PSYCHO-SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND

BEHAVIOURAL CHALLENGES

PDP4804 STUDY GUIDE

LEARNING UNIT 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION, OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

In a way, we are all travellers through life. This module is concerned with
psychosocial, emotional and behavioural challenges that we all encounter from
time to time while on this journey. Therefore, we use travelling as a metaphor
to guide you through the content. In this module, we are mainly “travelling”
through the chapters of the prescribed book that are indicated at the beginning
of each learning unit (LU). Although the content of the LUs is based on the
chapters of the prescribed book, we do not refer you to specific page numbers
in the book as the book and the information here are not revised at the same
time.

Let’s turn our attention to the focus of this unit. Managing the behaviour of
learners, from primary to secondary school, is one of the most difficult tasks of
any teacher. Behavioural challenges present themselves in a variety of forms,
from a young child hitting his or her friend to a teenager disrupting a lesson for
no apparent reason.
 When can behavioural, emotional and/or social challenges of learners be
classified as atypical?

There is a fine line between normality and abnormality when looking at children’s
behaviour. Behaviour can be considered as normal, or abnormal, depending on
the situation or context that the learners find themselves in. For instance:
children taking off their clothes to get into a bath is fine, but children taking off
their clothes to go to church naked is not acceptable. Atypical behaviour can be
defined as behaviour which is unusual and does not conform to societies’
expectations (Marked by Teachers, 2019).

Some children exhibit behaviour that fall outside of the normal, or expected,
range of development. These behaviours emerge in a way or at a pace that is
different from their peers (National Centre for Learning Disabilities [NCLD],
2018:1). It is thus a psychological condition or behaviour that departs from the
norm or is harmful and distressing for the individual or those around them. This
type of behaviour usually violates what society feels is appropriate (NCLD,
2018:1).

Outcomes for this unit

Table 1.1: Specific outcomes and assessment criteria
Outcome Assessment criteria
o Analyse the aetiology of atypical behaviour
Identify the causes and in children and refer to the context and
factors contributing to functions of behaviour.
atypical psychosocial and o Explore the accepted set of child
emotional behaviour in development principles associated with
learners. various theoretical frameworks.
o Identify the causes and factors contributing
to atypical psychosocial and emotional
behaviour in learners.
 Chapters to study in your prescribed book
The following chapters in your prescribed book are relevant for this unit:
Donald, D, Lazarus, S & Moolla, N. 2014. Educational psychology in social
context – Ecosystemic applications in southern Africa (5th ed.). Cape Town:
Oxford University Press.

Chapter 3: An ecosystemic perspective

Chapter 4: Positive psychology
Chapter 5: Understanding human development
Chapter 8: Contextual disadvantages: Conceptual framework
Chapter 9: Specific issues of contextual disadvantages
Chapter 10: Social problems: Conceptual framework
Chapter 15: Learning, emotional and behavioural difficulties

1.2 THE AETIOLOGY cause OF ATYPICAL BEHAVIOUR deviant IN LEARNERS

Children's development normally follows a certain predictable course. The

acquisition of specific abilities is often used to measure children's development.
These abilities are known as developmental milestones. According to Dosman,
Andrews and Goulden (2012:561), developmental milestones are “specific skill
attainments occurring in a predictable sequence over time, reflecting the
interaction of the child’s developing neurological system with the environment.
Skills can be grouped in sectors of development: gross motor, fine motor (including
self-care), communication (speech, language and nonverbal), cognitive and social-
emotional”. Although not all children reach a specific milestone at the same time,
there is an anticipated time frame for reaching these developmental milestones
(NCLD, 2018:1).
 Expectations of certain behaviour patterns in children vary greatly from family to
family, and from culture to culture. Bornstein (2013:258) illustrates it in the
following manner: “Every culture is characterized, and distinguished from other
cultures, by deep-rooted and widely acknowledged ideas about how one needs to
feel, think, and act as an adequately functioning member of the culture. Insofar as
parents subscribe to particular conventions of a culture, they likely follow prevailing
‘cultural scripts’ in childrearing.” The cultural perspective thus dictates the beliefs
and behaviour regarding childcare and childhood developmental expectations
(Bornstein, 2013:263).
“Some may place a higher value on compliance, dependence, and respect for
elders, while others may give priority to risk-taking, assertiveness, and
independence. Adults who appreciate these principles of child development will
develop attitudes and practices which are based on realistic expectations of
children’s needs and abilities” (BC Health Planning, 2003:3). [Also refer to Donald
et al, 2014:70-101.] Some children display behaviour that contradicts the normal,
or expected, range of development. This atypical behaviour appears in a way, or
at a pace, that is different from their peers. It is important to learn to recognise
signs of atypical development in the social and emotional domains, because these
are the areas where intervention can be effective to improve the social and
emotional lives, and mental health of children (NCLD, 2018:1).

1.3 SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE OF CHILDREN

The social and emotional health of children forms an inherent part of their overall
health and wellbeing. Children who are socially and emotionally healthy, discover
the world around them through positive interactions with family members and
friends (KidsMatter Australian Early Childhood Mental Health Initiative, 2014:2).
They are able to understand and express emotions, which in turn enables them to
form secure relationships (KidsMatter Australian Early Childhood Mental Health
Initiative, 2014:2).
 Socially and emotionally healthy children are more likely to succeed in school and
lead productive lives. In contrast, children with social and emotional health
problems might be less successful in academic achievement, which could result in
negative or criminal activities (Nemours Health & Prevention Services, 2009:1).
Many children are surrounded daily by multifaceted social and environmental
conditions. Depending on the support children receive and how they experience
the support, it can either assist or hamper their social and emotional development.
Certain factors can predispose a child to mental health problems. Poverty, low
birth weight, parental depression, and exposure to trauma (e.g., violence, abuse
and neglect) are some of the risk factors for mental health issues. For instance,
infants and young children with depressed mothers can experience a range of
problems including lower activity levels, fussiness, problems with social
interactions, and difficulty achieving age-appropriate developmental and
cognitive milestones. Children exposed to trauma can experience learning
difficulties, chronic health problems, behavior problems, and poor social and
emotional competence (Nemours Health & Prevention Services, 2009:1). [Also
refer to Donald et al, 2014:180-206; 207-225.]

On the contrary, when children experience supportive relationships with parents,

other family members and friends, it lays a solid foundation for the “optimal
development of cognitive skills, emotional well-being, social competence, and
physical and mental health (Nemours Health & Prevention Services, 2009:1). The
quality of the relationship between children and their parents (or other primary
caregivers) plays a vital role in the social and emotional development of children
across their life span (Nemours Health & Prevention Services, 2009:1).

1.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL SKILLS

The social and emotional development of children is displayed in their ability to

recognise and interpret the emotional state of other people, in their ability to
control and negotiate their own feelings and behaviour, and in their ability to get
along with peers and adults (Missouri Department of Mental Health, sa:1;
KidsMatter Australian Early Childhood Mental Health Initiative, 2014:6).

Social and emotional development involves the acquisition of a specific set of

skills. These skills include the ability to:

- identify and explain their own feelings

- accurately interpret the emotions of others
- manage strong emotions and their expression in a productive manner
- control their own behaviour
- develop compassion for others
- form and maintain relationships (Marais & Krüger 2014:148).

Each of these skills develops at their own pace and they build upon one another
(Missouri Department of Mental Health, sa:1). The foundation of social a n d
emotional development is already established in infancy. When babies are
comforted by their parents, they will calm down and react positively to the
voices of their parents. Being able to read the children’s cues and attending to
them from the day they are born, parents are nurturing the growth of the social
and emotional development in children.

Skills to enable social and emotional development can be mastered when adults
support children in the following manner:

o when they lead by appropriate example and display positive behaviour

o when they are affectionate
o when they are considerate of feelings and needs of other people
o when they have a sincere interest in the child’s daily activities
o when they respect the standpoints of children
o when they express pride in accomplishments of the child
 o when they offer encouragement and support during stressful situations
(Missouri Department of Mental Health, sa:1).

A child’s social and emotional development is just as important as their cognitive

and physical development. It is important to realise that children are not born with
social and emotional skills. It is the role of the parents, caregivers and teachers to
teach and foster these skills and abilities.

Children’s social and emotional development provides them with a sense of who
they are, and it helps them to establish quality relationships with others. “ It is what
drives an individual to communicate, connect with others and more importantly
helps resolve conflicts, gain confidence and reach goals. Building a strong social-
emotional foundation as a child will help the children thrive and obtain happiness
in life. They will be better equipped to handle stress and persevere through difficult
times in their lives as an adult” (Missouri Department of Mental Health, sa:1).

Acquiring social and emotional capability during preschool years is one of the
major development tasks for children that predict mental health and school
adjustment later in life. Research has shown that developing socioemotional
competencies are a key element in prevention programmes in order to reduce the
incidence of emotional and behavioural problems in children (Moraru, Stoica,
Mihaelab & Filpisan, 2011:2161-2162). [Also refer to Donald et al, 2014:377-400.]

Ciarrochi and Scott (2006:231-243) state that emotional competence “includes

the ability to identify emotions and an individual difference in how effectively
people deal with emotions and emotionally charged problems”. Emotional
competence refers to expressing emotions in a way that is advantageous to
moment-to-moment interaction and relationships over time. We create our
emotional experience, “through the combined influence of our cognitive
developmental structures and our social exposure to emotion discourse. Through
 this process, we learn what it means to feel something and to do something about
it” (Saarni, 2011:1).

Emotional competence thus refers to a set of skills, such as emotional

understanding, emotional expression and emotional regulation, that a person
develops in the social context (Saarni, 2011:1). In order to adjust to social
contexts, preschool children need adequately to read, interpret and label different
emotions in themselves and other and to comply with social norms of expressing
these emotions as they grow older. Children who express more often positive
emotions are more likely to be positively evaluated by educators in social
competence and more likeable for peers in preschool. In order to maintain
satisfying relationships during play and social interaction, children learn to
regulate their own emotion, retaining and expressing emotions that are helpful
and relevant and inhibiting those that are not helpful or relevant.

