth and death rates, population growth rate
slow, importance of children, low life expectancy.

 Reasons for the changes in birth rate:

1. Children are needed for farming
2. They die at an early age due to illnesses
3. No family planning and conception/giving birth is encouraged by religion and
society
 Reasons for the changes in death rate:
1. Disease
2. Famine
3. Poor medical knowledge

2. Early Industrial Society: high birth rates, falling death rate, high population growth

 Reasons for the changes in birth rate:

1. Children are needed for farming
2. They die at an early age due to illnesses
3. No family planning and conception/giving birth is encouraged by religion and
society
 Reasons for the changes in death rate:
1. Improvements in medical care
2. Water
3. Supply and sanitation
4. Fewer children die

3. Late Industrial Society: low death rate, falling birth rate, high population growth

 Reasons for the changes in birth rate:

1. Improved medical care and diet
2. Fewer children are needed for work
 Reasons for the changes in death rate:
1. Improvements in medical care
2. Water
3. Supply and sanitation
4. Fewer children die

4. Post Industrial Society: low birth and death rates, low population growth
  Reasons for the changes in birth rate:
1. Family planning
2. Good health
3. Later marriages
4. Improving status of women
 Reasons for the changes in death rate:
1. Good health care
2. Reliable food supply
3. People are living much longer

Criticisms of the Demographic Transition Theory

The demographic transition theory is only based on Western societies (Europe, America, Japan).
It is not inevitable that there will be a fall in fertility rates in less developed countries. The length
of time that the countries will traverse the stages, if they do, is unpredictable. Times have
changed since the developed world went through demographic transition.

Fertility Transition Theory

This theory states that fertility is declining in the less developed countries at a rate which
exceeds the rate of decline that was experienced in developed countries. It seems to be related
directly to the extent to which modern contraceptives are employed. In modern times,
information about contraceptives is widespread due to mass media.

Stripped off the major points, the fertility transition theory asserts that while economic
development can create a climate conducive to reductions in fertility, it is a change in cultural
attitude about large families and a willingness to use contraception that matters, aside from the
presence and availability of contraception itself.

Still, opposition to birth control and family planning are aplenty. The manufacture, distribution,
and education about the use of contraceptives remain expensive. Religion can block birth control
programs. Others are of societal concerns: low status of women, lack of political and economic
rights, and lack of access to education.

GLOBAL MIGRATION: BASIC CONCEPTS

Global migration is a complex phenomenon that tackles on a multiplicity of economic, social,

security, and several aspects affecting our daily lives in a rapidly interconnecting world. On the
other hand, migration encompasses a large variety of movements and situations involving
people. Migration is embroiled with geopolitics, trade, and cultural exchange and provides
opportunities for several countries, business, communities, and cultures to benefit in a grand
manner.

Since the earliest times, humanity has been on the move. Some people move in search of labor
or economic opportunities, to join family or to study. However, not all migration happens in
positive circumstances. Others move to escape conflict, persecution, terrorism, or human rights
violations. Similarly, others move in response to the adverse effects of climate change, natural
disasters, or other environmental factors.

Today, more people than ever before live in a country other than the one in which they were
born. In 2017, the number of migrants reached 258 million, compared to about 173 million in
2000. However, the proportion of international migrants in the world population is only slightly
higher than that recorded over the past decades, equaling 3.4 percent in 2017, compared to 2.8
percent in 2000 and 2.3 percent in 1980. While many individuals migrate out of choice, many
others migrate out of necessity. There are approximately 68 million forcibly displaced persons,
including over 25 million refugees, 3 million asylum seekers and over 40 million internally
displaced persons.

Migration and the Sustainable Development Goals

Migration is one of the defining features of the 21st century. It contributes significantly to all
aspects of economic and social development everywhere, and, as such, will be key to achieving
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

The 2030 Agenda is well placed to reflect and exploit the links between migration and
development for three reasons. First, the 2030 Agenda is the first international development
framework to include and recognize migration as a dimension of development. The Agenda
includes migration related targets and recognizes its important contribution to sustainable
development while acknowledging the specific vulnerabilities migrants may face.

Second, migration interacts with all dimensions of development. The multidisciplinary and cross-
sectoral nature of the 2030 Agenda is a useful platform to assess the impact of migration and
human mobility on a range of development issues. The SDGs and its relation to migration are as
follows:

Goal 3: Health

Migrants can be vulnerable to health risks. Migrants on their respective destinations may not
have access to health care. For the well-being of the migrants, it is vital that access to safe,
effective, and affordable health services shall be strengthened.

Goal 4: Education

Student mobility opens more opportunities for youth in developing countries to learn and study
abroad.

Goal 5: Gender Equality

Migrant women and girls are vulnerable to human trafficking and gender-based violence.
Increasing participation and leadership of women reduces the risk of gender-based violence and
inequalities.

Goal 8: Decent Work

The importance of migrants in the global economy continues to flourish. Humane and safe
working conditions help enhance the impact of migrants in development.

Goal 11: Sustainable Cities

Migrants enable cities to thrive and become more vibrant, successful centers of economy and
life. National and local governments are encouraged to include migration and migrants in their
urban development planning and implementation.

Goal 13: Climate Action

Migrants are affected by climate-related disasters. To better protect migrants, responses to
disaster and climate change must be strengthened.

Goal 16: Peaceful Societies

Preventing trafficking in persons and providing support to trafficking survivors should be done
while affording sustainable reintegration support efforts to eliminate all forms of violence against
women and girls.

Goal 17: Partnerships

Expanding of networks among countries can help increase the capacity to deliver migrant
services.

Goal 10: Reduce Inequalities

Migration brings about a conglomeration of people, ideas, knowledge, practices, and culture and
it is very integral that all countries involved avoid discrimination, inequality, and injustice due to
these differences.

Migrants

According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), a migrant is: “any person who is
moving or has moved across an international border or within a state away from his/her habitual
place of residence, regardless of (1) the person’s legal status; (2) whether the movement is
voluntary or involuntary; (3) what the causes for the movement are; or (4) what the length of the
stay is”.

From this definition, two categories of migrants can be identified:

1. Labor (economic) migrants (and family reunification)

2. Forced migrants (asylum seekers and refugees)

Forced migrants are those who are compelled to migrate due to adverse circumstances beyond
their control (like war, persecution, etc.).

An asylum seeker is a person who seeks safety from persecution or serious harm in a country
other than his or her own and awaits a decision on the application for refugee status relevant
international and national instruments. In case of a negative decision, the person must leave the
country and may be expelled, unless permission to stay is provided on humanitarian grounds.

A refugee is a person who, owing to a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race,
religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinions, is outside the
country of his/her nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail
himself/herself of the protection of that country.

