An Introductory Learning Tool

Archaeology
in Canada

a program of
un programme de


Section 1: Introduction
Section One: Introduction

Introduction
This learning tool is an
introduction to the basics
of archaeology. It includes Bow of the RMS Titanic photographed in 2004 by the ROV Hercules
(Courtesy of NOAA, Institute for Exploration, University of Rhode Island/
practical information on what Wikimedia Commons).
archaeology is and how we
use it, and activities to help us
understand how it enhances our
historical knowledge, influences
Message to Teachers
our perceptions of history, and This tool is meant to give teachers and students
shapes historical narratives. a framework to understand archaeology as a
historical tool, and its relationship with Canadian
Learning about archaeology
history. Students are encouraged to think critically about their historical
can help students appreciate
understandings and the communities they inhabit.
how important and complex the
process of uncovering historical We encourage teachers to be sensitive to both individual and group
sites can be. Archaeology is dynamics to ensure the classroom remains a safe environment for all
more than digging up an artifact; learners. The classroom climate should encourage students to relate
it is interpreting the artifact’s use to one another in positive and respectful ways. With your students,
and connecting it to the bigger co-create ground rules for considerate and inclusive discussions, and
picture. Archaeology can help address harmful language and ideas immediately. Please consult your
support or disprove historical school support systems for additional support, if needed.
narratives. It can also play a role
in supporting histories that have The activities included here may be used in sequence or can stand
been disregarded, purposefully alone. Additional free, bilingual resources on archaeology in Canada
forgotten, or misconstrued. are available on The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada’s
This is particularly important education guides are part of a collaborative process that engages
in Canada, where Indigenous history educators, academic historians, and community stakeholders
experiences and oral histories in content creation and lesson planning. This guide was developed
have often been ignored. Along in collaboration and consultation with Scott Masters and Dr. Kristen
with biased colonial narratives, Barnett, and produced with the support of the Government of Canada.
this willful exclusion has long Historica Canada offers programs that you can use to explore, learn,
obstructed our education on and reflect on our history, and what it means to be Canadian. This tool is
many aspects of Canadian aligned with current Canadian curricula and has been produced for use
history. in middle and high school classrooms.

2
Terminology
Some of the activities in this guide require advanced
reading skills. Consider pairing language learners with
stronger readers. Teachers may want to consider pre-
teaching important words or concepts to help students
understand the big ideas involved in these activities.

The term Canada is used in this guide to indicate

the traditional Indigenous lands and former French
and British colonies we now refer to as Canada. This
guide uses primarily contemporary language to refer
to geographical areas; teachers may want to use the
terminology of the time for their students.

Chronology in traditional archaeology is divided into

“prehistoric” and “historic” periods. The “prehistoric”
period refers to anything before the arrival of European
settlers, extending back tens of thousands of years ago.
However, many Indigenous peoples and archaeologists
Bottles excavated at the Niagara
have come to prefer the terms “pre-colonial” or “pre-contact” to correct Apothecary, at Niagara-on-the-
the misconception that history did not exist before European presence. The Lake, Ontario (Day of Archaeology/
Wikimedia Commons).
“historic” period refers to the time from the arrival of European settlers to the
present. The transition from “prehistoric” to “historic” took time, so the term
“protohistoric” is often used to describe this transition period.

Indigenous peoples in Canada were incorrectly referred to as “Indians” by colonial European

settlers. While “Indian” is not an appropriate term to describe Indigenous peoples, it is still used in
legal definitions. Similarly, terms such as “Paleoindian” and “Paleoeskimo” are used in archaeology
to refer to early Indigenous populations in North America, despite growing calls to replace this
language. “Aboriginal” is a political and legal umbrella term that is used in the Constitution and
includes status and non-status First Nations, as well as Métis and Inuit. “Aboriginal” and “Indigenous”
are often used interchangeably, but Indigenous is preferable, and is used in this guide. Cultural or
Nation-based specificity is preferred whenever possible.

In 2022, a
gold coin was
found on the
coast of Newfoundland. Plucked
from the beach, it dates to 1420s
England, which meant that it was
already 70 years old and out of
circulation by the time John Cabot
arrived on Canada’s shores. How it
got here remains a mystery.