Social competence, on the other hand, refers to social information processing and
performance in social contexts. This involves three different dimensions, which are
rule compliance, social interaction and prosocial behaviour (Moraru, Stoica,
Mihaelab & Filpisan, 2011:2161-2162). Although other definitions for social
competence exist, the general view is that social competence is a set of skills which
are necessary to get along with others and to behave constructively in groups. This
encompasses skills such as empathy, emotional regulation, perspective taking,
cooperation, friendliness, and social problem-solving skills. A lack of social skills
has been proved to result in problems in initiating and maintaining relationship and
rejection from peers, and later in externalising and/or internalising problems (e.g.
aggression and/or depression) (Moraru et al., 2011:2161-2162).

1.5 RANGE OF PSYCHOSOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL

CHALLENGES
Psychosocial, emotional and behavioural challenges are associated with a wide
range of barriers to learning (Cross, 2011:38).
It can include children with conduct disorders, hyperkinetic disorders and less
obvious disorders such as anxiety, school phobia or depression. Children who
have externalising difficulties (including disobedience, aggression, delinquency,
temper tantrums and overactivity (mostly boys) are more likely to be referred for
extra help, while those with primarily emotional or internalising difficulties
(mostly girls) may not be identified as having problems (Cross, 2011:39).
The following explanation of terminology might be valuable for this section of the
unit:
Internalising behaviour: Learners may develop internalising behavioural
challenges such as withdrawn, anxious, inhibited and depressed behaviour. These
are challenges that affect the child’s internal psychological environment rather than
the external world. This behaviour could also include somatic complaints, that is,
all kinds of physical complaints. Internalising behaviour is not always easy to
observe. A learner exhibiting these types of behaviour may hurt him- or herself
instead of lashing out at others (Liu, 2004:93-94)

Externalising behaviour: The construct of externalising behaviour problems

refers to a grouping of behaviour problems that are manifested in children’s
outward behaviour and reflect the child negatively acting on the external
environment. These externalising challenges consist of disruptive, hyperactive and
aggressive behaviour. They also manifest in physical aggression, disobeying
rules, cheating, stealing, and destruction of property. Externalising behaviour is
easily observable by others (Liu, 2004:93-94).

A child’s feelings and behaviour are influenced by a variety of factors, such as

temperament, culture, relationships, health, family circumstances, experiences of
early childhood care and education (Department of Health and Ageing, 2010:1).
Every child has trouble in managing their feelings and behaviour at certain times
in his or her life, particularly during certain stages of normal human development.
Because of this intricacy, it is often difficult to determine whether a child’s
behaviour or feelings are normal or whether the behaviour needs further
assessment (Department of Health and Ageing, 2010:1).

Most young children display behaviour that would not be socially acceptable in
older children. If this behaviour continues into adolescence and adulthood, it would
most definitely cause personal and interpersonal problems. Some examples may
include uncontrolled temper tantrums, the inability to deal with unfounded fears,
and the display of aggressive behaviour, such as hitting or biting (Department of
Health and Ageing, 2010:1).
In most children, these emotional or behavioural challenges are present, but they
are also of a temporary nature. These challenges can often be addressed
successfully as the children develop and are provided with guidance and support
from family members and friends. Schonert-Reichl, Oberle, Lawlor, Abbott,
Thomson, Oberlander and Diamond (2015:52-66), for example, claim that a social
and emotional learning (SEL) programme can enhance cognitive control, reduce
stress, and promote the general wellbeing of children.

It is thus important to study how children grow, learn and change. An

understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to fully
appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational growth that
children go through from birth and into early adulthood. In order to appreciate this
dynamic human development, a number of different theoretical frameworks of child
development have arisen to explain various aspects of human growth.

o Acknowledge and praise positive behaviour.

o Avoid negative reinforcement.
o Build trust.
o Get to know the learners.
o Use humour.
o Teach and enforce rules.
 o Give students responsibilities.

Participate in Forum 03: Creating a positive classroom atmosphere

Participate in a practical exercise for determining strategies that you can implement to ensure
a positive classroom atmosphere. Read the following and then respond in about 400 words:
Children need a lot of love and encouragement. If children are always criticised
for making mistakes or for not trying their best, they lose hope. They stop
believing in themselves and they feel worthless. It hurts them that they cannot
please their parents or their teachers.
How can you ensure that you create an atmosphere in your classroom where the
learners can feel good about themselves?
When responding to the question, you can refer to aspects such as:
o your role as a teacher being that of a positive role model
o building trust and getting to know the learners
o considering learners’ atypical behaviour as well as their social and emotional
competence
o acknowledging positive behaviour and using positive reinforcement while
avoiding negative reinforcement
o setting ground rules
o giving learners responsibilities

Below are some guidelines for participating in discussions:

o It is advisable to compile your posting offline and keep a record
thereof.
o Use an academic writing style for referencing and citing the sources
you used.
o You are encouraged to investigate other sources in addition to the
recommended resources.
o Start a new thread (new topic) and use the topic heading followed
by your name as the subject title.
 o Address the group at the start of your contribution and sign off with
the name/title you would like others to address you by.
o Use the reply option in the message box to respond to at least two
fellow students’ posts.

1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Why do children behave in certain ways? Is their behaviour related to their

age, family relationships, or individual temperament? Developmental
psychologists strive to answer such questions as well as to explain and
predict behaviour that occur throughout the lifespan. It is important to study
how children grow, learn and change. Only when we understand child
development, we can fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical,
social, and educational growth that children experience from birth to
adulthood. In the field of early childhood education and care, a theory is a
group of ideas that explain a certain topic within the domain of children’s
learning and development (Nolan & Raban, 2015:5).

In order to understand human development, a number of different theories of

child development have arisen to explain various aspects of development,
including social, emotional and cognitive growth. [Also refer to Donald et al,
2014:38-52.] An overview of the major theoretical frameworks in child
development, their principles and the main theorists, is shown in the table below
(Oswalt, 2019:1; State of New South Wales, 2010:1; State of New South Wales,
2006:4; Costley & Nelson, 2013:1).

Table 1.2: The principles of major theorists in child development

THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE THEORY THEORIST
FRAMEWORK
Maturation All children go through similar and predictable Arnold Gesell
sequences of development, although every (1880-1961)
 child moves through these sequences at his or Gesell
her own pace. maturation
This process includes internal and external theory (1:02)
factors. The intrinsic factors include genetics,
temperament, personality, learning styles, as
well as physical and mental growth. External
factors such as environment, family
background, parenting styles, cultural
influences, health conditions, and early
experiences with peers and adults also play a
role in the development. A child’s growth and
development are thus influenced by both their
environment and genes.

Psychoanalytic According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, Sigmund Freud

personality develops through a series of (1856-1939)
stages, each characterised by a certain Freud's
internal psychological conflict. He states that psychoanalytic
human behaviour is the result of the theory on
interactions among three component parts of instincts:
the mind: the id, ego, and superego. motivation,
As babies are initially controlled by personality and
unconscious, instinctive and egocentric urges development
for immediate fulfilment, Freud labelled it as (2:37)
the id. When babies attempt and fail to get all
of their urges met, they develop a more
realistic idea of what is possible. This is called
the ego. Over time, children also learn about
and come to internalise and represent their
parents' values and rules. These internalised
rules, which Freud called the superego, are
 the basis for the developing of a child's
conscience (Oswalt, 2019:1).

Psychosocial Piaget describes how children's ways of Jean Piaget

thinking develop as they interact with the world (1896 -1980)
around them. Children understand the world Piaget's theory of
differently than adults do, and as they play and cognitive
explore, their mind learns how to think in ways development
that better fit with reality. This development is (6:55)
influenced by interactions with family, friends Lev Vygotsky
and culture. (1896-1934)
Vygotsky's theories also accentuate the
important role of social interaction in the
development of cognition, as he believes that
the community plays a central role in the
process of a child’s understanding.

Cognitive Erikson states that personality develops in Erik Erikson

chronological, predetermined stages and (1902-1994)
builds upon each previous stage. This is called 8 Stages of
the epigenetic principle. Development by
During each stage, the person experiences a Erik Erikson
psychosocial crisis which could have a (5:19)
positive or negative outcome for personality
development.

Behaviourist Watson states that our minds are blank slates John Watson
at birth, and we learn new behaviour. The main (1878-1958)
emphasis is on the environment, and not
heredity. Observable behaviour is considered
the most important aspect in influencing your
 own behaviour. He believed that you can BF Skinner
expose a child to certain environmental forces (1904-1990)
and, over time, condition that specific child to B.F. Skinner
become any type of person you want him/her Operant
to be. Conditioning
Skinner developed the theory of operant (Full video)
conditioning. The idea is that behaviour is (4:01)
determined by its consequences. If
reinforcement follows, the behaviour will occur Albert Bandura
again. If punishment follows the behaviour, it (1925-)
is less likely that the behaviour will occur
again.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory suggests

that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modelling. The
consequences of an observed behaviour will
determine whether or not children would adopt
the specific behaviour.

Ecological Bronfenbrenner’s theory explains how the Uri

inherent qualities of a child and his/her Bronfenbrenner
environment interact to influence how he/she (1917 -2005)
will grow and develop. He labelled different Bronfenbrenner's
aspects or levels of the environment that Ecological
influence children's development, including Systems Theory
the microsystem, the mesosystem, the (3:03)
exosystem, and the macrosystem.
Children find themselves concurrently tangled
in these different ecosystems: from the most
intimate home ecological system, moving
 outward to the larger school system, and the
most extensive system which is society and
culture. Each of these systems unavoidably
interact with and influence each other in every
aspect of a child’s life.

Information It is one of the models of examining and Noam Chomsky

processing understanding the cognitive development of (1928-
theory children. Chomsky believes that we are born
with certain skills or abilities that enable us to
learn and acquire specific skills.

[Also refer to Donald et al, 2014:40-49; 72-96.]