Drivers of Migration

Drivers of migration are forces which lead to the inception of migration and to the perpetuation
of movement.
Drivers of migration include economic, demographic factors and environmental factors, and
social and political dynamics. People may migrate to access better economic employment and
educational opportunities for themselves and their families. Some migrate due to lack of access
to fundamental human rights such as health, food, or basic education, and due to discrimination,
poverty, or separation from family. They may move in response to crisis-both natural and
human-made and, increasingly, in response to environmental change. How drivers interact in
different dimensions (scale, location, distance, and duration) affects how governments and the
international community can respond in order to effectively protect migrants, govern migration,
and harness its benefits.

Some of the drivers of migration are as follows:

1. Economic and demographic drivers

Economic opportunities, demographics, and poverty/food insecurity are prime influencers in the
migration decision-making process and interact to greater or lesser degrees, depending on the
specific context, to drive migration.

In developing countries, lack of job opportunities, wage differentials, and aspirations propel
young people away from home in search of employment and income opportunities. The informal
economy accounts for 33-90% of total employment, which often means low pay, hazardous
working conditions, and limited access to legal and social protection and resources, and this
drives people toward opportunities abroad.

2. Environmental drivers

A great number of countries identified as climate vulnerable tend to experience high rates of
emigration, so it is critical to consider existing environment and climate-related evidence when
analyzing current migration patterns and estimating future flows.

Environmental factors, including those related to climate change and natural disasters, directly
and indirectly impact the resilience and vulnerability of individuals, households, and
communities, and may lead to migration. How climate change drives migration depends heavily
on its interaction with other factors, including the perception of risk by affected communities,
and varies among and within communities.

3. Human-made crises

Human-made crises are among the primary root causes of migration and have an important
impact on population movements more generally.

The lack of respect for international human rights and humanitarian law has compounded
growing displacement of many as a consequence of their deteriorating living conditions.

Countries where there is a high perception of corruption tend to be net-emigration countries,

while countries where there are lower perceptions of corruption tend to be net-immigration
countries. While corruption does not necessarily cause migration; it is more accurately seen as a
contributing factor.

GLOBAL MIGRATION: OVERSEAS FILIPINO EMPLOYMENT

Organized labor migration from the Philippines has been in existence for at least 400 years
based on historical accounts dating as far back as the Spanish colonial period (1521-898), during
which natives manned ships in the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade.

Thereafter, there were several notable movements mostly to the United States, facilitated by the
special colonial relationship between the two countries. However, it was not until the 1970s when
the number increased rapidly, coinciding with the construction boom in the Middle East as a
result of the rise in oil prices in 1973-1974. From a low of around 50,000 migrant workers in
1975, the Philippines has been deploying more than a million Filipino workers throughout the
world annually since 2005.

It then became a tradition that the Middle East, followed by the rest of Asia, has been the
destination of migrant workers. The flow of migrant workers to the rest of Asia, especially East
and Southeast Asia, in the late 1980s and early 1990s was conditioned primarily by the labor
demand of newly industrialized countries in the region which resorted to labor importation to
sustain their economic growth.

At present, the number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) who worked abroad at any time
during the period April to September 2018 was estimated at 2.3 million. One out of four OFWs
worked in Saudi Arabia, which remained to be the top destination of OFWs in April to September
2018. OFWs who worked in United Arab Emirates comprised 15.7 percent. Hong Kong, Kuwait,
Taiwan and Qatar were the other popular destinations of OFWS. Among occupation groups,
elementary occupation was the biggest group of OFWs. Other large occupation groups were the
service and sales workers, and plant and machine operators and assemblers. More than half of
the female OFWs were in elementary occupations. Among the male OFWs, the largest groups
were plant and machine operators and assembler workers.

Common Reasons Why Filipinos Work Abroad

1. Poverty

Poverty is an issue for a country like the Philippines. Its effects drive many Filipinos to find
opportunities for employment abroad. Ordinarily, if someone could not find a suitable source of
employment in his/her own country, then there will be no other choice but to seek "greener
pastures" abroad. Because of these ill conditions, Filipinos were left with no choice but to go
abroad, leaving their families the hopes of having better situations. It can also be observed by
this reality that Filipinos see hope in other countries, which kind of hope is absent in their own
country.

2. Unemployment and Low Wages

Unemployment and low wages are prevalent in the Philippines. This predicament is being carried
even by a college graduate in the country, more so, by those who failed to finish their education.
As a result, the Filipino worker will be compelled to search for income opportunities abroad.

In-demand jobs that normally should have a fair compensation, such as nurses, engineers,
accountants, and other professionals, are inadequately paid, as compared with the
compensation that are waiting for these professionals abroad. Even non-skilled workers, such as
housemaids and other laborers, are well compensated abroad than the professionals in the
Philippines.

New graduates face the problems of high unemployment rate and less job opportunities as well
as low average salary and benefits offered by local employers in the country. This is not to
mention that job competition increases in the country. Given these, Filipino applicants became
desperate to have jobs for lower salaries and not enjoy benefits as long as there is security of
tenure. In effect, most of the employers and businessmen exploit such situation that keeps their
businesses earn more profit at the lowest possible costs.

3. Enhancement of Professional Skills

Filipinos also go abroad for their professional development. This is due to the reality that having
a global experience gives them a career edge among any other Filipino professionals left working
in the country.

Abroad, Filipinos deal with different people from different religions, races, and cultures, and this
gives them a unique advantage. Plus, the kinds of opportunities for professional growth abroad
are aplenty as compared to the Philippines.

This reinforces the findings of Natividad (2012) that Filipinos go abroad because of the
enhancement of career and professional marketability globally wherein it is stated that
nowadays, the world is very competitive that having international experience gives Filipinos
bigger career advantage among other professionals.

4. Curiosity

According to Natividad (2012), one of the reasons why Filipinos work abroad is to have the
experience to travel and experience abroad. Working abroad gives the perfect opportunity for
the working Filipino to travel and experience life overseas.

Filipinos’ personal ambitions or goals since childhood can be also drawn out as a reason why did
they choose to work abroad. It gives them the opportunity and the confidence to pursue and
realize their own ambitions. It may not seem to be a valid reason but the same should be
counted as in reality, working abroad gives Filipinos the edge to earn more and afford them more
possibilities of advancement than what they can find in the Philippines.

Common Risks/Costs of Overseas Filipino Employment

1. Abuse and Violence

Both male and female OFWs are at risk of the possibility of violence, abuse, trafficking, and false
accusations. Further, the possibility for OFWs to be terminated because of failure to meet the
standard for proper work set by their employers is more likely to occur.

The tendency of foreigners to treat Filipinos as lowly contributes to the set of fears of the OFWs.
When OFWs suffer discrimination, the lack of motivation to complete their tasks occurs. The loss
of morale and the loss of productivity also take place. Also, the lack of protection for OFWs
contributes to the said lingering fear.