Rock formations in the Milk River Valley at Writing-on-Stone Medieval coin: Quarter noble of Henry VI dating to 1422 - 1427,
Provincial Park in Alberta (Dreamstime.com/James Gabbert/ cropped (Somerset County Council, Ciorstaidh Hayward
ID 309170103). Trevarthen, 2015-04-30/Wikimedia Commons).

3
 What is Archaeology?
Section 2: Overview
A rchaeology is a social science that uses
evidence, including material remains
(physical evidence left by humans), to
grow our understanding of past human life.
Archaeologists also use written documents
and collaborate with communities to
incorporate knowledge, expertise, and oral
histories. Whenever possible, this is used in
combination with information that comes
from physical remains found at locations
where people lived, worked, visited, and were
buried long ago. Archaeology can be used
to investigate any time period. There are
archaeologists that specialize in the recent
past, and those who study human evolution
and periods dating to millions of years ago.

Archaeological remains may be as large as

a town or as small as a bead. Since organic
materials (plant and animal matter) don’t
usually preserve well over time, the artifacts
(objects) that archaeologists study are often
made of materials like stone or clay, which
are more durable. In the right conditions,
such as dry caves, underground sites, or
permafrost, we are more likely to find plant
and animal materials. Through careful study,
archaeologists can discover a lot about
peoples’ economic, social, religious, and
Wanuskewin Heritage Park dig site in Saskatoon,
political lives. For example, diets can be Saskatchewan (Jeffery J. Nichols/Wikimedia Commons).
reconstructed from faunal (animal) and floral
(plant) remains, while house structures, rock
alignments, pictographs (rock paintings), Archaeological Sites
and petroglyphs (rock carvings) can tell us
about homes, use of resources, and social, An archaeological site is any place where the
familial, and religious life. material remains of ancient human activity are
found, whether by chance or through a deliberate
search. While a lot can be learned from studying
surface sites, many archaeological sites are
underground. Investigations of buried sites can
be conducted using specialized equipment,
core samples, and controlled excavation. An
archaeological dig often relies on the use of small
handheld tools to slowly and carefully remove thin
layers of soil. The exact position of everything found,
including soil, artifacts, belongings, and other
features, is then recorded.

Some of the questions archaeologists aim to

answer include whether the site was used once or
repeatedly? Was it used by the same or different
Pictograph in Lake Superior Provincial groups of people? When? What did life look like
Park, Ontario (Dreamstime.com/John
Twynman/ID 255571328). here?

4
 Section 2: Overview

Archaeological dig at the Ontario Student Classics

Conference, 2005 (France3470/Wikimedia Commons).

Teacher-led Introductory Activity

Create a scavenger hunt in the classroom using 5-10 images depicting artifacts or other clues from an
archaeological site of your choosing. As an optional measure, assign select students a “tool” or “skill”
(e.g., linguist, entomologist), which must be used in order to access specific clues.

1. Have your class search for clues to determine what kind of site they are looking at. Once they
have located the clues, have students describe what they can about the site or society. Ask
students: What do you know for sure? What are you making guesses about?
Tip: Hold back some clues – archaeologists don’t always find things at the same time!

2. Reveal the site in question. Ask students: What did you get right? What information was, or still
is, missing? Was it easy or hard to make observations and guesses? Were you correct, or close
to correct? How do you know? What kind of information or language did you use to come to
your decisions?

3. Have students refer to the inferences they made from your clues. Have them consider: When
making these guesses, what factors were you considering? Do you think your guesses reveal
more about the objects or about the society or civilization as a whole? Did you manage to
make guesses that helped reveal something about a particular object, or did your inference
apply to a society or civilization as a whole? What does this reveal about the challenges
archaeologists face?

Modification: Try bringing the hunt outdoors! Students can look for images set up in advance, or
explore what’s already in their environment.