All of the above theorists have valid views that are useful to consider. Many
professionals believe in taking a wide-ranging approach to theory. This
implies that they implement a range of educational principles selected from
across the wide spectrum of theoretical frameworks.
One criticism against these theories was raised by Nsamenang and Tchombe
(2011:2): “For too long, educational theories and practices in African and other
non-western countries have been based on theories and thinking about child
development and childhood developed within a western social context”.

o An African theoretical perspective on child development

In order to study the education and development of children, especially in the
minority population group, Ogbu (1981) suggests that a non-ethnocentric
cultural ecological model should be applied. Ogbu designed such a model for
studying child development. This model is essentially not much different from
Bronfenbrenner's bio-organic model, since the specific interactions of adults with
children in their immediate environment over long periods of time are particularly
important in structuring child development. However, Ogbu's model differs from
Bronfenbrenner's model in his focus, in that his model focuses on the nature of
culture-specific child education techniques and their relationship to culturally
specific skills, rather than on the interactions of an individual with various aspects
of his or her environment. These two models with their different syntheses will
be useful to study the ecological context of child and child development within a
particular cultural group as a whole (Boivin & Giordani, 2013:74-76).

Similar to Ogbu (1981), Nsamenang and co-workers (e.g., Nsamenang 1992;

Nsamenang and Dawes 1998) propagate the development of non-ethnocentric
theories and research programmes to study infant and child development in its
ecological context cross-culturally (Boivin & Giordani, 2013:74-76).
In the early nineties, Nsamenang (1992) suggested that child development
should be studied within an ecocultural conceptual framework as set out by
Segall and co-workers (1990). Segall's framework is mainly based on Berry's
extensive cross-cultural research done in Central Africa (Segall, Lonner & Berry,
1998:1101-1110). This ecocultural framework includes background variables,
process variables and psychological outcome variables on both the population
and on an individual level. Background variables include both the ecological and
sociopolitical contexts, which then influence biological and cultural adjustments.
These adjustments, in turn, influence perceptible behaviours and characteristics
at the individual level through ecological influences, genetic transfer, cultural
transfer and acculturation. This model is, again, a much greater generalisation
of human behaviour in its totality than that suggested by Ogbu (1981). [Also refer
to Donald et al, 2014:40-49.]

The following explanation of the term acculturation might be valuable for this
section of the unit:
Acculturation: The primary concept in acculturation is change. The change
from being brought up in one’s society of origin (your heritage culture), to living
in the new society (the host culture) (Chan, 2014:4).
 Acculturation is a process through which a person or group from one culture
comes to adopt the practices and values of another culture, while still retaining
their own distinct culture. This process is most commonly discussed regarding
a minority culture adopting elements of majority culture, as is typically the
case with immigrant groups that are culturally or ethnically distinct from the
majority in the place to which they have immigrated (Cole, 2019:1).

It is important to note the ecological contexts in which each child is living. This
will enable us to understand the specific child’s development. This is essential
in both designing and implementing intervention programmes to enhance
children’s development. These programmes should be culturally appropriate and
therefore effective (Buzgar, Dumulescu & Opre, 2013:250-252).

Participate in Forum 04: Theoretical frameworks on child development

Consider your own classroom practices and reflect on the following:
o What strategies have you used in your classroom to promote healthy
psychosocial and emotional development? Identify three strategies and
explain why they worked or did not work.
o What theoretical framework/s support(s) your classroom strategies?
o What strategies can you implement to accommodate cultural diversity?
o After working through the theoretical frameworks, explain how the
theoretical principles broadened your perspective on the psychosocial
and emotional behaviour of learners. What new strategies will you
implement?

Your response should be ± 500 words. Post your contributions in Forum 04:
Theories

• 1.7 CAUSES OF AND MITIGATING FACTORS REGARDING

PSYCHOSOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHALLENGES
There are many factors that can affect the psychosocial development of the learner
(Psychosocial Development in Adolescents, 2017:1; Center for Mental Health in
Schools & Student/Learning Supports, 2018:14). [Also refer to Donald et al,
2014:86-88; 207-225, 234-251.]. The American Academy of Pediatrics (Center for
Mental Health in Schools & Student/Learning Supports, 2018:14) identified the
following stressful events in children’s lives, which can lead to psychosocial,
emotional and behavioural challenges:

o Challenges in primary support group

Challenges to attachment relationship, death of a parent or other family member,

marital discord, divorce, domestic violence, other family relationship problems and
parent-child separation.

o Changes in caregiving

Foster care/adoption/institutional care, substance-abusing parents, physical

abuse, sexual abuse, quality of nurture problem, neglect, mental disorder of
parent, physical illness of parent, physical illness/mental/behavioural disorder of
sibling.

o Other functional change in family

Addition of sibling, change in parental caregiver

o Community of social challenges

Acculturation, social discrimination and/or family isolation

o Educational challenges
 Illiteracy of parents, inadequate school facilities, conflict with peers and teachers

o Parent or adolescent occupational challenges

Unemployment, loss of job, adverse effect of work environment

o Housing challenges

Homelessness, inadequate housing, unsafe neighbourhood, dislocation

o Economic challenges

Poverty, inadequate financial status

o Other environmental situations

Natural disaster, witness of violence

o Health-related situations

Chronic health conditions

This is a wide-ranging, but not necessarily complete list, of factors that can affect
the psychosocial development of the learner.

1.8 PSYCHOSOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHALLENGES

Children with atypical psychosocial, emotional and behavioural development have

difficulties when they deal with feelings and emotions. Understanding and sharing
feelings and emotions is very hard for these children. Just as with social skills,
difficulties with emotional development are usually indicators of serious
developmental difficulties. Children with atypical psychosocial, emotional and
behavioural development do not “grow out” of their difficulties. They may be at risk
of injuring themselves or others. Children with special needs in this area require
immediate attention and should be referred to the appropriate specialists as early
as possible. [Also refer to Donald et al, 2014:230-253.]

Usually, the children’s behavioural problems are derived from a lack of emotional
and social competences and are conceptualised as internalising and externalising
problems.

The child displays externalising problems, including aggressive, defensive and

hyperactive behaviours, when he/she cannot control, self-regulate or inhibit the
disruptive behaviours. These children have difficulties understanding others’
emotions and motivation and social relations. The externalisation of problems is
related to lack of social functioning and academic problems in adolescence (Buzgar
et al, 2013:250-252).

On the other hand, t h e internalisation of problems refers to behaviours such as

sadness, social withdrawal and anxiety. These behaviours are related to a lack of
social and academic functions, but also with low career planning abilities. More
than that, children who develop anxiety and depression are more exposed to this
symptomatology in adulthood and also have suicidal behaviour. The internalisation
of problems is more specific to girls than to boys. In childhood, boys show more
externalising problems than girls, but regarding anxiety and depression there is no
difference by gender. Girls are twice as likely to become depressed and anxious
than boys, a pattern which continues into adulthood (Buzgar et al, 2013:250-252).

The presence of internalising and externalising problems in childhood is related to

multiple negative effects in adolescence and adulthood. B ehavioural problems can
also become more and more resilient to change over time (Buzgar et al, 2013:250-
252).
1.9 INDICATORS OF ATYPICAL PSYCHOSOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND
BEHAVIOURAL DEVELOPMENT

Children and youth are exposed to the devastating effects of, inter alia, poverty,
conflict, HIV and AIDS. Many lose their parents and family members, experience
deprivation and abuse, are stigmatised, witness atrocities, and suffer
overwhelming grief (REPPSI, 2018:1). Some indicators of atypical psychosocial,
emotional and behavioural developmental challenges in the early years and
onwards can include the following (Earle, 2013:121-138):
o showing low or no energy
o changing moods very easily e.g., from happy to mad or to sad for no
apparent reason
o being very difficult to comfort or calm when upset
o being unable to calm him- or herself down, or self-soothe
o having difficulties with adapting to different situations, with little or no self-
regulation
o avoiding eye contact with caregivers, friends and strangers
o acting scared or panicking when someone moves quickly
o being overly clingy to others at all times
o showing same level of affection to caregivers and strangers
o lying most of the time
o hurting others
o hurting self
o being withdrawn and/or seeming overly shy
o crying or laughing often for no obvious reason
o overeating or undereating on a daily basis
o eating non-food items, like toys or pebbles
o sleeping too much or very little
o difficulties falling asleep
 o having intense temper tantrums almost on a daily basis
o engaging in sexually inappropriate behaviour, like frequently touching and
rubbing private parts (theirs or others)
o continuing to wet the bed or having toileting accidents
o having difficulty paying attention and concentrating
o running away from home or school
o being afraid of common objects or of participating in daily activities (e.g.
going to the bathroom, using rulers, scissors, etc.) (Boskic, 2019:1).

The present generation of children will soon be leading our countries and our
communities. They need the right support if they are to grow into capable and
compassionate adults, and active citizens engaged in their communities (REPPSI,
2018:1). Psychosocial support enhances the emotional and social aspects of a
child’s life, so that he or she can experience love, care and protection and lead a
live with hope and dignity. The psychosocial support of learners will be addressed
in more detail in an accompanying learning unit.

1.10 CONCLUSION

The aim of this learning unit is to explore and understand behavioural, emotional
and/or social difficulties experienced by learners. This information only serves as
a point of departure for studying this qualification. Remember that the chapters in
your prescribed book are the filling stations, which provide you with the necessary
resources to complete your journey.

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LEARNING UNIT 2

2.1 INTRODUCTION, OUTCOME AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Following on unit 1, this unit provides an overview of various approaches and

assessment methods that can help you identify areas where children may
experience difficulties related to their psychosocial and emotional development
and behaviour. It also introduces you to support teams, which assist you in
planning strategies that can help learners to engage more effectively in everyday
life and in improving their educational performance. Our focus is therefore not
only on assessment approaches and types of assessments, but also on
collaboration with various professionals and on referral procedures to
specialists, such as social workers or medical experts.
The landscape of psychosocial, emotional and behavioural challenges is vast.
Assessing this landscape implies that you cannot travel lightly. The following is
the “packing lists” for the “luggage” so that you know what is packed or included
in this learning unit.

