The Hebrews, a Semitic-speaking Canaanite people known for their monotheistic
religion of Judaism or the Jewish religion, have preserved a history of their people that
claims very ancient origins and includes descriptions of early leaders, kings, religious
traditions, prophets, and numerous divine interventions. That history, often called the
Tanakh or Hebrew Bible in the Jewish tradition and the Old Testament in the Christian
tradition, has survived for many centuries and influenced the emergence of the two
other major monotheistic faiths, Christianity and Islam. While fundamentalist Christians
and Orthodox Jews hold that the Bible is both divinely inspired and inerrant, historians
must scrutinize the text and the rich history it records. This study and the careful work of
archaeologists in the Near East have revealed a number of problems with accepting as
infallible the story as recorded in the Hebrew Bible, but research has also opened our
eyes to a history that is perhaps even more interesting than the account traditionally
preserved.
The History of the Hebrews
The history of the Hebrews recorded in the Bible starts with the beginning of time and the
creation of the first man, Adam. However, it is with the life of the patriarch Abraham that we
begin to see the emergence of the Hebrews as a distinct group. Abraham, we are told, descended
from Noah a thousand years before, and Noah himself descended from Adam a thousand years
before that. Relying on the ages and generations referenced in the Hebrew Bible, we can deduce
that Abraham was born around 2150 BCE in the Mesopotamian city of Ur. At the age of seventy-
five, he left this city and traveled to the land of Canaan in the eastern Mediterranean. There
Abraham and his wife Sarah had their first son together, Isaac. Isaac then had a son, Jacob, and
Jacob gave birth to twelve sons. From these twelve sons, the traditional Twelve Tribes of Israel
descend (Figure 4.36).
Figure 4.36 Biblical Abraham. The Bible explains that Abraham migrated from Mesopotamia
to Canaan, as represented in this nineteenth-century painting by a Hungarian artist, and there he
eventually had children and grandchildren. (credit: “The Departure of Abraham” by Hungarian
National Gallery/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
While this chronology explains how the Hebrews found themselves in Canaan, there is little to
support it. There are no archaeological sites we can reference, and the only evidence we have for
Abraham, his trip from Mesopotamia, and his children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren
comes from the Hebrew Bible. This has led some to suspect that the stories of Abraham and his
family may have been developed much later than the Bible suggests. And in fact, historians have
traced the story of Abraham to sources written down between the tenth and sixth centuries BCE.
It is possible that Abraham was a historical person and part of an ancient migration recounted for
centuries in oral form, but without additional records or archaeological discoveries that attest to
his existence, we cannot know for sure.
The Hebrew Bible notes that Joseph, one of Abraham’s twelve great-grandsons, ended up
in Egypt. Later, around 1800 BCE based on the biblical chronology, Joseph’s family joined him,
and his descendants lived there for several generations. During this long time in Egypt, the Bible
explains that the descendants of Joseph experienced increasingly poor treatment, including being
enslaved by the (unnamed) Egyptian pharaoh and put to work on building projects in the Nile
delta (Figure 4.37). Later, the pharaoh decided to kill all the male Hebrew children, but one was
saved from the slaughter by being hidden in a basket to float down the Nile. He was discovered
by the pharaoh’s daughter, who named him Moses and raised him among the Egyptian royalty as
her own.
Figure 4.37 The Hebrews in Egypt. The Bible explains that, as represented in this monumental
nineteenth-century painting by the English artist Edward Poynter, the Hebrews were enslaved
and oppressed in Egypt. (credit: “Israel in Egypt” by Guildhall Art Gallery/Wikimedia
Commons, Public Domain)
The Bible continues the story by explaining that the adult Moses discovered who he actually was
and demanded that the pharaoh release the Hebrews and allow them to return to Canaan. After
experiencing a number of divine punishments issued by the Hebrew god, the pharaoh reluctantly
agreed. The Hebrews’ flight from Egypt included a protracted trek across the Sinai desert and
into Canaan, during which they agreed to worship only the single god Yahweh and obey his
laws. This period of their history is often called the Exodus, because it records their mass
migration out of Egypt and eventually to Canaan. Once in Canaan, Moses’s general Joshua led
several military campaigns against the inhabitants, which allowed the Hebrews to settle the land.
The details in the biblical account of the Hebrews’ life in Egypt and their exodus from that
kingdom have led some scholars to associate these stories with the period of Hyksos rule. It was
then, during the Second Intermediate Period, that the Canaanites flooded into the Nile delta and
took control, and it may be that the story of Joseph and his family entering Egypt preserves a
memory of that process. The exact time of the exodus from Egypt has been difficult for
historians to determine for a number of reasons, not least of which is the fact that the Bible does
not name the Egyptian pharaohs of the Exodus period.