5
 Archaeology in Canada

C anadian archaeology was developed in the

early 19th century, when the tools and methods of
techniques and dating methods were discovered,
regional cultural histories were defined, and a basic
Western archaeology were still being worked out. At the (if not necessarily accurate) outline of the pre-
time, many sites, including sacred burial grounds, were colonial history of Canada was established. The late
destroyed for the “exotic” objects they might contain 1900s also saw record industrial growth in Canada,
(this destructive practice is known as relic-hunting). which increased concerns from the public about
environmental preservation. As a result, archaeologists
After Confederation in 1867, interest in Canada’s
and heritage activists across the country successfully
pre-colonial past continued to develop. The
urged governments for legislation to protect heritage
post-Confederation era was a period of intensive
sites at risk of destruction.
archaeological collection. Photography had become
a new means of keeping records. Local nature, In the 21st century, archaeology continues to evolve.
science, and history societies grew, and encouraged Indigenous peoples, who have long fought for the right
provincial governments to establish museums and to become more involved in the excavation and study
other educational programs promoting archaeology. of their own heritage, are finally being recognized.
Canadian archaeologists began doing field work, In the Northwest Territories, archaeological permits
describing and interpreting results, and setting research require the permission of the nearest First Nation; in
standards. southern Canada, there has been a rise in land-claims
and self-government treaties, nearly all of which assert
In the 20th century, the study of archaeology became Indigenous sovereignty over cultural matters such as
more widely available, and the field grew. New archaeology.

Indigenous Archaeology
The Scientific Method
Indigenous peoples have long been voicing
Archaeology relies on the Western scientific
concerns about non-Indigenous archaeologists
method, a process in which you:
and the destruction, collection, and control of
their Indigenous pasts. Studying Indigenous pasts 1. Make an observation
without the inclusion of Indigenous peoples in the 2. Ask a question or form a hypothesis
present is a problem that Indigenous archaeology 3. Conduct research and test the
aims to correct. Developed in part to support better hypothesis
practices, Indigenous archaeology was introduced 4. Analyze the data to come to a
as a set of approaches to archaeology with, by, and conclusion
for Indigenous peoples. It brings together Indigenous
peoples and archaeologists through partnerships Sometimes an archaeologist might come up
and collaboration. with a hypothesis first, and then search for
observable data to prove or disprove it.
Indigenous archaeology is divided into two
categories: Indigenous-centered archaeology,
Archaeological excavation of an Indigenous site on the north shore
which is done by non-Indigenous scholars and of Lake Consecon in Prince Edward County, Ontario, 1956 (Flossey
Ibey/HC01994A/Community Archives of Belleville & Hastings County/
archaeologists in collaboration with Indigenous Wikimedia Commons).
communities, and Indigenous archaeology, which is
led by Indigenous scholars and archaeologists. Both
work to understand the past in ways that consider
multiple perspectives and integrate Indigenous
science, knowledge, experiences, and values into
archaeological methods and analysis.

Recent developments include combining

Indigenous and Western sciences – recognizing
and including methods from the thousands of years
of observations, questions, and conclusions that
Indigenous peoples conducted long before the
development of Western science.
6
 Section 2: Overview

Activity: Subjective History

One of the many difficulties archaeologists and historians face is avoiding bias or jumping to
conclusions. Take a moment to reflect on your life, and elements that you feel are familiar, like your family
dynamics, social norms at your school, the layout of your local mall, money, perhaps the kinds of local
produce you can find in the summer, or some basic laws where you live. Many of these things may seem
matter of fact, but are actually subjective to your lived experiences. If you were to move to another part
of the world, somewhere you have never been before, how many of these things would be familiar? What
resources would you use to learn more? In some ways, studying the past is comparable. It is important to
keep an open mind and not assign your own subjective values without evidence.

1. As a class, define and discuss objective vs. subjective language,

starting with a list of traits that fall under each category. How
might subjective language be a disadvantage in finding or sharing
information? How might it be useful? It may be helpful to use props
(for example, make objective and subjective observations about a
book, and then compare it to another book and note how the lists
change).

2. Hundreds of years from now, what would archaeologists be able

to learn about you? Pick five personal items that would tell an
archaeologist – who is unfamiliar with your society – about you
and your life. Remember to consider what you have learned about
subjectivity. What would they be able to observe from these items?
What do these items not show? (Keep in mind that electronic devices
would run out of battery and may not be rechargeable.)