Below is an outline of LU 2:
Approaches in assessing o Positive psychology
psychosocial, emotional and o Asset-based approach of
behavioural challenges positive psychology
o Systems theory
o Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological
approach to systems

Types of assessment methods o Asset mapping as strength-

based assessment
 o Baseline assessment
o Background questionnaire
o Interviewing
o Observation
o Functional behaviour
assessment

Collaboration with support teams o Functions of the SBST

and report writing o Role of the district-based
support team (DBST)
o Report writing

Feedback and referral

Carrying all the luggage is less tiresome if you know where you are going (i.e.
the outcome) and what you are supposed to do with the luggage (i.e. the
assessment criteria). Table 2.1 sets out the outcome as well as the assessment
criteria:

Outcome for this unit

Table 2.1: Outcome and assessment criteria
Outcome Assessment criteria
o Explain the principles associated with
Apply various approaches positive psychology for assessing learners’
and methods to assess psychosocial, emotional and behavioural
learners’ psychosocial, challenges with a specific focus on:
emotional and behavioural o Positive psychology
challenges o The asset-based approach
o Systems theory
o Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach
 o Distinguish between different types of
methods for assessing learners’
psychosocial, emotional and behavioural
challenges with a specific focus on asset
mapping, baseline assessment and
functional behaviour assessment
o Collaborate with various experts and support
teams for assessing learners’ psychosocial,
emotional and behavioural challenges
o Adhere to referral guidelines procedures
when referring learners to specialists such as
social workers, psychologists and/or medical
professionals
o Compile reports on assessment findings and
provide feedback to the relevant parties
involved
o Adhere to ethical guidelines and procedures
when administering assessments,
collaborating with professional specialists,
compiling reports and providing feedback

Chapters to study in your prescribed book

Study these chapters from your prescribed book in their entirety in conjunction
with this learning unit:
Donald, D, Lazarus, S & Moolla, N. 2014. Educational psychology in social
context – Ecosystemic applications in southern Africa (5th ed.). Cape Town:
Oxford University Press.
Chapter 3: An ecosystemic perspective
Chapter 4: Positive psychology
Chapter7: Developing inclusive school and classroom environments
Chapter 8: Contextual disadvantages: Conceptual framework
 Chapter 11: Substance abuse and violence
Chapter 12: Sexuality and associated social problems
Chapter 13: Disabilities and learning difficulties: Conceptual
framework

2.2 APPROACHES IN ASSESSING PSYCHOSOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND

BEHAVIOURAL CHALLENGES

For reflection: Your approach when confronted with challenges

When facing a challenge, self-talk can influence how a person deals with it.
Briefly reflect on the statement and your own self-talk when confronted with
challenges.
o What is your general approach?
o Do you generally shy away by saying to yourself: This is too difficult; I am
lost; I cannot do it?
o Do you usually remind yourself to remain calm, carefully consider options
before acting and to believe in your strengths and/or the resources around
you?
The first answer that came to your mind, usually depicts your approach
accurately. It is not difficult to see that the positive approach is the better way to
deal with challenges. Positive psychology also focuses on positive emotions and
strengths, among others (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla 2014:59).
In this section we will focus on:
o Positive psychology – specifically on the asset-based approach of
positive psychology
o Systems theory, with particular attention to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological

approach to systems

Positive Psychology
Over the years, psychologists have realised that it is important to know what is
disturbing in people’s lives; however, it is equally important to know what is
enabling or empowering in people’s lives. Scholars slowly began to study
people’s strengths, what makes them happy, how they succeed in helping
themselves and what they do to thrive. This shift in thinking came to be known
as the positive psychology movement.

Seligman, Steen, Park and Peterson (2005) discuss the positive psychology
movement as an umbrella term for the study of positive emotions, positive
characteristics and enabling institutions. The positive psychology movement has
had a significant impact on the way educational psychologists have come to
understand how relationships can support people. Seligman et al. (2005)
suggest that positive psychology is about building those factors that allow
individuals, communities and societies to flourish. The positive psychology
approach deals with how human strengths can be developed and enhanced,
leading towards psychological wellbeing. In Africa, positive psychology is
sometimes linked to indigenous knowledge systems, as healers, family
members and communities apply indigenous knowledge to deal with
psychosocial challenges (Eloff, Achoui, Chireshe, Mutepfa & Ofovwe 2008:192).
Indigenous knowledge is unique to a specific context or culture.

When studying positive psychology, we have to recognise the following three

aspects:
o Positive emotions – satisfaction with the past, joy in the present and hope
for the future.
o Positive individual characteristics and traits, such as resilience, coping
skills, creativity, good self-knowledge and self-esteem.
o Positive institutions – the aim is to establish better communities.

Positive psychology practitioners believe people can create our own personal
and social worlds. People can choose, change and control their own lives. There
are different approaches within the positive psychology movement. A summary
of some of the approaches are given below in table 2.3.
Appreciative inquiry The combination of appreciation and inquiry acts
Video: What is as catalyst for organisational change. Appreciative
appreciative inquiry? inquiry unleashes information about organisations
(4:15) (such as schools or communities) that are
functioning at their best. Appreciative inquiry shifts
the mind from focusing on problems to exploring
strengths and successes (Cantore & Cooperrider
2013:280-281). The inquiry seeks to examine
strengths according to four phases, namely
discover, dream, design and deliver (Kobau,
Seligman, Peterson, Diener, Zack, Chapman &
Thompson 2011:e6) .
Solution-focused The solution-focused approach is a positive,
approach solution-creating approach that changes the focus
Video: Solution from problems to the individual’s strengths. The
focused therapy: focus is on the individual who has the expertise,
Simply explained experience or resources to help him- or herself;
(6:03) therefore, a complete understanding of the problem
and the past is not required as the solution and the
future is more important. A clear goal for the future
is formulated and successful strategies of the past
are applied in small steps to reach the goal.
Asset-based The asset-based approach identifies and works
approach with assets or resources within individuals and
Video: What is a within the systems, in which they live and operate
strength-based (Donald et al. 2014:187). Internal assets within the
approach? (8:53) individual, such as personality and cognitive
characteristics, as well as external resources, such
as family and social support, build resilience to
withstand stresses while experiencing a greater
 sense of control, optimism and confidence (Donald
et al. 2014:187; 57-58). Resilience is to adapt
positively in the context of adversity or risk (Kobau
et al. 2011:e3).

The next section discusses the asset-based approach in more detail.

Asset-Based Approach of Positive Psychology

The asset-based approach focuses on the assets, strengths, capacities and

resources that are available, but that have not necessarily been utilised yet; that
is, the potential may still be untapped. This approach works with the assets and
resources available within a system, with the aim of empowering individuals,
families and communities (Ebersöhn & Eloff 2006; Kobau et al. 2011:e1).

The asset-based approach asserts that personal perspectives determine how

individuals deal with challenges. Sometimes people only focus on shortcomings
without taking into account assets and resources that could be used or
developed to address challenges. Human and social capital provide the drive to
manage challenges. Capital or assets, sometimes untapped but nevertheless
already existing, are used creatively to address the shortcomings. The asset-
based approach is driven by dynamic relationships with the self, others,
networks, institutions and organisations. The example, as illustrated by the study
of Vorster (2018), highlights how an asset-based approach can be put into
practice.

For reflection: Putting an asset-based approach into practice

Read the case study below and identify the assets that were used to
address the challenge of bullying. In addition, what underlying principles
 associated with asset-based approaches can you recognise? What is the
significance of such approaches?
In 2017, volunteer Grade 7 learners in a Gauteng primary school had to
identify issues regarding bullying that could be addressed at school.
Consequently, with the help of a teacher, the Grade 7 learners compiled a
short questionnaire and held an anonymous survey of one class per grade.
After sorting the questionnaires into learners who had been bullied or not
bullied, the Grade 7s plotted the results on a graph. This showed that 75%
of learners had been bullied. In order to address the challenge, the Grade
7 learners then wrote and produced a play during assembly and created
awareness by placing posters around the school. The South African Police
Service and a social worker were asked to address the learners on the
topic of bullying. A post-survey determined the outcome of the Grade 7s’
intervention. One of the participants in the study reported as follows
(Vorster 2018:96):
The numbers decreased in the feedback of bullying.
The learners were not being bullied any more. There
were still a few but not as many. The numbers dropped
drastically. It was really good for us.

You might have identified some of the following assets:

o The volunteer Grade 7 learners
o The teacher who helped the volunteer Grade 7s
o Everybody involved in the writing of the play
o Everybody involved in the production of the play
o Everybody involved in creating and placing the posters
o The speaker from the South African Police Service (SAPS) and the social
worker
Furthermore, you will agree that an asset-based approach is underpinned by
aspects such as the attitudes and values of the individuals involved as well as
their collective drive to bring about positive change in their particular
context/community. Therefore, asset-based approaches are significant as they
recognise and build on the combination of human, social and physical assets
that exist within a local community – here the Grade 7 learners – and can help
ensure that public services can be provided when required – here the SAPS
official and social worker. In other words, an asset-based approach utilises and
values the knowledge, skills, connections and potential of communities and, in
the process, promotes capacity building.

Systems theory and Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach to systems

In discussing the asset-based approach, we have already mentioned the
systems in which individuals live and operate. Let’s look closer at systems as a
construct and watch the following video for a clear explanation of
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach to systems:
Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory (6:57)
We are surrounded by all kinds of systems. For example, if the iron for pressing
my clothes breaks, the system of doing laundry is affected. From a systems
theory perspective, all the interrelated parts to get the laundry done, are grouped
together into the laundry system (which exists in all households) for instance,
dirty clothes, water, washing powder, and so forth. The laundry system could
comprise subsystems, such as soaking dirty clothes overnight before washing
them or washing dark and light colours separately. The laundry system also has
boundaries, for instance, strangers cannot do their laundry at a private
residence.

Likewise, the systems theory also maintains that there are levels of interacting
systems. If the public transport system is reliable, the labour system benefits if
people get to work, which in turn boosts the economic system of the country. On
a social level, interacting systems could result in change, growth and
development as relationships are reciprocal and multifaceted (Swart & Pettipher
2016:11). The systems theory views different levels and groupings of the social
context as systems and subsystems. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory
sheds more light on the interacting systems.

