Basketball is a team sport in which two teams, most commonly of five players each, opposing one another
on a rectangular court, compete with the primary objective of shooting a basketball (approximately 9.4
inches (24 cm) in diameter) through the defender's hoop (a basket 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter mounted
10 feet (3.048 m) high to a backboard at each end of the court), while preventing the opposing team from
shooting through their own hoop. A field goal is worth two points, unless made from behind the three-point
line, when it is worth three. After a foul, timed play stops and the player fouled or designated to shoot
a technical foul is given one, two or three one-point free throws. The team with the most points at the end of
the game wins, but if regulation play expires with the score tied, an additional period of play (overtime) is
mandated.
Players advance the ball by bouncing it while walking or running (dribbling) or by passing it to a teammate,
both of which require considerable skill. On offense, players may use a variety of shots – the layup, the jump
shot, or a dunk; on defense, they may steal the ball from a dribbler, intercept passes, or block shots; either
offense or defense may collect a rebound, that is, a missed shot that bounces from rim or backboard. It is a
violation to lift or drag one's pivot foot without dribbling the ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands
then resume dribbling.
The five players on each side fall into five playing positions. The tallest player is usually the center, the
second-tallest and strongest is the power forward, a slightly shorter but more agile player is the small
forward, and the shortest players or the best ball handlers are the shooting guard and the point guard, who
implement the coach's game plan by managing the execution of offensive and defensive plays (player
positioning). Informally, players may play three-on-three, two-on-two, and one-on-one.
Invented in 1891 by Canadian-American gym teacher James Naismith in Springfield, Massachusetts, in the
United States, basketball has evolved to become one of the world's most popular and widely viewed sports.
The National Basketball Association (NBA) is the most significant professional basketball league in the world
in terms of popularity, salaries, talent, and level of competition.
Basketball is a rough sport, although it is officially a noncontact game. Players may pass or bounce (dribble)
the ball to a position whereby they or a teammate may try for a basket. A foul is committed whenever a
player makes such contact with an opponent as to put the opponent at a disadvantage; for the 2001–02
season the NBA approved a rule change that eliminated touch fouls, meaning brief contact initiated by a
defensive player is allowable if it does not impede the progress of the offensive player. If a player is fouled
while shooting and the shot is good, the basket counts and he or she is awarded one free throw (an
unhindered throw for a goal from behind the free throw, or foul, line, which is 15 feet [4.6 meters] from the
backboard); if the shot misses, he or she gets a second free throw. If a foul is committed against a player
who is not shooting, then that player’s team is awarded either the possession of the ball or a free throw if the
other team is in a penalty situation. A team is in a penalty situation when it has been called for a set number
of fouls in one period (five in one quarter in professional and international play and seven in one half in the
college game). In college basketball, penalty free throws are “one-and-one” in nature (consisting of one free
throw that, if made, is followed by a second) until the opposing team commits a 10th foul in a half, creating a
“double bonus” situation where all fouls automatically result in two free throws. A pair of penalty free throws
are immediately earned when teams enter the penalty situation in both the NBA and international play.
Infractions such as unsportsmanlike conduct or grasping the rim are technical fouls, which award to the
opposition a free throw and possession of the ball. Overly violent fouls are called flagrant fouls and also
result in free throws and possession for the opposition. Players are allowed a set number of personal fouls
per game (six in the NBA, five in most other competitions) and are removed from the game when the foul
limit is reached.
Football, game in which two teams of 11 players, using any part of their bodies except their hands and
arms, try to maneuver the ball into the opposing team’s goal. Only the goalkeeper is permitted to handle the
ball and may do so only within the penalty area surrounding the goal. The team that scores more goals wins.