3. In small groups, observe and discuss similarities and differences

in each other’s items. Assume all these objects have been found
together. What would this tell archaeologists about your class?
Does the added context change how your own objects may be
interpreted? Do they offer an accurate representation of your
school? Your neighbourhood? Your province? Your generation? If not,
what is missing? What kinds of additional materials would be helpful
in completing the picture?

4. Have a class discussion: What do your findings tell you about the
limits of primary source evidence? How might our biases affect our
interpretation of that evidence? What can archaeologists do to help
counter or prevent subjectivity? What might happen if they found the
same, or very different, items in a classroom in another part of the
country?

Extension Activity: In small groups, look at the Arecibo Message, which

was sent to outer space in 1974 in order to convey basic information about
earth and humanity. Do you feel it is an accurate or appropriate depiction?
Why or why not? What does the message tell us about what people at that The Arecibo message as sent in
time considered to be historically or societally significant? What does it tell 1974 from the Arecibo Observatory
(Arne Nordmann (norro)/2005/
us about society at the time? Would the message be different today? Wikimedia Commons).

7
 T he first Indigenous peoples to arrive in what coastal migrations and movements from South
Section 3: Pre-contact
is now Canada came here about 40,000 America into North America. What we do know
years ago. They traveled in many groups and is that early Indigenous peoples evolved in many
by various methods, and there is much we still ways over thousands of years. As archaeologists
do not know. The land-bridge model posits a work more with Indigenous peoples to listen to
connection between present-day Siberia and and respect their knowledge and oral histories,
Alaska that allowed people access to the North more information is being shared and our
American continent. Other models include understanding continues to grow.

Dating
Determining the age of archaeological sites can a predictable rate. Measuring the rate of decay
be difficult. Archaeologists use a combination of radioactive carbon can determine how long it
of relative dating (comparing data to form a lived and when it died. For example, we can learn
chronology) and absolute dating (using scientific when a settlement was occupied by dating the
analysis to find an estimated age) methods. wood in their boats or seeds in the pottery. There
Radiocarbon dating is one important absolute are several other dating methods archaeologists
dating method. When a living organism dies, the also use, which you can read about in this article
radiocarbon stored inside of it starts to decay at on The Canadian Encyclopedia.

Excavations at
Red Hill Valley,
an Indigenous
settlement over
11,000 years old
near Hamilton,
Ontario,
have found
evidence that
the community
hunted either
mastodons or
mammoths.

A mammoth skeleton on display at Yukon Beringia Interpretive Center

in Whitehorse, Yukon (Chris Hunkeler/Wikimedia Commons).

Paleontology
Our fossil record representing the past 600 million years includes an estimated 250,000 species
– and new species are constantly being described. These fossils include a variety of organisms,
ranging from microscopic prehistoric fish to dinosaurs. Animals with hard skeletal parts have a
higher chance of being preserved and make up the vast majority of fossils.
Often mistaken as a part of archaeology, the study of fossils is actually a separate field called
paleontology. It helps us understand the nature of ancient organisms and provides information
about ancient biomass (material produced by organic organisms).
While paleontology and archaeology are two different fields, they share some similarities,
such as the types of tools and technology they use, field practices, and research methods.
They may even work in the same site, and there is some crossover; for example, environmental
archaeologists work on fossilized plant and animal life.

8
 Section 3: Pre-contact

Interior of the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump Interpretative

Center, Alberta, 1996 (LBM1948/Wikimedia Commons).

Activity: Early Indigenous Peoples

1. Read TCE’s articles on Culture of Early Indigenous Peoples and the History of Early Indigenous Peoples.
2. In pairs or small groups, choose a pre-contact archaeological site to research. Some starting
examples include:
i. Bluefish Caves
ii. Jemseg Archaeological Site
iii. Áísínai’pi
iv. Pointe-du-Buisson Archaeological Sites
a. Begin by examining some artifacts from, or photographs of, the site. Together, write down
three inferences (informed guesses) and three questions about the site based on what you
have seen. Remember to consider both environmental (e.g., soil) and cultural (e.g., pots)
evidence.
b. Now do more in-depth research on the site. Ensure your information is coming from
reputable sources – read the Research Tips guide before you start. Take note of how many
of your inferences were correct, and how many of your questions were answered. Is there
anything we still don’t know? Why might that be?
c. Do you see any parallels or similarities between the evidence discovered at the site, or the
peoples who lived at this site, and your community today? What does this reveal about
the historical continuity of societies in Canada?
3. Present your conclusions to the class then have a discussion on what you have learned. Were there
similarities between the sites? What was different? What was the range of artifacts? What have we
as a Western society learned about early Indigenous history from these sites? Why do you think it is
important to learn about early Indigenous peoples in North America?