Yet some features of the biblical account indicate there was in fact some type of exodus. For
example, Moses’s name is Egyptian and not Hebrew, suggesting he came from Egypt. The Bible
also names the two midwives who traveled with the group, leading some scholars to conclude
there was some oral tradition about a very small group that may have crossed the Sinai into
Canaan, though not the very large group described in the Bible. As for the story of the conquests
of Joshua, the archaeological record simply does not support this. Even at the site of Jericho,
extensive archaeological work has been unable to prove that the city was destroyed when and in
the way the Bible describes. This absence of strong evidence has led most to conclude that there
likely was no conquest, and that there was already a population of Hebrews in Canaan who were
later joined by a smaller group from Egypt.
IN THEIR OWN WORDS
What Is in a Name?
Without archaeological or other evidence, historians have had to rely on the Hebrew Bible for
clues about the Exodus. One possible hint comes from the Bible’s book of Exodus, which
describes the birth of Moses, his mother’s effort to save him from slaughter, and his discovery
and adoption by the pharaoh’s daughter (Figure 4.38).
Figure 4.38 The Infant Moses. This 1904 Anglo-Dutch painting called The Finding of
Moses represents the biblical account of the pharaoh’s daughter discovering the infant Moses
floating in a basket on the Nile. (credit: “The Finding of Moses” by Lawrence
Alma-Tadema/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
And there went a man of the house of Levi, and took to wife a daughter of Levi. And the woman
conceived, and bare a son: and when she saw him that he was a goodly child, she hid him three
months. And when she could no longer hide him, she took for him an ark of bulrushes, and
daubed it with slime and with pitch, and put the child therein; and she laid it in the flags by the
river's brink. And his sister stood afar off, to witness what would be done to him. And the
daughter of Pharaoh came down to wash herself at the river; and her maidens walked along by
the river's side; and when she saw the ark among the flags, she sent her maid to fetch it. And
when she had opened it, she saw the child: and, behold, the babe wept. And she had compassion
on him, and said, This is one of the Hebrews' children. Then said his [Moses’s] sister to
Pharaoh's daughter, Shall I go and call to thee a nurse of the Hebrew women, that she may nurse
the child for thee? And Pharaoh's daughter said to her, Go. And the maid went and called the
child's mother. And Pharaoh's daughter said unto her, Take this child away, and nurse it for me,
and I will give thee thy wages. And the woman took the child, and nursed it. And the child grew,
and she brought him unto Pharaoh's daughter, and he became her son. And she called his name
Moses: and she said, Because I drew him out of the water.
—Exodus 2:1-10 (KJV)
As this story explains, the pharaoh’s daughter named Moses to reflect the fact that she “drew him
out of the water.” Some scholars believe this phrase is a reference to the Hebrew word mashah,
meaning to “draw out,” which sounds similar to the Hebrew pronunciation of Moses, Mosheh.
That explanation would have made sense to Hebrew readers of the Bible, but it does not make
sense that an Egyptian princess would speak Hebrew. While this problem makes it difficult to
take the story seriously as evidence, it does raise an interesting question.
Is the biblical account actually an attempt to explain a Hebrew man’s name that was not Hebrew
but Egyptian? In Egyptian, Moses means “child of.” It would have been part of a larger name
such as Thutmose, which means “child of [the god] Thoth.” The fact that Hebrew tradition tried
to explain his Egyptian name suggests to some that Moses may have been a real person with
Egyptian heritage. That, in turn, suggests there is some validity to the Exodus story itself.
Does the scholarly interpretation of the name Moses as Egyptian in origin seem credible
to you? Why or why not?
What does this story reveal about family relationships in the period?
The biblical book of Judges describes how the Hebrews moved into the hills of Canaan and lived
as members of twelve tribes. In the book of Samuel, we hear how they faced oppression from
the Philistines, one of the many Sea Peoples groups. To better defend themselves against the
Philistines, the Hebrews organized themselves into a kingdom they called Israel. Their first
leader, Saul, became king around 1030 BCE but failed to rule properly. The second king, David,
not only ruled effectively but also was able to drive back the Philistines.