Football is the world’s most popular ball game in numbers of participants and spectators. Simple in its
principal rules and essential equipment, the sport can be played almost anywhere, from official football
playing fields (pitches) to gymnasiums, streets, school playgrounds, parks, or beaches. Football’s governing
body, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), estimated that at the turn of the 21st
century there were approximately 250 million football players and over 1.3 billion people “interested” in
football; in 2010 a combined television audience of more than 26 billion watched football’s
premier tournament, the quadrennial monthlong World Cup finals.
Play of the game
The rules of football regarding equipment, field of play, conduct of participants, and settling of results are
built around 17 laws. The International Football Association Board (IFAB), consisting of delegates
from FIFA and the four football associations from the United Kingdom, is empowered to amend the laws.
Modifications to the laws regarding the size of the field, ball, and goal, as well as the duration of the game,
the use of return substitutes, and the use of temporary dismissals may be made for youth, senior, and
disabled players and in grassroots or amateur football.
Equipment and field of play
The object of football is to maneuver the ball into the opposing team’s goal, using any part of the body
except the hands and arms. The side scoring more goals wins. The ball is spherical, covered with leather or
some other suitable material, and inflated to a pressure equal to 0.6–1.1 atmospheres (8.5–15.6 pounds per
square inch [600–1,100 grams per square cm]) at sea level; it must be 27–28 inches (68–70 cm) in
circumference and 14–16 ounces (410–450 grams) in weight. A game lasts 90 minutes and is divided into
two halves; the halftime interval lasts as long as 15 minutes, during which the teams change ends of the
field. Additional time may be added to each half by the referee to compensate for stoppages in play (for
example, player injuries). If neither side wins, and if a victor must be established, two equal periods of extra
time as long as 15 minutes are played, and then, if a winner is still not established, a series of penalty kicks
(shoot-out) may be taken.
The playing field (pitch) should be 100–130 yards (90–120 meters) long and 50–100 yards (45–90 meters)
wide; for international matches, it must be 110–120 yards (100–110 meters) long and 70–80 yards (64–75
meters) wide. A goal is located at the center of each short side of the field, set so that each of its vertical
posts is the same distance from its respective corner of the field. The goal is a three-sided frame typically
backed by a net and measuring 8 yards (7.3 meters) wide and 8 feet (2.4 meters) high. The penalty area,
the large rectangular area in front of the goal in which the goalkeeper is allowed to use hands and arms to
handle the ball, is 44 yards (40.2 meters) wide and extends 18 yards (16.5 meters) into the field. Inside this
box 12 yards (11 meters) from the midpoint of the goal is a penalty mark. The smaller rectangle within the
penalty area is the goal area, which measures 20 yards (18.3 meters) wide and 6 yards (5.5 meters) long.
The game is controlled by a referee, who is also the timekeeper, and two assistants who patrol the
touchlines, or sidelines, signaling when the ball goes out of play and when players are offside.
Players wear jerseys with numbers, shorts, and socks that designate the team for whom they are playing.
Shoes and shin guards must be worn. The two teams must wear identifiably different uniforms,
and goalkeepers must be distinguishable from all players and match officials.
Fouls
Free kicks are awarded for fouls or violations of rules; when a free kick is taken, all players of the offending
side must be at least 10 yards (9.15 meters) from the ball. Free kicks may be either direct (from which a goal
may be scored), for more serious fouls, or indirect (from which a goal cannot be scored), for lesser
violations. Penalty kicks, introduced in 1891, are awarded for more serious fouls committed inside the area.
The penalty kick is a direct free kick awarded to the attacking side and is taken from a spot 12 yards (11
meters) from goal, with all players other than the defending goalkeeper and the kicker outside the penalty
area. Since 1970, players guilty of a serious foul are given a yellow caution card; a second caution earns a
red card and ejection from the game. Players may also be sent off directly for particularly serious fouls, such
as violent conduct.
Rules
There were few major alterations to football’s laws through the 20th century. Indeed, until the changes of the
1990s, the most significant amendment to the rules came in 1925, when the offside rule was rewritten.