Extension Activity: How might our understanding of these sites be deepened by learning from
connected Indigenous communities?

9
 T
Section 4: Archaeology and Oral Histories
hough traditional archaeology primarily relies on physical remains, it is influenced by other factors
like written texts, Indigenous knowledge, oral histories, and legends.

Oral Traditions have been a vital method of passing down stories, knowledge, histories, spiritual lessons
and teachings, songs, poems, prayers, and ways of survival for thousands of years. Among Indigenous
peoples in Canada, Oral Traditions refer to a means of gathering, preserving, and sharing stories,
myths, traditional knowledge, and history. For centuries, biased Western beliefs that the written word
is more trustworthy than oral histories have threatened and damaged traditional ways of passing
down knowledge. Today, Indigenous communities continue to reclaim oral histories and traditions
that have been suppressed or threatened by colonization. Other communities have also embraced
Oral Traditions to save and pass down chronicles and genealogies, as well as to communicate ideas in
musical form.

Oral histories can be an important tool for archaeologists. Whether they

remain in the Oral Tradition, or are eventually written down, they offer key
information about our pasts and can guide physical discoveries.

The Franklin Expedition

Part One: Oral
Testimonies
In 1845, the British government
commissioned Sir John Franklin to
continue the search for the Northwest
Passage in the Arctic. Two ships, HMS
Erebus and HMS Terror, set off on the
expedition. The ships — and the men
on board — disappeared, never to be
heard from again. Searches for the
Franklin Expedition began in 1848, but the
ships were only found in 2014 and 2016,
respectively, after scientists finally listened
to Inuit oral testimony that had been
Local Indigenous group attending the Franklin
preserved since the fateful event. Expedition crossing of Lake Prosperous,
Northwest Territories (Robert Hood, 1820/Library
and Archives Canada/2836428).
1. As a class, discuss why Western historical traditions have
often disregarded oral histories. Who might benefit, and
who might not?
2. On your own, investigate the history of the Franklin Expedition. Read and listen to the oral
history testimony in the Exploring the Arctic through Oral History article on The Canadian
Encyclopedia. Further information on the Expedition can be found by reading the Franklin
Search and Sir John Franklin articles.
3. Write a reflection on the role that Inuit knowledge and oral history played in finding the two
ships. What do the ways in which primary sources were used in the Franklin search tell you
about how different sources of evidence are valued by different groups? Do you
think this impacts what parts of history are remembered or considered
significant?
4. In small groups, discuss what you have learned about the
relationship between oral histories and archaeology. How
does archaeology relate to Oral Traditions? How does the
discovery of material evidence affect the legitimization of
Oral Traditions in Western historical practices?
Graves of the Franklin Expedition, Beechy Island, Nunavut,
Canada (Dreamstime.com/Karen Foley/ID 255549070).

10
 Section 4: Archaeology and Oral Histories
Part 2: Marine Archaeology
1. Read TCE’s article on Maritime Archaeology and explore the
Underwater archaeology at the Franklin wrecks page from Parks
Canada.
2. Conduct some research on another shipwreck or marine
archaeological site in Canada. Are there any close to where you live?
When is the site from? What does the site look like? How was it found?
What part of our history does it reflect? What challenges does this site
Canadian postage stamp, issued
present for archaeologists? 1987, depicting the recovered wheel
3. Create a diorama of the shipwreck or site, paying attention to the challenges of the Breadalbane (Dreamstime.
com/Alexander Mirt/ID 212011002).
posed by the terrain, what tools and technology would be needed to access
the site and explore it, and what archaeologists have found at the site.
4. Write a reflection: What have you learned about marine archaeology as a process?
5. What are some unique challenges not experienced by “land” archaeology? Are there benefits to
marine preservation? What tools or technologies were invented or developed to help conduct this
work?