Although “ecosystems” may sound like an intricate concept, it is not difficult to

break it up into components, namely: the systems that are included in the
environment in which we live. The ecological theory indicates interdependence
and relationships between organisms and their physical environment.

Let us unpack the four interacting, proximal components or dimensions of

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory that looks at child development. If
something is in your proximity, it is close or near to you. Close proximity can
refer to nearness regarding space, time or relationships. To further ecological
theory, proximal processes constitute “particular forms of interaction between
organism and environment” (Bronfenbrenner & Morris 2006:795).

Proximal processes include person characteristics, process factors,

contexts and time (PPCT), which are in constant interaction with each other.
The proximal process is the core of the model and it encompasses lasting and,
over time, increasing complex forms of interactions and relationships with
people, objects and symbols. Characteristics of a person, as well as the process,
context and time, fuel and direct the proximal process (Bronfenbrenner & Morris
2006:795). If, for example, we were using Bronfenbrenner’s model to identify the
proximal processes of an eight-year-old girl who likes reading, looks after her
toys and fights with her siblings, what would you say they are? Would you agree
that we would look at the girl’s relationships with symbols (reading), objects
(toys) and people (siblings)?

The first component: Person characteristics (P) comprise the following

(Bronfenbrenner & Morris 2006):
Developmentally generative Developmentally disruptive
characteristics, which include, characteristics, which include,
among others, an inquisitive mind among others, impulsiveness,
and the ability to engage in explosiveness and
activities alone or with others unresponsiveness.

Bioecological resources, which Bioecological resources, which

can foster proximal processes can disrupt or limit proximal
and developmental assets, can processes and developmental
take the form of abilities, knowledge assets, can take the form of health
and skills impairment (chronic disease) and
neurophysical or sensory
disabilities, as discussed in
PDP4802.
Demand characteristics, which Demand characteristics, which
can provoke response from the can discourage response from the
social environment, for instance social environment. For example,
hyperactivity, would most likely passivity would most likely not elicit
prompt the environment to react. a response.
Interestingly, physical
attractiveness plays a significant
role in social set-ups (as mentioned
in PDP4802, LU 3 in the case study
of John, the dancer who was born
with a cleft palate).

The second component is process factors (P) and can, for example, refer to
forms of interaction in and between systems, for example interactions that occur
in a family. The interactions are illustrated in the case study below as well in the
discussion of the different systems.

Before we discuss the interaction between systems, we must mention the third
component: the context (C). Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory indicates
interdependence and relationships between organisms and their physical
environment (Donald et al. 2014:45−46).

Let us look at a case study to understand all four the components (PPCT), and
describe the different systems that Suan is functioning in and how the systems
might influence or contribute to her current emotions:
Fifteen-year-old Suan’s parents divorced a few months ago. Her father remarried
30 days after the divorce. Suan’s elder sister, with whom she has a close
relationship, stayed with her father, while Suan and her mother moved to another
town to be closer to her maternal grandparents for support. Suan had to change
schools, her marks dropped significantly, and she became anxious and
withdrawn. Her mother got a new job, but battles to adjust because she is
depressed. A social worker, who is employed by the church, counsels Suan and
her mother on a weekly basis. Suan does not want to impart any personal
information to the social worker; she also fears that the learners at her new
school will find out about the counselling.

Child development (and Suan’s development) happens within four interelated

systems (micro-, meso-, exo- and macrosystems, that all interact with the
chronosystem).
o The microsystem. This system refers to the immediate environment in
which an individual functions. The changed microsystems that may
contribute to Suan’s poor school performance and emotions are: home
(they live in a different house in another town now), new school, loss of
friends (from her previous school and neighbourhood), absence of her
father and sister (they live elsewhere), mother being depressed, and her
reconstituted family.

o The mesosystem. This system considers the interrelations between the

various microsystems and refers to Suan’s changed home
 circumstances, involvement of the grandparents, the breaking up of the
core family and the reconstituted families.

o The exosystem. This system exerts an indirect influence on people’s

development. Suan’s mother’s difficulty to adjust to the new job, may
influence Suan’s emotions and schoolwork.

o The macrosystem. Any context that encompasses any group whose

members share value or belief systems (e.g. religion), is a macrosystem.
The church’s social worker that supports them, could assist Suan to deal
with her emotions. However, Suan has preconceived ideas about the
counselling, adding to her emotional burden and probably influencing her
schoolwork.

o The chronosystem. This is a later addition to Brofenbrenner’s model and

this system refers to how the person and environments change over time.
The fourth component is time (T). Time plays a crucial role in
understanding human development. In terms of microtime, Suan’s family
changed when her parents divorced, and her father remarried in a short
period of time. The course of these events could affect her schoolwork
and emotions.

Participate in Forum 05: Positive psychology and systems theory

You were recently asked to do a presentation to your colleagues (teachers) on
the principles underpinning positive psychology and systems theory. In your
presentation, you focused on the asset-based approach of positive psychology
and on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach to systems. You also explained
– at the hand of examples – how these principles can be applied in schools,
resulting in positive learning environments.
 Your colleagues found your presentation thought provoking and asked if you
could write a short article highlighting the most important points. Now prepare
that article – you are limited to 750 words.
You may consult the following resources:
o Your prescribed textbook
o Unit 2 (myUnisa)
o Video: What is a strength-based approach? (8:53)
o Video: Systems thinking in pictures (3:36).
o Video: Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory (6:57)
o Any other credible resources
Remember:
o It is advisable to compile your posting offline and keep a record thereof.
o Use an academic writing style for referencing and citing the sources you
used.
o You are encouraged to investigate other sources in addition to the
recommended resources.
o Start a new thread (new topic) and use the topic heading followed by
your name as the subject title.
o Address the group at the start of your contribution and sign off with the
name/title you would like others to address you by.
o Use the reply option in the message box to respond to at least two
fellow students’ posts.
Please note that this serves as an example of what you can expect for
assignments and the examination.

2.3 TYPES OF ASSESSMENT METHODS

Consider the following question: Why do matric results in two similar quintile 1
schools differ if both schools are under resourced and in poor communities with
similar risk factors, yet the one school achieves a zero per cent matric pass rate
and the other school a 90 per cent pass rate? Our answers could most probably
be summarised as asset mobilisation, that is, the school with the high pass rate
identified and used their assets and resources to the advantage of the matric
learners.
Some potential assets could be:
o Individual assets include skills and knowledge, characteristics, interests,
values and experiences.
o Closer community assets include family, peers, workplace, school and
physical resources.
o Assets of citizens’ organisations, such as cultural groups, faith-based
organisations (e.g. churches) and nongovernmental organisations (NGOs).
An NGO is any nonprofit, voluntary citizens' group who provides
humanitarian aid or support.
o Assets of local institutions include businesses, hospitals, clinics and police
stations.

The Policy on screening, identification, assessment and support (SIAS, 2014)

will guide any intervention, assessment for reporting you do.

Before we start with any intervention, we need to do a baseline assessment.

Baseline assessment. This literally means the line at the basis or the beginning.
It provides a starting point for comparisons later on. It considers the learner’s
personal (or internal) and environmental (or external) factors to obtain a
comprehensive initial understanding of the psychosocial, emotional and
behavioural challenges in the quest of providing support. The challenges could be
the result of internal or external factors, or a combination of both. That is, even if
the learner experiences an internal, biological problem or disability, the way in
which others, external to the learner, react to and deal with this problem may also
contribute to the nature and extent of its manifestation. As such, as soon as you
become involved in assessing learners, you need to bear in mind that finding
sources for learners’ challenges is a multidimensional process. From a qualitative
perspective, assessment is carried out as a complex and holistic undertaking in
context, involving observation, interviews and informal questionnaires.

Before you start, you must ask yourself the following:

o Am I open-minded? Can I set aside my own biases or preconceived ideas?
o Am I non-judgemental?
o Will I refrain from jumping to conclusions before the assessment is
completed?
o Will I treat everybody involved with respect and dignity Will I maintain
confidentiality by not discussing the matter at social events, the hairdressing
salon or on Facebook?
o Do I act because I care and not to control from a position of power?
o

If your answers are all affirmative, you are ready to start with the assessment.
It is important to note that all interactions with any role player in this process need
to be recorded. This will not only provide you with evidence to support the
assessment conclusions, but ethics requires meticulous record-keeping. Your
records could also be transferred to the set of official forms of the Screening,
Assessment, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) policy, should you
apply to the Department of Basic Education (DBE) for health, social welfare or
psychosocial support (DBE 2014). Each time you undertake any activity or
communication linked to the assessment process, write down the date and give a
short description of the contents to include in a file which you have opened for the
learner.

Background questionnaire. Background information from caregivers such as

parents or legal guardians is usually obtained by means of a questionnaire. It
provides comprehensive information about the learner as well as a foundation for
the first interview with the caregiver.
If the caregivers did not request help from the school, they should be contacted
first to seek their cooperation and consent. According to the SIAS (DBE 2014:37)
“older learners” should also grant consent to be assessed – they cannot give
consent if they are not 18 years and older.

If the questionnaire is delivered by hand, it should always be in an envelope as it

contains confidential information when completed. Request the caregivers to seal
the envelope when they return it. You can also deliver the questionnaire via e-mail.
You may not instruct nor harass caregivers to complete the questionnaire. You can
send a gentle reminder once or twice. If the caregiver does not comply, simply
leave it at that. If you get the questionnaire back, express your gratitude. The
completed questionnaire should be kept in the learner’s file and stored in a locked
cabinet.

Do not include probing questions pertaining to, for example, the divorce of a
parent. You transgress the boundaries of your competence if you are not trained
in this area. Only relevant information that you can interpret, should be included in
the questionnaire. Sometimes, background information questionnaires from other
professionals or from the internet, which request irrelevant information (such as
the date(s) on which the parent has remarried) are used. Other information, such
as the medication the mother used during pregnancy, can only be interpreted by
someone trained in medicine, otherwise boundaries of competence are
transgressed. Insensitive questions (for example, “What is your income?”) may not
be asked. A question about the caregivers’ occupation may provide some
direction.