Previously, an attacking player (i.e., one in the opponent’s half of the playing field) was offside if, when the
ball was “played” to him, fewer than three opposing players were between him and the goal. The rule
change, which reduced the required number of intervening players to two, was effective in promoting more
goals. In response, new defensive tactics and team formations emerged. Player substitutions were
introduced in 1965; teams have been allowed to field three substitutes since 1995.
More recent rule changes have helped increase the tempo, attacking incidents, and amount of effective play
in games. The pass-back rule now prohibits goalkeepers from handling the ball after it is kicked to them by a
teammate. “Professional fouls,” which are deliberately committed to prevent opponents from scoring, are
punished by red cards, as is tackling (taking the ball away from a player by kicking or stopping it with one’s
feet) from behind. Players are cautioned for “diving” (feigning being fouled) to win free kicks or penalties.
Time wasting has been addressed by forcing goalkeepers to clear the ball from hand within six seconds and
by having injured players removed by stretcher from the pitch. Finally, the offside rule was adjusted to allow
attackers who are level with the penultimate defender to be onside.
Interpretation of football’s rules is influenced heavily by cultural and tournament contexts. Lifting one’s feet
over waist level to play the ball is less likely to be penalized as dangerous play in Britain than in southern
Europe. The British game can be similarly lenient in punishing the tackle from behind, in contrast to the trend
in recent World Cup matches. The use of video assisted referees (VAR) remains limited in football and is
permitted only in cases in which the organizer of the event has received written permission from FIFA and
has fulfilled all of the requirements FIFA sets out in its Implementation Assistance and Approval Programme.
In cases in which permission is given, video assistance is allowable only in cases of obvious error in
situations concerning goals, penalties, direct red cards, or the wrong player being reprimanded by the
referee. The IFAB’s VAR protocol highlights that the referee’s decision is final, per the laws of the game, and
it discourages breaking the flow of games to allow for video assessment on marginal decisions.
Strategy and tactics
Use of the feet and (to a lesser extent) the legs to control and pass the ball is football’s most basic skill.
Heading the ball is particularly prominent when receiving long aerial passes. Since the game’s origins,
players have displayed their individual skills by going on “solo runs” or dribbling the ball past outwitted
opponents. But football is essentially a team game based on passing between team members. The basic
playing styles and skills of individual players reflect their respective playing positions. Goalkeepers require
agility and height to reach and block the ball when opponents shoot at goal. Central defenders have to
challenge the direct attacking play of opponents; called upon to win tackles and to head the ball away from
danger such as when defending corner kicks, they are usually big and strong. Fullbacks are typically smaller
but quicker, qualities required to match speedy wing-forwards. Midfield players (also called halfs or
halfbacks) operate across the middle of the field and may have a range of qualities: powerful “ball-winners”
need to be “good in the tackle” in terms of winning or protecting the ball and energetic runners; creative
“playmakers” develop scoring chances through their talent at holding the ball and through accurate passing.
Wingers tend to have good speed, some dribbling skills, and the ability to make crossing passes that travel
across the front of goal and provide scoring opportunities for forwards. Forwards can be powerful in the air
or small and penetrative with quick footwork; essentially, they should be adept at scoring goals from any
angle.
volleyball, game played by two teams, usually of six players on a side, in which the players use their hands
to bat a ball back and forth over a high net, trying to make the ball touch the court within the opponents’
playing area before it can be returned. To prevent this a player on the opposing team bats the ball up and
toward a teammate before it touches the court surface—that teammate may then volley it back across the
net or bat it to a third teammate who volleys it across the net. A team is allowed only three touches of the
ball before it must be returned over the net.
History
Volleyball was invented in 1895 by William G. Morgan, physical director of the Young Men’s Christian
Association (YMCA) in Holyoke, Massachusetts. It was designed as an indoor sport for businessmen who
found the new game of basketball too vigorous. Morgan called the sport “mintonette,” until a professor from
Springfield College in Massachusetts noted the volleying nature of play and proposed the name of
“volleyball.” The original rules were written by Morgan and printed in the first edition of the Official Handbook
of the Athletic League of the Young Men’s Christian Associations of North America (1897). The game soon
proved to have wide appeal for both sexes in schools, playgrounds, the armed forces, and other
organizations in the United States, and it was subsequently introduced to other countries.