The most common work fears of Overseas Filipino Workers are the possibilities of abuse and
violence that can lead to severe physical injuries and even death.

2. Weakened Family Ties

Children who are left behind are usually not guided properly. Oftentimes, both parents are
working abroad and the children would only be left under the guidance of their grandparents and
relatives. Long separation creates a huge gap between the parents and children. The effect of
parents' departures on toddlers and pre-teens are worse.

In addition, the marital relationship between the parents is put at risk. Abroad, several extra -
marital relations can result due to the distance brought about by overseas employment. As a
result, the marital bond breaks leading to the destruction of the family, again leading to the
detriment of the children.

Relevant Laws Covering Overseas Filipino Workers

1. Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995 (Republic Act No. 8042)

2. Omnibus Implementing Rules of the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995
(Republic Act No. 8042)

3. Overseas Workers' Investment (OWI) Fund Act (Republic Act No. 7111)

4. Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers (Amending Certain Provisions of Presidential Decree
1694, Creating the “Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers” Presidential Decree No.1890

5. Welfare Fund for Overseas Workers (Organization and Administration of the Welfare Fund
for Overseas Workers) Presidential Decree No. 1694

6. An Act Creating the Commission on Filipinos Overseas and for Other Purposes. (Batas
Pambansa Bilang 79)

7. Law Creating the POEA Executive Order No. 797

8. POEA Rules & Regulations Governing the Recruitment and Employment of Land-Based
Overseas Workers (February 4, 2002)

9. POEA Rules & Regulations Governing the Recruitment and Employment of Seafarers (May
23, 2003)

10. Reorganizing the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration and for Other Purposes
Executive Order No. 247

11. Medical Care Program for OFWs and Dependents DOLE Department Order No. 4, Series of
2001

12. Revised Guidelines on the Training, Testing, Certification and Deployment of Overseas
Performing Artists

13. DOLE Department Order No. 10, Series of 2001, Amending the Rules Implementing Books
III and VI of The Labor Code, As Amended.

Global Health
What is Global Health?

Global health is a dynamic term which is still evolving with the changing world. At present, the
term Global health pertains to an area for study, research, and practice that places a priority on
improving health and achieving health equity for all people worldwide. Likewise, it has been
proposed to refer to a collaborative transnational research and action for promoting "health for
all peoples. Its core is founded on national public health efforts and institutions. Compared to
several countries where public health is equated primarily with population-wide interventions,
global health emphasizes in all strategies for health improvement, whether population-wide or
individually based health care actions, and across all sectors, not just the health sector.

Global health is better understood by integrating the following key concepts (as highlighted by
Koplan, et al.):

Collaborative (or collective) highlights the critical role of collaboration in addressing all health
issues and especially global issues having multiple determinants and a wide range of institutions
involved in obtaining solutions.

Transnational (or cross-national) pertains to the issues transcending national boundaries

despite the effects of global health issues being experienced within countries. Transnational work
is usually based on strong national public health institutions. This further requires the
involvement of more than two countries.

Research refers to the importance of developing the evidence-based policies which are
multidisciplinary focusing on the effects of transnational determinants of health.

Action focuses on the importance of utilizing evidence-based information as basis to improve

the quality of health and health equity in all countries.

Promoting (or improving) pertains to the importance of using a full range of public health and
health promotion strategies in improving health. This includes initiatives toward underlying
social, economic, environmental, and political determinants of health.

Health for all traces back to the Alma Ata Declaration and places global health that the frontline
of multi-stakeholder approaches to health improvement. Eventually, this leads to strengthening
primary health care at the core of all health systems.

"The widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of

contemporary social life. These global processes are changing the nature of human interaction
across a wide range of social spheres including the economic, political, cultural, and
environmental" (Source: HM Government, 2008, p. 5)

Globalization and Health

Globalization has been regarded as a social, cultural, and economic phenomenon. It primarily
involves the evolution of common understanding of ideas, languages, foods, and popular culture.
It is perceived today as the influence of the Internet, Western and Eastern, i.e., American and
Korean respectively, particularly in media, television, films, and corporations. All these have
been considered as driving forces either impacting positively or negatively. Furthermore, the
global and rampant spread of fast-food outlets and consumption has significantly revolutionized
the lifestyle of the Filipino family and the youth.
Advantages of globalization have been beneficial or a "benign phenomenon”. In daily practice, it
had brought further developmental, sociocultural, political, and public health improvements. For
example, global networks of the Internet, worldwide web, and mobile phone communication have
been a driving force in globalization that have already had wide-ranging health impacts. These
technological developments have provided much international health knowledge and have
become more influential in dissemination of health news and information. Hence, this has
become more integral to academic and commercial research and development in health, geared
toward helping physicians guide their patients and their families into making well-informed
decisions to effective treatment options best suited to address patient needs and their resources.

On the contrary, globalization undermines local economies and cultures, replacing them with
"imported" or foreign elements in culture and society. How is it that despite the increasing
interconnectivities in both virtual via email, Internet, and telecommunications and subsequently
real connections, there still is the evident "digital divide" and disparity among nations and socio-
economically within countries? These barriers still exist regardless of being a developed country
such as China, where monitoring or censoring access to various parts of the web and mobile
phone networks persists. Similarly, countries such as Burma and North Korea has been severely
restricting Internet access for most of their populations.

Beyond virtual communications, there is a huge leap of 'real contacts brought about by
international business, travel, tourism, and long-or short-term migration. These real contacts
may often be beneficial but, of course, a side- effect of any international travel is the huge
potential for affecting human health. Immediate impact of international travel on health is the
spread of contagious and infectious diseases. This further goes beyond acute health issues but
also widespread influence of common culture and lifestyles into various parts of the world.

The sociocultural aspects of globalization have been held variously responsible for drifts toward
Western styles of life, consumption, and morals. Many alleged by-products of such globalized
lifestyles include morals, values, attitudes and behavioral change, environmental damage, global
warming/climate change. Moreover, there are direct health status outcomes such as widespread
obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. More subliminal changes involve those within societies,
such as altered family relations and social contexts for life and morality, as well as health and
welfare of individuals and their families.

The "global" in global health refers to the universal scope of problems instead of location (Koplan
et al., 2009). Global health must, therefore, address in the interlinked sociocultural, behavioral,
sociopolitical, and environmental factors related to health change which are referred to as social
determinants of health. These would further include "lifestyle factors" such as alcohol, tobacco,
and other drug consumption and control; micronutrient deficiencies, overweight, and obesity;
injury prevention, health of migrants, the migration of health workers, and the health of people
affected by political and natural disasters. These lifestyle factors have likewise greatly influenced
our local health profile in the Philippines such that the top 10 causes of illness and death in the
country are largely due to non-communicable diseases due to unhealthy lifestyle habits and
behaviors, which include cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, diabetes, cancer, and pulmonary
diseases.