The Hebrews, properly referred to as Israelites in this period because of their formation of the
Kingdom of Israel, now entered a golden age in their history. David suppressed the surrounding
kingdoms, made Jerusalem his capital, and established a shrine there to the Israelite god
Yahweh. This more organized kingdom was then left to David’s son Solomon, who furthered the
organization of Israel, made alliances with surrounding kingdoms, and embarked on numerous
construction projects, the most important of which was a large temple to Yahweh in Jerusalem.
Historians call the period of these three kings—Saul, David, and Solomon—the united monarchy
period. Archaeological work and extrabiblical sources support many biblical claims about the
era. For example, there was a threat to the Hebrews from the Philistines, who were likely one of
the many groups of migrants moving, often violently, around the eastern Mediterranean during
the period of the Late Bronze Age Collapse. We have Egyptian and other records of these
migrants, some specifically mentioning the Philistines by name. It seems likely that the founding
of Israel was a response to this threat.
As for the existence of Saul and David, things are less clear. The Bible provides several
conflicting accounts of how these two men became king. For example, Saul is made king when
he is found hiding among some baggage, but also after leading troops in a dramatic rescue.
Similar confusion surrounds David, though it seems clear he became an enemy of Saul at some
point and was able to make himself king. Despite these contradictions, there is one piece of
archaeological evidence for the existence of King David. The Tel Dan stele discovered in the
Golan Heights in the 1990s makes reference to the “house of David,” meaning the kingdom of
David (Figure 4.39). However, no similar archaeological evidence has been unearthed for
David’s son Solomon. Indeed, evidence of Solomon’s most famous achievement, the building of
the first temple in Jerusalem, has yet to be discovered. However, we have strong archaeological
evidence for some of his other public works projects, such as the three-thousand-year-old gates
discovered at Gezer, Hazor, and Megiddo.
Figure 4.39 Evidence for the Existence of David? This stone fragment from the Tel Dan stele
dates from the ninth century BCE and was discovered in the 1990s. It includes an inscription that
reads “house of David,” making it the only non-biblical source attesting to the existence of King
David. (credit: modification of work “Aramaic Inscription on Basalt Monument, Dan, 9th
Century BC” by Gary Todd/Flickr, CC0 1.0)
After the death of Solomon, the period of the united monarchy came to an end, and Israel split
into two kingdoms, Israel in the north and Judah in the south. This inaugurated the period of the
divided monarchy (Figure 4.40). Jerusalem remained the capital of Judah, while Samaria was the
capital of Israel. The northern kingdom was the larger and wealthier of the two and exerted
influence over and sometimes warred with Judah. The biblical account often puts the kings of the
northern kingdom in a negative light, noting that they abused their subjects and incorporated
elements of foreign religious traditions in their worship of Yahweh.
Figure 4.40 The Divided Monarchy. After the reign of Solomon, the united monarchy of the
Israelites split into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel.(attribution: Copyright Rice University,
OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
With the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its expansion into Canaan, Israel and Judah
entered a new era under foreign domination within the Assyrian-controlled Near East. Anti-
Assyrian sentiment in both kingdoms and the Neo-Assyrians’ desire to control the eastern
Mediterranean eventually led to multiple Assyrian attacks on Israel. The most devastating
occurred in 722 BCE, when thousands of Israelites were deported to other parts of the empire, as
was the Assyrians’ custom.
Prophets in Judah interpreted the destruction of Israel as punishment for its having veered from
the covenant with Yahweh. They called for religious reforms in Judah in order to avoid a similar
fate. While Judah was incorporated into the Neo-Assyrian Empire, it avoided the destruction
experienced by Israel. However, the defeat of Assyria by the Neo-Babylonians brought new
challenges to Judah. Resistance to Babylon led to punishments and forced deportations in 597
BCE, and finally to the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple in 586 BCE.
The many Judeans deported to Babylon after the fall of Jerusalem were settled in Mesopotamia
and expected to help repopulate areas that had been devastated by wars. Many assimilated into
Babylonian culture and became largely indistinguishable from other Mesopotamians. Some,
however, retained their Judean culture and religious beliefs. For these Judeans, the Babylonian
exile, as it was called, was a time of cultural and religious revival. They edited various earlier
Hebrew writings and combined them into a larger work, thus giving shape to the core of the
Hebrew Bible. Finally, with the rise of the Persian Empire and its conquest of Babylonia, the
Persian king Cyrus the Great permitted the unassimilated Judeans to return to Judah. They went
in two major waves over the next few decades and began a process of reconstruction that
eventually included the rebuilding of Yahweh’s temple at Jerusalem.
The Culture of the Hebrews
The most salient feature of Hebrew culture during this period was its then-unusual monotheism.