Food for thought: Sometimes archaeologists and historians know where a site or evidence is,
but are unable to access it, as was the case for both the Titanic and the Breadalbane. How
important is simply knowing an artifact or site exists?

Activity: The Norse in Canada

In the 11th century, Norse explorers formed a settlement on the

northeastern tip of Newfoundland. Tales of these explorations, preserved
through Oral Traditions now known as the Vinland sagas, were written
down in the 13th century. For centuries the sagas kept this history alive,
Still from Vikings video (Historica Canada).
but it was not until the late 20th century that archaeologists uncovered the site
of this settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows. Using both the sagas and physical
evidence, we have been able to piece together a history of the Norse in Canada.

1. Using the Norse in Canada Worksheet located at the end of this guide, fill in the first column on
what you think you know about Vikings, Norse explorers, and their history in Canada.
2. Watch the Vikings video and then read the TCE articles on L’Anse aux Meadows and Norse Voyages.
3. Fill in the rest of the chart based on what you have learned.
4. Have a class discussion about what you have learned.
a. What does this site reveal about the people and the historical context of the time? Can you
connect the site and its people to society today?
b. Think about how this story fits into the popular narrative of the European “discovery” of the
Americas. Consider how long the sagas have existed, and how long we’ve had archaeological
evidence.
c. Why do you think explorers like Christopher Colombus and Jacques Cartier are still credited
with the European discovery of the Americas? Why is the European discovery of the Americas
still dated to the 15th and 16th centuries? What does this tell us about continuity and the
dominant historical narrative, and about how history is perceived?

11
 A
Section 5: Uncovering lost and forgotten histories
rchaeological dig sites are often chosen based on information provided by external sources.
However, there are occasions where archaeological activities are prompted by an unexpected
discovery. For example, the discovery of a centuries-old cemetery during the construction of an LRT
station in Ottawa, or the hundreds of artifacts being uncovered by melting ice and glaciers in the
northwest. As time passes, many histories are forgotten, while others are purposefully buried (physically
or otherwise). In these cases, the unexpected discovery of material evidence becomes the key to
unlocking a whole new chapter in our history. Other times, all we have are possibilities, and the hope
that one day an archaeological team will start to dig in the right place.

Cupids Cove Plantation is the

archaeological site of the first permanent
British settlement in Canada. Located in
the traditional territory of the Beothuk
and Mi’kmaq, it was settled by a few
dozen colonists in 1610, and
uncovered in 1995 thanks to
geographical clues found
in contemporary letters and
diaries.

Archaeological sites offer an irreplaceable window

into the past. In Canada, the Borden System
records the location and nature of sites. Because
they are so rare and valuable, established sites are
often protected from vandalism and unauthorized St Joseph’s Oratory, Montreal, the site of an unexpected
archaeological discovery dating hundreds of years
excavation by a range of laws and regulations. (Dreamstime.com/Chandra Ramsurrun/ID 207152417).
However, many of these rules are established
regionally. The federal government has no legal
framework to protect archaeological sites on lands Historical Significance
under its control, despite signing most UNESCO Criteria
Conventions on heritage conservation. This puts
Canada far behind many other countries in Prominence: Was the person/group,
conservation efforts. Archaeological sites continue place, or event recognized as significant
to be threatened by natural processes like erosion, at the time? Why or why not? What did it
by illegal collection and looting, and by large-scale mean to be “significant”?
economic development.
Consequences: What effect(s) did the
person/group, place, or event have?

Impact: How widespread and long-

lasting was the person/group, place, or
event’s impact?

Revealing: What does the person/group,

place, or event reveal about the larger
historical context or current issues? How
do they inform our understanding of a
historical issue or period?

Reconstructed buildings, palisades, and original

stonework of the historic Jesuit mission at Sainte Marie
among the Hurons near Midland, Ontario (Dreamstime.
com/Jaahnlieb/ID 258551465).