A generic background questionnaire asks basic information about a learner and

does not focus on a specific group. In some instances, the information obtained
through the questionnaire may require clarification by means of an interview in
order to obtain a comprehensive picture of the learner.
The questionnaire should appear professional, with clear instructions to guide the
caregiver, for example: “Tick the following, if applicable”. The following sections
should be included:
o Biographical information about the child, the caregivers and the family
o Historical information about
o the child’s development,
o school history,
o behaviour history, including interpersonal relationships,
o medical history and
o previous assessments regarding any emotional, behavioural, educational,
psychological or learning barriers

Advantages of a background questionnaire

Provided that you are knowledgeable to determine whether the information
obtained is significant or not, the background questionnaire is a valuable
assessment tool for the following reasons:
o It provides a wealth of information that can be followed up, if required.
o The required information can be organised and structured in a specific
manner to obtain relevant information.
o It is a fairly non-threatening medium.
o It provides time for reflection before providing information, as opposed to
interviews which rely on immediate feedback.
o The caregiver may experience more freedom of choice with regard to which
questions in a questionnaire to answer as compared to a face-to-face
interview.
o It saves you time.
o It may provide a key to conducting an interview.
o It can easily be distributed by hand, surface mail or e-mail.

Disadvantages of a background questionnaire

The background questionnaire has the following limitations:
 o The questionnaire does not ensure direct contact with the caregiver and
some information that can be gained during direct interaction is lost.
o The questionnaire maintains distance between individuals.
o Questionnaire instructions can be misunderstood, and information
conveyed incorrectly.
o Delivery, keeping tabs of the receipt of a questionnaire, collection, perusal
of the questionnaire, follow-ups and filing can be cumbersome.
o Additional information that may be needed, cannot be obtained
immediately.
o Respondent literacy is a prerequisite.
o Some people have an aversion towards completing questionnaires and may
either not complete it or rush through it.
o Some people may intentionally omit information, resulting in an incomplete
background image.

As noted, the information obtained through questionnaires is often expanded on

through interviews, which are discussed in the next section.

Interviewing:
An interview is more than a mere conversation. It is used to gather information
about the learners’ psychosocial, emotional and behavioural challenges by asking
specific questions in a set timeframe of 30 to 60 minutes in a private setting. You
are likely to engage in interviews with the caregivers and/or learners themselves
during the assessment process. You need to create a climate of trust with
interviewees; they must feel accepted, notwithstanding the challenges they may
face. The interview is not an interrogation – in fact, it is non-threatening. Table 2.4
provides a number of strategies and skills to conduct an interview.

Interviewing strategies and skills:

o If you are not experienced in interviewing and interviewing techniques, it is
best to conduct a semi-structured face-to-face interview, which means that
 you write out a broad schedule of questions that you would like to pose
beforehand. This is referred to as an interview schedule.
o Talk on a level that interviewees would understand. You create a distance
between yourself and learners or caregivers if you use jargon. Invite them
to ask if they do not understand what you are saying. Active listening is at
the core of interviewing. Talk less so that you can hear accurately what is
being said. Don’t think of the next question that you are going to ask. Nod
your head at appropriate times or say “okay”, “I see”, and so forth, instead
of interrupting with your own narratives. People can sense when you are
not listening.
o Taking notes during the interview should not detract from the flow of
information during the interview. Write down key points or key words
mentioned during the interview which you should supplement directly after
the interview. Although it is common nowadays to make audio recordings
on digital devices, you should obtain informed consent and assent prior to
recording interviews. Recordings could inhibit the interviewees’ responses.
o Reflective statements or paraphrasing can build rapport with interviewees.
Repeat the message in your own words to convey that you understand what
is being said. Paraphrasing helps interviewees to explore whatever they are
dealing with. While the primary focus of a paraphrase is on the cognitive
aspects of the message, the paraphrase can also acknowledge feelings and
behaviours that you have identified.

Observation: Observation during interviews entails noting aspects such as

cooperation, eye contact, quality of answers, appearance and demeanour.
However, you should guard against drawing conclusions based on single
observations. For example, people are usually somewhat stressed at the
beginning of interviews; caregivers may be defensive or confrontational as they
feel that they must protect the child; avoidance of eye contact may be a sign of
respect. Therefore, observations are not always reliable, and they should be
complemented by other information during the interview.
Learners can also be observed in the classroom, on the school grounds, on the
sports field and during extramural activities. Both positive and negative behaviour
should be observed. For example, observe the learners’ engagement in the
classroom, the patterns of groupings in the classroom, the general classroom
climate and the learners’ position in this social setting.

Observation as part of the baseline assessment should be rigorous and recorded

systematically and as objectively as possible. Divide a notebook into two columns.
The left-hand column is used for your direct, concrete observations. In the right-
hand column you write your reflections, if any, on what you recorded in the left-
hand column. These reflections could be related to your own developing insights
into the challenges that the learner experience. The notebook should be safely
stored.

Functional behaviour assessment. Functional behavioural assessment (FBA) is

a detailed description of a behaviour, its context, and its consequences, with the
intent of better understanding the behaviour and those factors influencing it
(Nikopoulos & Nikopoulou-Smyrni 2013). The purpose of the FBA is to determine
which factors maintain learners’ challenging behaviour in order to propose an
appropriate intervention. During this kind of assessment, you can write a summary
of the following and answer the questions:
o Give a detailed description of the learner’s challenging behaviour.
o Describe the context, for instance, when did the behaviour occur?
o What were the consequences?
o What were the most probable factors that influenced the learner’s
behaviour?
o Briefly describe the planned intervention.
After assessment, the next step is integration; you are putting things together into
a whole. It involves a lot of cognitive energy, because all the detail cannot be
included as one could lose sight of the bigger picture, but at the same time,
important information should not be overlooked. Usually, hypotheses (combining
your impressions into possible and plausible explanations) are already taking
shape during the assessment. They may also change as new information emerge.
Alternatively, you could realise that you do not have enough information to
formulate hypotheses. Consequently, you need to peruse documents such as
scholastic or medical reports in addition to existing information at your disposal.
You may also already collaborate with colleagues during the assessment.
The following discussion opportunity provides some practice in hypothesising,
making sense of challenges in order to find the underlying cause or source. The
task also introduces you to collaboration and referrals.

Participate in Forum 06: Hypothesising

During a school-based support team (SBST) meeting, which you attended, you
read the report of a class teacher containing teacher observations and some
background information. The learner, Katlego, must repeat Grade 1. He is an only
child and both his parents are successful professionals. When Katlego’s teacher
raised concerns about his lack of progress, the parents appointed an au pair to
assist with Katlego’s care and homework. However, the teacher is still concerned,
and she reported the following:
o He is well groomed.
o His drawings are exceptional.
o Sudden disturbed muscular control / awkwardness / clumsiness and a lack
of coordination, which do not correlate with his usual actions. He stumbles
or bumps into things or drops them.
o He sometimes inexplicably feels strange in an environment which should
be familiar to him; for example, he cannot open a door which he is usually
able to open (he turns the handle the wrong way).
o Associated movements, that is, movements performed by limbs which
should not be actively involved in the action: If his one hand is moving, the
other hand also makes the same movements.
 o Achievements fluctuate – especially an inconsistent memory. What he
knows one day, he forgets the next, while on the day after, he suddenly
remembers again.
o Signs of confusion without any reasonable cause. He suddenly appears
disorientated; it looks as if the familiar environment of the class is strange
to him.
o Sometimes he stops writing. After a while, when he continues, his
handwriting is very untidy.
o He often does not finish assignments.
o He daydreams and fails to concentrate.
o He is a loner and often fights with other children.
o Sometimes he exhibits “difficult” behaviour.
o He cannot read sight words and still sounds out the words.
You are asked to provide a hypothesis (a paragraph of no longer than 10 lines)
about possible risk factors which may cause or contribute to Katlego’s lack of
progress and challenging behaviour in Grade 1.

2.4 COLLABORATION WITH SUPPORT TEAMS AND REPORT WRITING

Although the SBST team members need not share all goals, they should share a
common goal, namely, to address psychosocial, emotional and behavioural
challenges. They share responsibility, although one member may be assigned
more tasks than the others. All the team members share resources, albeit time,
expertise, space, assets, and so forth, that they can contribute (Swart & Phasha
2016:279−281).

According to the SIAS document (DBE 2014:31−32), the functions of the SBST
are the following:
o Study the report provided by the teacher on the identified barriers and
support given up to that point, as well as the result of the support.
 o Consider the support that is needed and develop a programme for the
teachers and parents.
o Provide training/support to be implemented in the classroom if required.
o Monitor and evaluate the situation after the proposed programme has been
implemented for a period agreed upon by the SBST, teacher and parents.
The kind of support will determine the length of a formal report which should
be compiled by the SBST.
o Identify further school-based support assets and mobilise them.
o Encourage collegial/peer support.
o The core purpose of the SBST is to support the teaching and learning
process. Key functions that relate to teaching and learning include:
o Coordinating all learner, teacher, curriculum and school development
support in the school. These include linking the SBST to other school-based
management structures and processes, or even integrating them in order
to facilitate the coordination of activities and to avoid duplication.
o Collectively identifying school needs and, in particular, barriers to learning
at learner, teacher, curriculum and school levels.
o Collectively developing strategies to address these needs and barriers to
learning. The strategies should include a major focus on teacher
development and parent consultation and support.
o Drawing in the resources needed — from within and outside the school —
to address these challenges.
o Monitoring and evaluating the efforts of the SBST by reflecting on their
actions.
o

One of the needs that the SBST could collectively identify (see [b] above) and
address (see [c] above) by identifying and mobilising resources outside the school
(see [d] above), relates to latchkey children. Latchkey children go home alone after
school with a house key on a lanyard around their necks. The children, between
five and 14 years, take care of themselves and are alone and unsupervised at
home until a parent returns from work. They may have feelings of isolation and
depression, become delinquent and/or underachieve at school (Venter & Rambau
2011:346; 348). Forms of school-community collaboration to relieve the isolation
or help the latchkey children with homework, could consist of partnering with
community-based organisations or institutions of higher learning. In the former
case, more mature women whose children have already left home, are assigned
to these children. These so-called “grannies” meet the children at the school gate
on prearranged days of the week and walk them home, while talking about their
day at school. In the latter case, students or lecturers can help these children with
their homework or to prepare for examinations.