The Bible suggests this tradition began with Abraham, who was said to have entered into a
covenant with Yahweh as far back as 2100 BCE. With the emergence of Moses in the Bible,
Hebrew monotheism really began to take shape. As the Bible explains, during the exodus from
Egypt, Moses was given the laws directly from Yahweh, including the command that
only Yahweh be worshipped. This account suggests that pure monotheism was commonly
practiced by the Hebrews from that time forward. Yet closer inspection of the biblical stories
reveals a much more complicated and gradual process toward monotheism.
For example, the first of the commandments given to Moses by Yahweh demands that the
Hebrews “have no other gods before me.” This language implies that there are in fact other gods,
but those gods are not to be worshipped. In other places in the Bible, God is referred to as plural
or occasionally as part of an assembly of gods. This textual evidence likely preserves small
elements of the earlier Canaanite polytheistic religious traditions. These include the veneration of
El, the head of the pantheon and often associated with Yahweh, and of Yahweh’s consort
Asherah, the storm god Baal, the fertility goddess Astarte, and many others. Archaeologists’
discoveries of temples and figurines representing these gods attest to the fact that they were
worshipped in some form well into the eighth century BCE.
Many portions of the Bible describe how the Hebrews frequently fell away from Yahweh and
back into their polytheistic traditions. This backsliding is usually condemned in the Bible and
occasionally results in efforts by biblical heroes to restore Moses’s covenant with God. King
Hezekiah of Judah (727–697 BCE), for example, conducted a cleansing campaign against
unauthorized worship around his kingdom. He removed local shrines, destroyed sacred
monuments, and smashed cult objects. His son, King Manasseh, however, restored some of these
cultic practices and shrines. Setting aside the bias of the Bible’s writers, Manasseh may have
been attempting to rescue long-standing religious traditions that had been under assault by his
reform-minded father. However, as early as the mid-seventh century BCE, the religious
reformers who promoted the centralized worship of Yahweh and obedience to the laws of Moses
had clearly gained the upper hand. Their interpretation of Hebrew history and religion was then
on the rise.
The backsliding theme of the Hebrew Bible was partly a way for its writers to account for the
vestiges of Canaanite religious practices that did not fit neatly with their view of the Hebrews as
having been monotheistic from the time of Moses. The abandonment of Yahweh accounted for
the disasters that befell the Hebrews in Israel and Judah, especially the destruction of the temple
and forced deportation to Babylon. Neo-Assyria and Neo-Babylonia were merely tools, the
biblical writers and the prophets they record attest, used by Yahweh to compel the Hebrews to
follow the correct path or face punishment. This version of Israelite history was kindled and
strengthened during the Babylonian exile, when the core portion of the Hebrew Bible was being
edited and assembled.
By the time the Judeans were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple, the basic
framework of what we understand today as Judaism had emerged and been largely accepted. The
Jews (or people from Judah) were expected to worship only Yahweh, live moral lives consistent
with his dictates, and closely follow the laws of Moses. For example, they were prohibited from
murdering, stealing, and committing adultery. They were barred from consuming specific foods
such as pork, shellfish, insects, and meat that had been mixed with dairy. Food had to be
properly prepared, which included ritual slaughter for animals. Jewish people were also
prohibited from working on the seventh day of the week and were compelled to treat wives with
respect and give to charity, among many other acts. And of course there were important rules
about the worship of Yahweh, including loving him, fearing him, emulating him, and not
profaning his name.
Since the Hebrews could trace their origins back to agricultural clans, a number of the laws of
Moses dealt with agricultural issues, like prohibitions against eating ripe grains from the harvest
before they are made into an offering. The festival of Sukkot, meaning “huts,” was a harvest
festival when Jewish people were expected to erect huts, possibly as a way to remember the time
when they were primarily agriculturalists. However, as the Hebrews grew in number and began
living in cities and adopting urban occupations, these agricultural traditions were relegated
primarily to symbolic religious practice. In cities, Jewish people found economic opportunities as
craftspeople, traders, and merchants. As Jerusalem grew in the centuries after the Babylonian
exile, their religion became ever more adapted to urban life.
At the center of urban life in Jerusalem was the temple, completed around 515 BCE (Figure
4.41). It included courtyards as well as an enclosed sanctuary with altars and a special location
kept in total darkness, referred to as the Holy of Holies, where Yahweh was present. In the
temple, the priests organized various religious festivals and performed elaborate rituals,
including special sacrifices of animals supplied by worshippers seeking the favor of Yahweh.