The game
Court, net, and ball dimensions
Indoor volleyball courtDiagram showing the dimensions of an indoor volleyball court and a volleyball.
Volleyball requires a minimum of equipment and space and can be played indoors or outdoors. The game is
played on a smooth-surfaced court 9 meters (30 feet) wide by 18 meters (60 feet) long, divided by a center
line into two equal areas, one of which is selected by or assigned to each of the two competing teams.
Players may not step completely beyond the center line while the ball is in play. A line 3 meters (10 feet)
from and parallel to the center line of each half of the court indicates the point in front of which a back court
player may not drive the ball over the net from a position above the top of the net. (This offensive action,
called a spike, or kill, is usually performed most effectively and with greatest power near the net by the
forward line of players.)
A tightly stretched net is placed across the court exactly above the middle of the center line; official net
heights (measured from the top edge of the net to the playing surface—in the middle of the court) are 2.4
meters (8 feet) for men and 2.2 meters (7.4 feet) for women. Further adjustments in net height can be made
for young people and others who need a lower net. A vertical tape marker is attached to the net directly
above each side boundary line of the court, and, to help game officials judge whether served or volleyed
balls are in or out of bounds, a flexible antenna extends 1 meter (3 feet) above the net along the outer edge
of each vertical tape marker.
The ball used is around 260 to 280 grams (9 to 10 ounces) and is inflated to about 65 cm (25.6 inches) in
circumference. A ball must pass over the net entirely between the antennae. A service area, traditionally 3
meters (10 feet) long, is marked outside and behind the right one-third of each court end line. At the
1996 Olympic Games the service area was extended to 9 meters (30 feet). The service must be made from
within or behind this area. A space at least 2 meters (6 feet) wide around the entire court is needed to permit
freedom of action, eliminate hazards from obstructions, and allow space for net support posts and the
officials’ stands. A clear area above the court at least 8 meters (26 feet) high is required to permit the ball to
be served or received and played without interference.
Gameplay, scoring, and rules
Informally, any number can play volleyball. In competition each team consists of six players, three of whom
take the forward positions in a row close to and facing the net, the other three playing the back court. (An
exception to this rotation is the libero, a position introduced at the 2000 Olympics; Play is started when the
right back (the person on the right of the second row) of the serving team steps outside the end line into the
serving area and bats the ball with a hand, fist, or arm over the net into the opponents’ half of the court. The
opponents receive the ball and return it across the net in a series of not more than three contacts with the
ball. This must be done without any player catching or holding the ball while it is in play and without any
player touching the net or entering the opponents’ court area. The ball must not touch the floor, and a player
may not touch the ball twice in succession. A player continues to serve until that player’s team makes an
error, commits a foul, or completes the game. When the service changes, the receiving team becomes the
serving team and its players rotate clockwise one position, the right forward shifting to the right back position
and then serving from the service area. Either team can score, with points being awarded for successfully
hitting the ball onto the opposing side’s half of the court, as well as when the opposing side commits errors
or fouls, such as hitting the ball out of bounds, failing to return the ball, contacting the ball more than three
times before returning it, etc. Only one point at a time is scored for a successful play. A game is won by the
team that first scores 25 points, provided the winning team is ahead by 2 or more points, except in the fifth
set, when a team needs to score only 15 points and win by 2 points.
The 2000 Olympics introduced significant rule changes to international competition. One change created
the libero, a player on each team who serves as a defensive specialist. The libero wears a different color
from the rest of the team and is not allowed to serve or rotate to the front line. Another important rule change
allowed the defensive side to score, whereas formerly only the serving team was awarded points.