Philippine Health Profile

In the past years, the Philippines has made significant investments and advances in health. The
rapid economic growth and strong country capacity have contributed to Filipinos living longer
and healthier. Despite this, not all the benefits of this growth have reached the most vulnerable
groups, and the health system remains fragmented affecting gravely the marginalized sector of
the Philippine society.

Some positive developments in the healthcare of Filipinos are the following:

 1. Health insurance now covers 92 percent of the population
2. Maternal and child health services have improved
o more children living beyond infancy
o increasing number of women delivering at health facilities and more births being
attended by professional service providers than ever before
3. Access to and provision of preventive, diagnostic and treatment services for
communicable or infectious diseases have improved.
4. Several initiatives to reduce illness and death due to non-communicable diseases (NCDs)

Despite substantial progress in improving the lives and health of people in the Philippines,
achievements have not been constant and challenges remain. There are still persistent
disparities and inequities between regions, rich and the poor, and different population groups.
Many Filipinos continue to die or suffer from illnesses that have well-proven, cost-effective
interventions, such as tuberculosis, HIV, and dengue, or diseases affecting mothers and children.
Many people lack sufficient knowledge to make informed decisions about their own health. Rapid
economic development, urbanization, escalating climate change, and widening exposure to
diseases and pathogens in an increasingly global World increase the risks associated with
disasters, environmental threats, and emerging and re-emerging infections.

Social Determinants of Health

Social determinants of health refer to the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work,
and age. These circumstances are shaped by the distribution of money, power, and resources at
global, national, and local levels. These determinants are mostly responsible for health
inequities, such as the unfair and avoidable differences in health status seen within and between
countries. Poverty, social exclusion, poor housing, and poor health systems are among the main
Social causes of ill health.

The Philippine Health Agenda for 2016 to 2022 has highlighted that there are many factors that
affect the health of individuals and their communities. Much of the health of individuals is
determined by the circumstances and environment where they live. This would include social
and economic environment, physical environment, and individual characteristics and behaviors
of a human being. Structural determinants refer to those factors which lead to stratification, such
as income, education, occupation, social class, gender, and ethnicity. Intermediary determinants,
on the other hand, are factors that directly define and influence health choices of individuals.
These would include individual lifestyle and outcome affected by the former, such as finances,
psychosocial, and behavioral factors (Cabral, 2016).

Sustainable Development Goals on Health

World leaders committed to achieve the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 in
an effort to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. SDG 3 covers the
unfinished Millennium Development Goal (MDG) agenda and newer challenges such as non-
communicable diseases (NCDs), health security, tobacco, and injuries.

As stated by the World Health Organization (2019), the SDG 3 aims to "ensure healthy lives and
promote well-being for all at all ages, with the following health targets by 2030." This SDG
targets the following objectives: (1) to reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70
per 100 000 live births; (2) to end preventable deaths of newborns and children under five years
of age, i.e., reducing neonatal deaths with a minimum of 12 per 1000 live births and under-five
mortality or deaths at a minimum of 25 per 1000 live births; (3) to cease spread communicable
diseases such as, AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and neglected tropical diseases and combat
hepatitis, water-borne diseases; (4)to decrease by a third the premature mortality or deaths
through prevention of non-communicable diseases; (5) to further the promotion of mental health
and well-being and reinforcing the prevention and management of substance abuse, e.g.,
narcotic drug abuse and harmful use of alcohol; (6) to decrease by 50 percent the number of
global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents; (7) to ensure universal access to sexual
and reproductive healthcare services, particularly family planning, information, and education;
and (8) to attain universal health coverage (UHC), specifically, financial risk protection, access to
quality essential healthcare services including safe, effective, quality, and affordable essential
medicines and vaccines for all individuals, and safety for individuals exposed to hazardous
chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution and contamination.

To address the SDG 3 in the Philippines, the Universal Health Care Act (UHC) or "Kalusugan
Pangkalahatan" was enacted into a law, Republic Act 11223 on February 20, 2019. This law
institutes UHC for all Filipinos and prescribes reforms in the Philippine Health Care System and
the funds relating to the implementation health care in the country. It simply provides every
Filipino the highest possible quality of health care which is accessible, efficient, equitable,
appropriately funded, and fairly financed (DOH, 2019). This law ensures that all Filipinos and
their communities is given the necessary quality services which are free from health threats and
financial suffering. This is to be measured by the country's health service coverage and financial
protection.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Preface

“Sustainable development is the idea that human societies must live and meet their needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This “official”
definition of sustainable development was developed for the first time in the Brundtland Report
in 1987.

Specifically, sustainable development is a way of organizing society so that it can exist in the
long term. This means taking into account both the imperatives present and those of the future,
such as the preservation of the environment and natural resources or social and economic
equity.

How Did the Idea of Sustainable Development get Relevant?

The industrial revolution is connected to the rise of the idea of sustainable development. From
the second half of the 19th century, Western societies started to discover that their economic
and industrial activities had a significant impact on the environment and the social balance.
Several ecological and social crises took place in the world and rose awareness that a more
sustainable model was needed.

Here are some examples of the economic and social crises that shook the world in the twentieth
century:

 1907: the American banking crisis

 1923: the crisis of American hyperinflation
 1929: the financial crisis of the 1930s begins
 1968: the worldwide protests against bureaucratic elites
 1973 and 1979: oil shocks
  1982: the debt shock of developing countries

And some examples of ecological crises:

 1954: Rongelap nuclear fallout

 1956: Mercury crisis of Minamata
 1957: Torrey Canyon oil spill
 1976: Seveso disaster
 1984: Bhopal disaster
 1986: Chernobyl nuclear disaster
 1989: Exxon Valdez oil spill
 1999: Erika disaster But also: global warming, air pollution, the issue of the ozone layer,
the loss of biodiversity…

The Tragedy of Commons and Sustainable Development [1968]

In 1968 the ecologist and philosopher Garret Hardin wrote an essay entitled the tragedy of the
commons. He argued that if individuals act independently, rationally and focused on pursuing
their individual interests, they’d end up going against the common interests of their communities
and exhaust the planet’s natural resources.

In this way, human free access and unlimited consumption of finite[1] resource would extinguish
these same resources. Hardin believed that since man is compelled to procreated unlimitedly the
Earth resources would eventually get overexploited. To his eyes, mankind needed to radically
change its way of using common resources to avoid a disaster in the future – this would be the
way to keep on a sustainable development track.