12
 Section 5: Uncovering lost and forgotten histories

Still from The Blackburns video (Historica Canada).

Activity: The Blackburns

Despite playing a significant role in Toronto’s history, Thornton and
Lucie Blackburn’s story had been lost to time until an archaeological
dig in 1985 uncovered their former home. It was the first dig on an
Underground Railroad site in Canada.

1. Watch the video on Thornton and Lucie Blackburn. Then, read

their biography and the Black History in Canada until 1900
article on The Canadian Encyclopedia. You may also want to do HOW
supplementary research. TO WRITE AN
EFFECTIVE
2. In small groups, discuss what you have learned from their story NEWSPAPER
– about the conditions that Black people faced in Canada, and ARTICLE
Canadian history and society at large. Why do you think the
Blackburns’ story had been forgotten for so long? Does it matter Begin with a lead sentence
that we know about the Blackburns? Why? How does the discovery that will immediately grab
and reminder of these stories affect our understandings of our own the attention of the reader.
history and modern society? Your introduction should
3. The site of the Blackburns’ home is now a public school. There establish the context and
are many places in Canada (buildings, streets, even entire cities) answer the 5Ws: who, what,
that hold multiple histories. Churches built over Indigenous where, when, why (and
burial sites; the lost rivers of downtown Toronto; national parks; how). Use direct quotes
neighbourhoods built over demolished Black Canadian towns, etc. to help frame your story
but use them sparingly
a. Do some investigating and select one of these places that for the most impact. Your
interests you. main body should provide
evidence to back up your
b. Write a newspaper article sharing what you have learned.
story and you can either
i. You may want to include information like why there is or sum up your story succinctly
is not archaeological activity there, obstacles (logistical, in a traditional conclusion
cultural, or otherwise) to excavation, why it is important or find a suitable and
that the work is conducted, and what part of our history effective closing quotation.
this site could reveal, as well as any other information you Always be sure to review
think is relevant. the historical background
of your story to highlight
ii. Be sure to discuss the historical significance of the site you relevant facts that may
chose (see the Historical Significance Criteria to the left). otherwise go unnoticed.

13
 S6: Conclusion - Archaeology as a future-facing discipline

Archaeologists at work at excavation site near Sussex,

Summative Activity New Brunswick (Fundy Archeological Site/Wikimedia

Commons).
1. In pairs, choose an archaeological site in Canada
to research and present. Some questions to
consider include:

Why is this site significant? What does it reveal about the context in which this area
was settled, and the circumstances the inhabitants faced? What stories does this
site tell of the people who settled here? What does it reveal about life in Canada
at this time? What were some benefits and challenges of living there (consider
landforms, climate, vegetation, bodies of water, etc.)? What does it reveal about
human or natural history? How does it relate to the history you think you know
about this time and place?

2. Pretend you are a tour guide or archaeologist for your chosen site and put together
a pamphlet or poster showcasing background information on the location, the work
that has been done there, and what it contributes to our understanding of history.

3. P
 lace the promotional materials around the classroom. For the first 15–20 minutes, let
one partner from each group explore while the other partner presents and answers
questions. Then swap. Each site should have a unique stamp that students can
receive as “proof of visitation.” For your tourists to get the most out of visiting your
site, consider getting creative with your visuals (create an artifact, make a diagram,
bring a tool that might be used on the ground, etc.).

For the presenter: As your classmates come by, welcome your audience and act as
a tour guide through the history and significance of the site — and be prepared to
answer any questions they might have.

4. A
 s a class, discuss similarities and differences you’ve noted between these sites.
When and how were they discovered? How many have oral (or written) histories
relating to them? What do they reveal about Canadian or world history? In what ways
do they challenge your own preconceived notions of Canadian history? What has
archaeology taught us about Canada? In what ways does it fall short? What have
you learned about how we understand history through archaeology?

14
Archaeology
in Canada
 Archaeology in Canada: An Introductory Learning Tool

THE NORSE IN CANADA WORKSHEET

Prior Knowledge Confirmed New Information My misconceptions Wondering

(What I think I know) (What was right) (What have I learned) (What was I mistaken (What I’m still curious
about) about)