Had Katlego’s challenges not been adequately addressed, the SBST would have
required assistance from the DBST. Katlego’s teacher and the SBST would have
completed the comprehensive Support Needs Assessment form 1 and form 2
respectively. The role of the DBST is contained in the entire SIAS (DBE 2014).
Report writing. Report writing can also be considered as a form of feedback. If
you write a report, you can be held accountable for the content of the report.
Therefore, you need to ensure that the information contained in the report is
accurate. Store the report on a password-protected computer. Place the printed
report on the learner’s file and store it in a locked cabinet.

Reports can be written in various formats and for various purposes. As teacher,
you may be requested by parents or legal guardians to record your observations
of learners. The parents or legal guardians may intend to give the report to an
educational psychologist who will integrate this information into his or her
assessment as part of collateral (supporting) information. Collateral information
can be obtained from various sources, such as your observations and school
reports, and other documents such as medical reports. When reporting your
observations, do not write conclusions and recommendations. Comply with the
request from the parent or legal guardians to report the child’s behaviour in class,
under the heading “Reason for the report”. The psychologist will draw conclusions.
Sections and headings in your report
o A letterhead is imperative. You should use your school’s letterhead. Align
the date of the report to the right of the report underneath the letterhead. Do
not include it as part of the letterhead. List the learner’s identifying details.
Do not include a long list of identifying details such as the parents’ details,
home address and telephone numbers.
o Mention the reason for the report to contextualise the reader. Be brief and
accurate.
o Background information: Only include background information that is
relevant to the reason for your report. Do not include the birth history if you
report on, for example, an incidence of bullying or violence on the school
grounds. If the history is intricate, provide a clear and logical timeline with
events, dates and periods. For example: “When Mr and Mrs Green
separated in April 2019, Jemima stayed with her maternal grandmother for
seven months until the divorce was finalised in November 2019. She could
still attend the same school. At the beginning of December 2019, Jemima
went to stay with her mother who had since moved in with a new partner.”
o Mention the assessment method(s). Write the full name of the method,
followed by the acronym, and not just the acronym, for example, “Functional
behavioural assessment (FBA)”. The report must be reader friendly and
informative to other professionals.
o Depending on the type of report, mention the sources of information, if any,
albeit literature studies or colleagues. Do not name the colleagues, unless
you have signed consent to reveal their identity. If you copy information from
the report of another professional, such as an educational psychologist, you
may reveal the name (include the date of the professional’s report in your
report), but you may not alter or misrepresent the information in your report.
Results and/or recommendations of other professionals are usually
included in your report. You may not portray these findings as if they are
your own. Remember that the findings in dated reports may not be relevant
anymore. If a neurologist concluded in a report that the learner had some
 type of epileptic seizure when he or she was in Grade 1, he or she may
have outgrown it by the time he or she reaches Grade 7. If you find a dated
report of an occupational therapist recommending occupational therapy in
the learner’s file, do not assume that the learner still requires occupational
therapy. If you use literature in your report, do not use unsubstantiated
phrases such as “Research has shown that …” Be specific. State:
“According to Jordaan and Brown (2018:41) …” Table 2.6 illustrates how
the sources of information can be recorded in a report. (This report was
written after a learner had been stabbed during break.)
o Discussion of the investigation (pertaining to the example in table 2.6 of a
learner who had been stabbed)
o Discussion of learner support
o Discussion of family support
o Mobilisation of community assets
o A conclusion and recommendation(s) section can be included in the report,
although it is not always required. You conclude after you have considered
or integrated all the information contained in the report. Include only
information in the conclusion section that has been mentioned earlier in the
report. A conclusion does not mean that everything makes sense. If there
is conflicting information, mention it. If you cannot explain something,
indicate this. For example, you have perused a learner’s (Jakes’s) school
reports as a source of information to inform your assessment. While you
were collecting information on his scholastic performance, you also noticed
his high number of absences from school. Although you have mentioned
the absences in the background history, you have not investigated the
matter. Therefore, conclude the following: “The reason for Jakes’s
absences from school is still unclear”. You could recommend the following:
“Further investigation into Jakes’s absences from school”.
o Do not end your report with an offer to provide further information, as you
may be taken up on your offer by anyone to whom the report is available,
even a lawyer. If you want to include it, you should at least qualify what type
 of consent will be required, for example: “Subjected to parental consent,
further enquiries will be answered”.
o End the report with: your signature, your name underneath the signature
and your designation or capacity, for example class teacher.

When writing a report, take note of the following technical aspects:

o Be brief and factual, and avoid emotional writing. If you are uncertain about
facts, do not include the information.
o Spelling mistakes in the report convey a poor impression of the report writer.
o Computer skills should be updated if you have problems with professional
layout such as the spacing between words, line spacing and margins.
Margins should be aligned throughout the report. Do not write the entire
report in italics or capital letters.
o When printing the report, do not set margins too narrow and the font too
small in order to save paper. Change the font or font size only when it is
pleasing to the eye, for example, to indicate headings, or when it serves a
specific purpose, for example, to indicate a direct or verbatim quotation. If
you apply font changes in your report, such as for headings, it should be
done consistently throughout the report. It is time-effective to use the same
font and font size throughout the report.
o Do not print reports on faulty printers or with near-empty ink cartridges.
o Do not number headings.
o Number the pages.
o Colour is seldom used in a report, except for the letterhead, as it is
expensive.
o Justify the text as it looks more professional and finished, except if you
specifically prefer to “align left”. (Justify means the text appears in block
format to the left and to the right.)

For reflection: Note the following three mistakes in the background

information that follows:
When Josiah enrolled in Grade 1 in Eternal Light Primary School, his mother
indicated that the Grade R teacher had questioned his school readiness. Josiah is
HIV positive. Poor child, I feel so sorry for him because he always tries his best.
Josiah is excited about the new car that the family has recently purchased.
You might have noticed that the three mistakes are:
o Josiah’s HIV status may not be revealed without the written consent of the
parents (DBE 2017:4).
o Emotional writing instead of factual writing: see Poor child …
o Information about the new car is irrelevant.

If you have committed yourself to the writing of a report, it should be done without
delay. It is a tedious task which should not be postponed. Take the following into
account when you write a report:
o Every learner has strong points that should be mentioned. It can be included
in the background history and/or the discussion of behaviour during the
assessment or any other relevant section in the report.
o Do not be harsh or didactic. As a teacher, you should portray the caring
nature that is associated with the profession.
o Do not transgress your boundaries as a teacher.
o If you are not trained and registered in a specific field, you should not
venture into that field, specifically the field of forensic psychology and
psycho-legal assessments. Do not involve yourself in child custody
disputes. Refrain from writing any reports whatsoever in this regard. Refer
the matter to a trained professional.
o You may not instruct nor attempt to “educate” professionals from other
fields. For example, do not include a brief lecture on epilepsy to a
neurologist.
o You may not voice your opinion on medication, for example, Ritalin. If need
be, you can include the type of medication in your report. Ensure that the
spelling is correct. If you have not witnessed the learner taking medication,
 you could add: “According to Sam’s mother, he takes Ritalin on weekdays
before coming to school,” if she was your source of information.
o Do not portray information as first-hand if you have heard it from somebody
else. Always add according to. This can save you a lot of trouble. For
example, compare the following two sentences: “According to a colleague
at school, Katlego has informed her that he is frequently beaten by his
father”, as opposed to “Katlego is frequently beaten by his father”.
o Do not manipulate information to prove your point of view. Remember that
reports are quite powerful and carry a certain amount of authority. If written
from a position of power to prove subjective, unfounded notions, they may
cause serious harm.
o You may record your observations on a learner’s behaviour, but you may
not diagnose the learner. For example, you may not state that the learner
has obsessive compulsive behaviour.
o You may identify and record certain manifestations or symptoms, but you
may not diagnose or hint at a suspected diagnosis. For example, you may
not mention that you suspect that the learner has autism, diabetes or ADHD.
o Do not use the words “brain damage” or “mentally retarded” in a report.
o If you do not type your own reports, the administrative person at school
should sign a confidentiality agreement to protect the privacy of the learner.
The same applies to language editors.
o If you attach the report to an e-mail, it should be sent in PDF format to
reduce the possibility of the document being edited by the recipient or the
copying of your signature for use in other documents that the recipient may
create.
o If you attach the report to an e-mail and the recipient uses the e-mail
address of somebody else or an internet facility, such as an Internet Café
or a PostNet, you need to alert the recipient that privacy may be
compromised, and the person should consent to the risk.
 Feedback can be done telephonically if the caregivers cannot come to the school.
Feedback is part of a cycle. Firstly, feedback provides clarity on the integrated
assessment data that could include background information; possible collaboration
with teams; and the written report, if any. Secondly, feedback sets the scene for
future interaction about interventions and/or referrals. Therefore, feedback is
implied at any stage irrespective of the route that is followed. For example, if you
can deal satisfactorily with challenging behaviour in your classroom, you provide
feedback to the caregivers. If your efforts are unsuccessful, you may refer the
matter to the SBST who, in turn, may approach the DBST.
The SIAS (DBE 2014) provides a wide range of referral possibilities in support of
psychosocial, emotional and behavioural challenges, such as a counsellor,
psychologist, social worker, occupational therapist, and nurse.

2.5 CONCLUSION

The road to assessing and dealing with psychosocial, emotional and behavioural
challenges is indeed winding. It relies on an innate sense of direction and an overall
positive outlook while conferring with fellow travellers about the best possible way
forward.

• 2.6 REFERENCES
American Psychiatric Association (APA). 2013. Diagnostic and statistical manual
of mental disorders. (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Bronfenbrenner, U & Morris, P. 2006. The bioecological model of human

development, in Lerner, R. & Damon, W. (Eds.). Handbook of child psychology.
Volume 1: Theoretical models of human development. (6th ed.). New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons: 793−828.