Limits To Growth And Sustainable Development [1972]

A few years after Hardin’s essay, in 1972, Meadows et al., commissioned by the Club of Rome,
ran a computer simulation that aimed to predict the consequences of what could happen in a
planet with limited resources

The interactions between 5 different dimensions – world population growth, industrialization,

pollution generation, food production, and nonrenewable resource depletion – were analyzed,
considering a scenario where these variables grew exponentially and technology’s ability to
increase resources was linear.

The strongest ending scenario was that an economic and social collapse would happen by the
end of the 21st century if man imposes no limits to growth. After more than 4 decades, these
predictions seem to be right when it comes to pollution and its consequences – threatening
sustainable development.

1st UN Conference on the Environment and Sustainable Development [1972]

As the world’s knowledge of global politics evolved the first historical conferences were
organized. In 1972, it took place in Stockholm the UN Conference on the environment – the first
big world leaders meeting organized by the UN to discuss the human impact on the environment
and how it was related to economic development. One of the main goals of this gathering was to
find a common outlook and common principles to inspire and guide the world’s population to
preserve the “human environment”.

The Human Development Index and Sustainable Development [1980]

Once the idea that our planet had limits that needed to be respected grew, together with the
idea that progress isn’t only about economic growth, integrated solutions started to develop – as
is the case with the Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI is nowadays a statistical tool that
measures countries’ economic and social achievements.

To do so, it uses dimensions such as health, education, financial flows, mobility or human
security, among others. Every year the UN Development Programme ranks countries based on
the HDI report released together with their annual report. It works as a periodic way of
monitoring the development levels of countries.

HDI & The Ecological Footprint – Achieving Sustainable Development

Ideally, humankind should get to a point where at least the minimum HDI is achieved and live
below the maximum ecological footprint per capita. Living above the minimum HDI would
guarantee that human needs such as education or health are satisfied.

An ecological footprint represents the maximum limit of consumption per person according to
Earth’s ecological capacity. Living below it wouldn’t compromise the future generations, as the
planet would be able to regenerate itself. If we could manage to keep above the minimum HDI
and below the maximum ecological footprint per capita (a number that is decreasing as the
human population increases) we’d be on track for a sustainable future.

But the fact is that every year the Earth overshoot day comes earlier. This day represents the
date when humankind gets in debt with the planet. Why? Because our demand for ecological
resources in a given year has been exceeding what the planet can regenerate in that same year.

We’re keeping this deficit because we’re using more ecological resources than the planet can
handle to lose. At the same time, we’re also not taking proper care of our waste. We’re dealing
with it in a linear way, in opposition to nature, where everything follows a circular approach.
Today’s consumption habits are a big threat to sustainable development.

The Brundtland Report and Sustainable Development [1987]

The Brundtland report, also known as “Our Common Future”, gave the most recognized and
widely accepted definition of the term “sustainable development” in 1987. Following this report,
“the human ability to ensure that the current development meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” was the first
widely accepted definition of sustainable development.

The World Commission on the Environment and Development also stood out that sustainable
development needed to consider that developing has limitations. According to the organization,
the “present state of technology and the social organization on environmental resources,
together with the limited ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities”
impose limitations on sustainable development.

Climate Change & Sustainable Development [1988]

As the consciousness about the impact that climate change could have on the planet and on
human life grew, the International Panel on Climate Change was created by the UN Development
Programme and the World Meteorological Organization. Its purpose was (and still is) to develop
and share knowledge about the impact of human activities on climate change. It also aims to
explore the causes, consequences, and ways of fighting climate change.

CO2 and methane are gases that exist to help the Earth keep its ideal temperature and
guarantee life as we know it. Nonetheless, the excessive production of these gases leads to an
increase in the planet’s temperature. This happens because part of the heat the Earth irradiates
and that’d go to space keeps trapped in the atmosphere.

The Triple Bottom Line & Sustainable Development [1997]

The triple bottom line is an important assumption that’s part of the foundations of sustainable
development. It was first used by John Elkington, the founder of a sustainability consultancy firm.

This expression means that companies should consider 3 different bottom lines in their
businesses – and not only, as was usual at the time (and still is in many companies today), care
about the profit and loss account. This means that organizations should also measure how
socially responsible the operations across their value-chain are.

In addition, Elkington combined a third concern: that companies also needed to measure their
environmental impact on the planet. In the end, the idea is business needs to be concerned
about its impact on people and planet – and not only finance and profit.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and Sustainable Development [2001]

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment was a 4 years-long investigation that started in 2001 and
was requested by the UN. Over 1200 researchers gathered to assess the consequences that
ecosystems’ changes had on human well-being. Finding the scientific basis for action needed to
improve the conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems was another goal.

The main findings of the investigation were:

1. Humans have changed ecosystems more quickly and widely than ever before. This resulted
in a substantial and largely irreversible biodiversity loss;

2. The changes made to ecosystems improved human well-being and the economy but have
harmed the planet and society. It wasn’t only biodiversity decreasing at a high rate. Poverty was
also still affecting many communities and climate change increased the risk of nonlinear
changes;

3. The degradation of ecosystems services would probably get worse over the 21st century;

4. The changes needed to preserve the ecosystem’s degradation and meet the increasing
demand for services could still be met. Nonetheless, it would involve significant changes in
policies across the public and private sectors.

Sustainable Development Today

Today’s framework on sustainable development is quite strong although there is still a huge way
to go. The latest IPCC report demonstrated that big changes will need to happen quickly
regarding the reduction of CO2 emissions to keep the Earth’s temperature below 2ºC and
prevent its devastating impacts.

There are many actors working with different audiences in different areas of sustainability. They
share the same goal – to raise awareness on this topic and to create conditions for it to grow and
develop. One of the main players is the United Nations, where different teams actively work on
multiple campaigns such as #beatplasticpollution or #solvedifferent, apart from organizing
the meetings between the world leaders.
On the business side, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) helps its
member companies to accelerate their businesses transition to create a sustainable world. There
are also some certifications that reward (mostly through a stamp recognition) the businesses
with the best practices for the planet, such as the B-Corp movement, the Rainforest Alliance, the
Fairtrade Foundation or the Conscious Capitalism Movement.

At the same time, entities like the Elen MacArthur Foundation are opening the way when it
comes to the circular economy and how societies and businesses can align how they use natural
resources with the way nature does it. Aligning businesses’ operations across their supply chains
is also allowing different and ecological business models to develop – such as growing
mushrooms from coffee leftovers.

THE UNITED NATIONS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS 2030 (UN-

SDG 2030)

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations Member States in
2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and
into the future. At its heart are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are an
urgent call for action by all countries - developed and developing - in a global partnership. They
recognize that ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies that
improve health and education, reduce inequality, and spur economic growth – all while tackling
climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests.

The SDGs build on decades of work by countries and the UN, including the UN Department of
Economic and Social Affairs:

 In June 1992, at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, more than 178 countries
adopted Agenda 21, a comprehensive plan of action to build a global partnership for
sustainable development to improve human lives and protect the environment.
 Member States unanimously adopted the Millennium Declaration at the Millennium
Summit in September 2000 at UN Headquarters in New York. The Summit led to the
elaboration of eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to reduce extreme poverty by
2015.
 The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and the Plan of
Implementation, adopted at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in South
Africa in 2002, reaffirmed the global community's commitments to poverty eradication
and the environment, and built on Agenda 21 and the Millennium Declaration by including
more emphasis on multilateral partnerships.
 At the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, in June 2012, Member States adopted the outcome document "The Future We
Want" in which they decided, inter alia, to launch a process to develop a set of SDGs to
build upon the MDGs and to establish the UN High-level Political Forum on Sustainable
Development. The Rio +20 outcome also contained other measures for implementing
sustainable development, including mandates for future programmes of work in
development financing, small island developing states and more.
 In 2013, the General Assembly set up a 30-member Open Working Group to develop a
proposal on the SDGs.
 In January 2015, the General Assembly began the negotiation process on the post-2015
development agenda. The process culminated in the subsequent adoption of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development, with 17 SDGs at its core, at the UN Sustainable
Development Summit in September 2015.
 2015 was a landmark year for multilateralism and international policy shaping, with the
adoption of several major agreements:
o Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (March 2015)
o Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing for Development (July 2015)
 o Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with its 17
SDGs was adopted at the UN Sustainable Development Summit in New York in
September 2015.
o Paris Agreement on Climate Change (December 2015)
 Now, the annual High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development serves as the
central UN platform for the follow-up and review of the SDGs.

GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

Preface
There is more than sufficient food produced globally to meet the food needs of all people on the
planet (Action Against Hunger, n.d). Despite this, an estimated 124 million people experience acute
hunger today, approximately 40 million predevelopments higher than the numbers from two years
ago. In addition to that, stunted children are approximately 151 million and wasted children are
estimated to be 51 million worldwide (Grebmer et al., 2018). Furthermore, small-scale farmers,
fishers, and rural workers produce approximately 70 percent of food globally but are among the most
vulnerable sector to food insecurity (Action Against Hunger, n.d.). These data reflecting the world
status on hunger show the urgency of ensuring global Food security. Food security is projected to
remain a worldwide issue for the Coming decades (Rosegrant & Cline, 2019).
Food security occurs when every person, every time, is able to physically and economically access
sufficient, safe, and nutritious food, depending on their dietary needs and food preferences toward an
active and healthy lifestyle (World Food Summit, 1996).
The concept of food security emerged during the mid-70s (FAO, n.d.) It recognizes the global issue of
chronic food insecurity. Food insecurity is the phenomenon "when people do not have adequate
physical, social, or economic access to food" (FAO). Food security brings into public policy the food-
related problem of famine, hunger, and food crises. Nations and global institutions make various
commitments to achieve the eradication of hunger and food insecurity. Despite actions to address
these issues, global food security remains to be a major concern.
The concept of food security gained prominence in the 1970s. First, hunger was seen as a lack of
food supply. The focus of government programs to make food available was boosting of agricultural
production and maintaining price stability of food (food availability). However, in 1981, Amartya Sen
argued that hunger or starvation is not only about the supply of food but people's lack of access to
food despite the availability of food. This resulted in broadening the Concept of food security to
include access to food (food accessibility), which are located in the wider concerns of poverty and
development.
In 1986, World Bank introduced that food insecurity can be a permanent or temporary phenomenon,
giving rise to the ideas of chronic and transitory hunger. Chronic food insecurity recognizes the
perennial problem of food insecurity, while transitory food insecurity talks about the momentary
shortage of food. This pushes policy to recognize that sufficient food must be accessible at all times
(food stability). Finally, food security was extended to include issues of food quality. It ensures the
utilization of food that meets people's nutritional balance, traditions, and preferences (food utilization).
Hence, the important aspects of food security are availability, access, utilization, and stability (Napoli,
2011).
Measurement for Food Security and Food Insecurity
To understand the phenomenon of food security and food insecurity, various measures and indices
have been developed. These measures and indices become the bases for actions to eradicate food
insecurity and demand accountability from governments. Measures and indices can encompass
analyzes of causes and/or effects, either qualitative or quantitative and may be done in several levels-
from household levels to national levels (Masset, 2010). Some indicators are expressed in the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Furthermore,
examples of indices used for food insecurity are the Global Hunger Index and the Hunger Reduction
Commitment Index.
Prevalence of Undernourishment (PoU) and the Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity
in the Population of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
PoU measures hunger on several levels, in the regional and global levels, by gathering data on food
availability, consumption, and energy requirements. Some factors being measured are the daily per
capita food consumption, human energy requirements, and agricultural production. On the other
hand, the Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity in the Population collects data through
interviews regarding people's experiences of difficulty in accessing food. Data can reflect individual
and household levels and can show what part of the population are most food insecure (FAO,
n.d. http://www.fao.org/hunger/en/).
Global Hunger Index
Global Hunger Index is published by Concern International and Welthungerhilfe. It looks into
indicators such as the share of the population related to:
 undernourishment referring to insufficient caloric intake
 child wasting referring children with low weight in relation to their height;
 child stunting referring to children under the age of five that have a low
 weight in relation to their age; and
 child mortality or under-five mortality rates.
These indicators are given standardized scores to come up with the Global Hunger Index (GHI) score
of each country. The GHI can monitor the state of hunger in the national and global levels to inform
policy and actions where they are needed (Grebmer et al., 2018).

Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI)

Hunger Reduction Commitment Index (HRCI) initiated by the Institute of Development Studies looks
into three themes that measure governments' political commitment in attaining food security:
governments' policies and programs; legal frameworks; and public expenditures (Lintelo et al, 2011).
Some of the indicators being measured in HRCI are: (Lintelo et al., 2011).
 institutional coordination - whether there is a coordinating body to address hunger and
malnutrition and the successes of this coordinating body;
  government intention and action - about priority actions of the government on hunger and
malnutrition;
 analytical rigor about the generation of scientific evidence on hunger and malnutrition as the
basis for public policy; and,
 learning and adaptation about the governments' effort to innovate with policy approaches to
eradicate hunger and malnutrition

Some Factors Affecting Food Security

Food security is a multidimensional issue. Ensuring the availability, accessibility, utilization, and
stability of food are linked to several social, political, economic, cultural, and environmental processes
and factors. Some of these factors are food supply, food prices, income, and sudden changes in the
context:
1. Food Supply
As mentioned, early concepts and policies on food security focused on agricultural production to
ensure the availability of food. Food security involves Sustainably supplying the energy and protein
needs and healthy diet of the people. It is concerned not only with quantity but also the quality of food
that promotes the well-being of people (Martindale, 2015).
Before food comes to people's tables, it goes through a complex process of production,
manufacturing, and distribution where different functions and operations must be carried out
(Martindale, 2015).
Food supply is also connected with conditions in agricultural production. This involves issues of rural
farmers. The conditions of rural poor farmers should be a focus of the discussion of food security
because rural farmers, usually Small-scale producers, have an important role in producing food in
developing countries (Schanbacher, 2010). In the Philippines, farmers and fishers remain to be the
poorest sectors in 2015, with 34.3 percent and 34.0 percent poverty incidence respectively (PSA,
2017). Local rural producers must be sufficiently supported by government programs and reforms to
continue to supply sufficient food to the population.
2. Food Prices
Changes in national and global economic policies and process may lead to increases in oil and food
prices. In the Philippines, inflation hit 4.5 percent in April 2018, leading to a drastic rise in food prices.
Inflation slows down to 3 percent but food prices are still higher than 2018 prices (1BON, 2019). High
prices of food can compromise the food security of citizens.
3. People's Income
Another problem associated with food security is the lack of people's access to food because of
poverty (Naylor, 2014). Despite the availability of food, people without economic access to buy food
may not meet their food needs. The minimum wage in Metro Manila amounting to Php512 is barely
sufficient to meet food and other needs (1BON Foundation). The most income-poor Filipinos are also
vulnerable to food price increases.
Changes and Shocks in Social and Natural Environments
Variability and shocks in the social and natural environment may affect food availability, accessibility,
and stability. For instance, climate change may affect the timing and length of growing and harvesting
seasons, amount of water supply, and degradation of resources such as erosion (FAO, 2012). In the
Philippines, farmers may experience lower yields due to the scarcity of rainfall during El Niño
phenomena. This will result in decrease in food supply and income poverty for farmers leading to
transitory food insecurity. Conflict also results in poverty and hunger. UN reports that more than half
of the 815 undernourished people come from countries in conflict (Action Against Hunger).

Globalization and Food Security

Food security that is linked to the complex process of food production, consumption, and distribution
intersects with issues of trading, reforms in agriculture, as well as rural development (Schanbacher,
2010). Economic globalization involves foreign trading of food. This encompasses the creation of a
global food supply chain or the process involving the production, manufacturing, consumption, and
disposal happening across different national borders. Some issues in the supply chain include
contamination and the lack of a mechanism to trace where food comes from. Cultural globalization
also creates changes in people's taste, preference, and consumption of food. For instance,
transnational fast-food corporations have operated in different countries. Some Or the biggest fast-
food chains are McDonald's, Burger King, Starbucks, KFC, Pizza Hut, and Subway.
Economic globalization can also tremendously impact food security. In the Philippines, agricultural
food production weakens because of the decrease in government spending for agriculture as a
consequence of the structural adjustment program imposed by the IMF and World Bank. In 1982, 7.5
percent of total government expenditure went to agriculture, then spending decreased to 3.3 percent
in 1988. Trade liberalization in the Philippines marked by the joining of the Philippines in the World
Trade Organization required the country to eliminate quota for agricultural imports allowing the entry
of cheap imported agricultural products that discouraged local farmers. The Philippines also became
dependent on rice imports despite the country's ability to become rice self-sufficient (Bello, 2008).
Commitments to Achieve Food Security
Recognizing the urgency and severity of world food security problems, world leaders have made
global commitments to address food insecurity.
In 1996, the World Food Summit was convened by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in
Rome where UN member states committed to eradicate hunger and reduce undernourished people
all over the world. The UN members in this summit pledged to commit to a plan of action (Napoli,
2011). It is a continuous effort to eliminate hunger in all countries, with a short-term goal of decreasing
the number of undernourished individuals to half (1996 World Food Summit).
This commitment was later reaffirmed during the UN Millennium Summit in 2000 that resulted in the
formulation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Napoli, 2011). The first goal of the MDGs
is to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. This goal has three targets:
1. To significantly decrease the number of people with daily income below $1.25;
 2. To attain full, constructive, and decent employment for al; and
3. To significantly decrease the number of people suffering from hunger
(https:// www.mdgmonitor.org/mdg-1-eradicate-poverty-hunger/).
In 2015, UN member states adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Agenda. This encompasses
the 17 Sustainable Development Goals that will guide governments, private sector, and civil society to
address the global issues of poverty, inequalities, and climate change. Sustainable
Development Goal number 2 is to achieve zero hunger (Kaci, 2017).
These commitments push governments to take all necessary actions to combat hunger and poverty
through different policies and programs including boosting agricultural productivity, making agriculture
resilient to climate change, increasing investment in agriculture, and correcting trade processes.
Aside from this, organizations and movements critical of too much market driven food production
system espouses the idea of food sovereignty as an approach to achieving food security. Food
sovereignty focuses on promoting the well-being of small-scale farmers and producers, landless
farmers, and rural farm workers instead of prioritizing large-scale, corporate, and liberalized
agriculture and food production (Schanbacher, 2010). Food security is not only about producing food
the fastest and cheapest way at the expense of displacing the livelihood and well-being of poor
farmers.
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
What is Global Citizenship?
Socrates, a classical Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Western philosophy, was once
quoted saying, "I am not an Athenian or a Greek, but a citizen of the world." He identified himself as a
global citizen. What is a global citizen? What are the rights and duties of a global citizen? How do we
become global citizens? The answers to these questions will be discussed in the succeeding
paragraphs.
What is Global Citizenship?
Before defining global citizenship, let us first discuss the terms global and citizenship separately.
What is citizenship? Are there varied definitions or is there an overarching one? In fact, there are
many definitions of citizenship. It may be defined on the lenses of membership, status, practice, or
performance (Isin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.).
For instance, described in terms of membership and status, citizenship is defined as how residents
live in a particular area with previously agreed upon rights and responsibilities. These statutes are
restricted in a particular territory and a political boundary. This means that the citizens must have an
understanding of their rights and responsibilities (Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015. In Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay,
2015. eds).
In addition, using the lenses of practice and performance, citizenship may be defined as an institution
that mediates the rights between constituents of a governing system and the system itself. However,
the relation between the citizens and the governing system is not always unified nor stable (Isin &
Nyers, 2014. In Isin & Nyers, 2014. Eds.).
Three Types of Rights
Two very important aspects of citizenship are civic rights and duties. First, let us discuss the definition
of rights and the different types of rights. Rights are defined as any lawful, social, or moral principle of
autonomy or entitlement. It is a collection of what is allowed and what should be provided to a group
of People based on a particular legal system, norms, or ethical standards (Wenar, 2015). The three
types of rights are: (1) civil rights, (2) political rights, and (3) social rights. These will be discussed
below:
1. Civil rights are entitlements provided by a certain locality to its public constituents. These
include the right to free speech. Every citizen is allowed to communicate openly. He/She is permitted
to voice opinions even if it is criticizing the government just as long as it has basis and evidence. Civil
rights also include the right to have and to be treated with dignity.
2. Political rights are administrative entitlements provided by a specific government. These include
the right to run for office. Every citizen has the right to be elected as a representative of his/her
community as long as he/ she meets various criteria.
3. Social rights are entitlements related to public services and to social protection. These include
insurance, health care, welfare, housing, and pensions (lsin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014.
eds.).
Three Types of Duties
What is the definition of duty? Duty comes from the French word "due" which means "to owe" (Gove,
1986). Therefore, duty is defined as an obligation or expectation to perform an action based on the
law, social norms, or a moral standard (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, n. d.). The three types of duties,
in relation to citizenship, are: (1) conscription, (2) taxation, and (3) participation.
1. Conscription - pertains to the obligation to register as a reserve force in the army. This means
that every able-bodied citizen is asked to take up arms and fight for their country in case of war.
2. Taxation - relates to the duty to pay a compulsory contribution to a state or the government
3. Participation refers to the obligation to take part in the community. Every citizen is encouraged
to participate in the development of their community. They are also encouraged to vote for their
leaders during elections (lsin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.).
What does global stand for in global citizenship? Internationalization, or becoming global, is defined
as including worldwide components to education (Yemini, 2017). It is concerned with adding
international and intercultural aspects to the approach to education (Knight, 2004. as cited in Yemini,
2017. pp. 2-3). Students are encouraged to learn about the whole world and international relations.
What is global citizenship? Global citizenship is defined as the belief that all people have rights and
civic responsibilities based on the reason that they reside in the world. Therefore, a person's global
identity transcends his/her geographical and political ones. Although, this does not mean that the
individual must denounce his/her nationality, but these are secondary to his/her global identity (lsrael,
2012).
There are three categories of global citizenship. These are: (1) open global citizenship; (2) moral
global citizenship, and (3) sociopolitical global citizenship. These three will be further discussed
below:
1. Open global citizenship believes that nations still exist and differ from one another. However, it
recognizes the interdependence between different nations and the opportunities for cultural
diversification.
2. Moral global citizenship focuses on the ethical aspect of global citizenship. What are the moral
facets of global rights and responsibilities? Moral global citizenship put emphasis on human rights,
equality, and global responsibility.
3. Sociopolitical global citizenship emphasizes the social and governmental systems and
structures around the world. It advocates shifting the existing political power in order to advance
global equality (Veugelers, 2011).

Why Global Citizenship?

In 2015, the United Nations (UN) summit declaration "Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda
for sustainable development" named global citizenship education as one of the strategies in
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 4.7. It was also mentioned in Declaration 36 (UN, n. d.).
In addition, the UN Secretary-General report in 2015 urged educators to utilize global citizenship
education to promote peace around the world (UN, 2015). As one can see, global citizenship is highly
supported by international organizations and worldwide declarations.
Learning to Live Together
An important principle in education is for people to "learn to live together" In fact, it is also crucial in
the rapidly changing world where population is becoming more and more diverse. It is integral for
educators to promote a culture of peace, non-violence, tolerance, and respect. Learning to live
together entails understanding different nation's interconnectedness and interdependence. It requires
strategies for diplomatic coexistence and compromise. Global citizenship education provides a new
lens for the youth to think critically, cast aside hatred, and have the capacity for dialogue and
tolerance (Hahn, n. d.).
Restore Dignity
Paulo Freire (1970) urges people to be educated in citizenship rights in order to question the hidden
oppressive systems that surround them. The task of global citizenship education is not just to teach
about current systems but also the concepts of global social justice and basic rights (Abdi, Shultz, &
Pillay, 2015. in Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015. eds).
Global citizenship education imparts knowledge about the rights of every individual in the international
community. One of these basic rights is that every human being has the right to live in dignity. Global
citizenship education assists in restoring positive identity, dignity, and self-esteem of individuals
(Hahn, n. d.).
Issues in Global Citizenship
Despite the progress in the conceptualizations and in the education of global citizenship, there are
still issues and challenges arising. These issues and challenges may be classified into three:
(1) conflict between global citizenship and national citizenship, (2) conflict between global citizenship
and individual differences, and (3) development of the imagination for global citizenship. These will be
discussed below:
1. Conflict between global citizenship and national citizenship
Even though people are encouraged to become global citizens, in reality, they live in their own culture
with their own context (1gnatieff, 1994. as cited in Pike, 2008. p. 225). This is very obvious in
countries with a significant amount of immigration (Yemini, 2017).
The performative aspect of citizenship, not only Looks at the rights and duties being performed, but
also at the rights and duties not being performed or not allowed to be performed. For example, what
about states that do not allow press freedom (Isin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.)? How
will the global right to freedom of speech be implemented if the state does not allow it?
2. Conflict between global citizenship and individual differences
for instance, in the membership and performance aspect of citizenship, how would one classify non-
citizens who perform the duty of citizens, like immigrants that pay taxes? Should they be given the
same rights as the citizens (Isin & Nyers, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.)? In Italy, for example,
immigrants who perform very personal services or care work for Italian families and know deep-
seated secrets are still not treated as part of the family because they are foreigners. In fact, they are
called "intimate foreigners." Examples of these are caregivers, nurses, and domestic helpers
(Hepworth, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.).
In another example related to this, "abject citizens" is a phrase used to describe citizens who
experience being rejected from citizenship even though they were born in the same territory. This
term usually refers to nomadic cultures like the Roma or Sinti who are from a different ethnic group
with their own culture (Hepworth, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.)
Individuals may also have multiple citizenship identities (Harrington, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.)
For instance, a person may have dual citizenship because he/she resides in two countries. Finally,
another source of conflict is the assumption that English is the universal language (Yemini, 2017)
even though it is not the language used by the greatest number of populations.
3. Development of the imagination for global citizenship
Another challenge is the slow progress in developing a global imagination (Richardson, 2008).
Citizenship is not permanent, can be transformed, and contestable (Harrington, 2014. in Isin & Nyers,
2014. eds.)
The word global in global citizenship has the tendency to focus only on the experiences of the
majority. It highlights only the existing sociocultural, political, and economic systems. It neglects the
experiences of the minority and the marginalized (Abdi, Shultz, & Pillay, 2015. in Abdi, Shultz, &
Pillay, 2015. eds).
Who is the active citizen? The word active has come to refer extremes, on one hand, it is the "good"
citizen who follows social norms. On the other hand, it is the "bad" citizen who questions and
disobeys social norms. Is the concept of active citizenship used to "pacify" people? Is it used to make
people comply to what is expected from them? (Neveu, 2014. in Isin & Nyers, 2014. eds.).