Cantore, SP & Cooperrider, DL. 2013. Positive psychology and appreciative

inquiry: The contribution of the literature to an understanding of the nature and
process of change in organizations, in Leonard, H.S., Lewis, R., Freedman, A.M.
& Passmore J. (Eds.). The Wiley‐Blackwell handbook of the psychology of
leadership, change, and organizational development. West Sussex: John Wiley &
Sons: 267–287. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118326404.ch13

Dednam, A & Du Plessis, A. 2019. Learning impairment in, Landsberg, E, Krüger,

D & Swart, E. (Eds.). Addressing barriers to learning – A South African perspective.
(4th ed.). Pretoria: Van Schaik: in press.

Department of Basic Education (DBE). 2014. Policy on Screening, Identification,

Assessment and Support. Pretoria: Sol Plaatjie House.

Department of Basic Education (DBE). 2017. Policy on HIV, STIs and TB for
learners, educators, school support staff and officials in all primary and secondary
schools in the basic education sector. Available at
https://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Policies/Policy%20on%20HI
V%20STIs%20%20TB.pdf?ver=2018-03-23-115911-213 (Accessed on 4 October
2018).

Donald, D, Lazarus, S & Moolla, N. 2014. Educational psychology in social context

– Ecosystemic applications in southern Africa (5th ed.). Cape Town: Oxford
University Press.

Ebersöhn, L. & Eloff, I. 2006. Life skills and assets. (2nd ed.). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Eloff, I, Achoui, M, Chireshe, R, Mutepfa, M & Ofovwe, C. 2008. Views from Africa
on positive psychology. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 18(1):189–194.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2008.10820185

Kobau, R, Seligman, MEP, Peterson, C, Diener, E, Zack, MM, Chapman, D &

Thompson, W. 2011. Mental health promotion in public health: Perspectives and
strategies from positive psychology. American Journal of Public Health, 101(8):e1–
e9. http://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2010.300083

Krüger, D. 2019. Epilepsy, in Landsberg, E, Krüger, D & Swart, E. (Eds.).

Addressing barriers to learning – A South African perspective. (4th ed.). Pretoria:
Van Schaik: in press.

Krüger, D & Swanepoel, M. 2017. Gluing the pieces together: Female adolescents’
construction of meaning through digital metaphoric imagery in trauma therapy. The
Arts in Psychotherapy 54:92−104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2017.04.011

Nikopoulos, CK & Nikopoulou-Smyrni, P. 2013. Functional behavioural

assessment (FBA) and challenging behaviours: Supporting behaviour change for
children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). In: The BILD (British Institute of
Learning Disabilities) Positive Behaviour Support International Research and
Practice Conference 2013. Brighton, United Kingdom 8-10 May 2013. Available at
file:///C:/Users/kruged/Downloads/BILD%202013%20(C%20Nikopoulos%20&%2
0P%20Nikopoulou-Smyrni).pdf (Accessed on 25 September 2018).

Seligman, MEP, Steen, TA, Park, N & Peterson, C. 2005. Positive psychology
progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5):410–
421. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410

Swart, E & Pettipher, R. 2016. A framework for understanding inclusion, in

Landsberg, E., Krüger, D. & Swart, E. (Eds.). Addressing barriers to learning – A
South African perspective. (3rd ed.). Pretoria: Van Schaik: 1–27.

Swart, E & Phasha, T. 2016. Family and community partnerships, in Landsberg,

E., Krüger, D. & Swart, E. (Eds.). Addressing barriers to learning – A South African
perspective. (3rd ed.). Pretoria: Van Schaik: 265–287.
 Venter, E & Rambau, E. 2011. The effect of a latchkey situation on a child’s
educational success. South African Journal of Education, 31(3): 345–356.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/saje.v31i3.69819

Vorster, M. 2018. The case of character education to address challenging

behaviour in a Gauteng primary school. MEd dissertation. Pretoria: University of
South Africa.

3.1 INTRODUCTIONS AND OUTCOMES FOR LU3

In previous learning units you have been exposed to integrating and interpreting
psychosocial, emotional and behavioural assessment. In this learning unit you
will be shown how to make conclusions and appropriate recommendations. You
will be taught how to develop an Individual Support Plan (ISP) for the learner
and practical support guidelines for the teachers and parents. (Note that the term
parents in LU 3 include caregivers and guardians.) The ISP and practical
support guidelines should address behavioural, emotional, personal and social
challenges that influence learning negatively.

Below is an outline of LU 3:
Holistic support o What does a holistic image
comprise?
o Categories following
interpretation
Appropriate recommendations o Formulating recommendations
o Categorising recommendations

The learner’s Individual Support

Plan (ISP)
Practical support guidelines for o General support guidelines
teachers and parents o Specific support guidelines
o Guidelines for social media
Table 3.1 lists the outcome as well as the assessment criteria for LU 3.

Although you do not travel light in this module, you will complete a rewarding
and enriching journey when you showcase your ability to develop support plans
for learners and practical support guidelines for teachers and parents.

Outcome for this unit

Table 3.1: Outcome and assessment criteria
Outcome Assessment criteria
o Make appropriate recommendations on the
basis of a holistic interpretation and
integration of all information derived from the
behavioural and social assessment
o Develop a learner’s Individual Support Plan
Compile guidelines for
o Address challenges such as behavioural,
parents and teachers when
emotional, personal and social development
managing specific
impacting negatively on learning
psychosocial, emotional and
o Develop practical support guidelines for
behavioural challenges
parents with regard to managing their
children’s emotional and behavioural
challenges
o Formulate practical support guidelines for
teachers with regard to managing learners’
emotional and behavioural challenges
 Chapters to study in your prescribed book
Study the chapters from:
Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Moolla, N. 2014. Educational psychology in social
context – Ecosystemic applications in southern Africa (5th ed.). Cape Town:
Oxford University Press.

Study these chapters in their entirety and in conjunction with the LU that is
wrapped around the chapters.
Chapter 7: Developing inclusive school and classroom environments
Chapter 8: Contextual disadvantages: Conceptual framework
Chapter 10: Social problems: Conceptual framework
Chapter 11: Substance abuse and violence
Chapter 12: Sexuality and associated social problems
Chapter 13: Disabilities and learning difficulties: Conceptual framework

3.2 LOOKING AT THE WHOLE IN DEVELOPING SUPPORT

Realising that we cannot fix everything and that we cannot get it right all the time,
is a good starting point. Dealing with behavioural, emotional, personal and social
challenges is no simple task. Sometimes “invisible” learners disappear under the
radar; at other times we deliberately turn a blind eye when facing enormous
challenges.

YouTube video 3.1

Watch the video entitled Making a Difference: Jaime Escalante (2 min 31 sec) by
clicking on the following link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IM6blsMhPRQ
(Calculus is a type of mathematics. Escalante’s learners said that he knew their
names and stories. Escalante acknowledged that he made mistakes which he
attempted to correct.)
3.3 WHAT DOES A HOLISTIC IMAGE COMPRISE?

Table 3.2 summarises the contexts and characteristics related to the educational
process in obtaining a holistic image in order to develop support. The table is not
exhaustive. This is information you have to collect for each learner who is
experiencing a barrier to learning, as discussed in previous units.

Table 3.2: Looking at the whole – contexts and characteristics

Individual o Dispositions or force characteristics, bioecological
resources, demand characteristics
o Internal assets as protective factors
o Developmental stage
Class o Physical aspects, instructional aspects, personal
factors of teacher and learner, group dynamics,
classroom coordination, conflict and discipline
management
School o Culture and school organisation
Family o External resources as protective factors
o Poverty affecting housing, nutrition, access to health
services, parental education
o Employment
o Substance abuse
Peers o External resources as protective factors
o Negative influences
Other protective o Cultural values, religion, etc.
resources
Other risk factors o Crime, violence, etc.

After collecting the required information, it needs to be organised into workable

sections that are specified in the next section.
3.4 CATEGORIES FOLLOWING INTERPRETATION

We now have to integrate the information in table 3.2 to make appropriate

recommendations.
Some suggestions for organising information in three categories could be:
o Category 1: Information on contexts and characteristics that are not being
used – i.e. you found that the information does not relate to the
challenge(s) that the learner is experiencing.
o Category 2: Information on contexts and characteristics of the factors
contributing to the challenges that are being used
o Category 3: Information on contexts and characteristics that could positively

influence the challenge(s) – i.e. you identify strengths, assets and

resources of individuals and communities
o

Participate in Forum 07: Learner support: Summer case study

Read through the following case study and organise the information in the three
categories mentioned above:
Summer is in Grade 10 in a public school. She attends school regularly, although
schoolwork is not her first priority. Summer’s teachers are concerned about her
growing disinterest in schoolwork and sleepiness in class. Summer joined a
street dance group and dreams of a dance career. She attends all group
practices and also practises the moves on her own for hours on end. She has
experimented with drugs and uses them on a recreational basis. Summer’s
boyfriend is affiliated to The Reds, one of the neighbourhood gangs. Up to now,
Summer has declined to join The Reds despite invites from her boyfriend’s best
friend who actually has an eye on her. Summer’s boyfriend is a small-scale drug
dealer. One evening they were nearly robbed by a buyer. Summer was held at
gun point, but her boyfriend took charge and pistol whipped the perpetrator when
his own gun jammed. Summer’s mother is a loving and strict single parent,
desperately trying to make ends meet. She works night shift in a hospital. Her
mother is religious and Summer has to go to church every Sunday, where she
is integrated into a youth group. Her mother is positive about Summer’s passion
for dance.

Categories integrating information specifically for Summer’s case could be:

Category 1: Information on contexts and characteristics that are not being
used
o School work is not Summer’s first priority
o Summer’s mother is employed
o Her mother’s finances is limited and she is a single parent
o Her mother is positive about Summer’s passion for dance
Category 2: Information on contexts and characteristics of the factors
contributing to the challenges that are being used
o Summer is an adolescent
o Summer practises long hours
o She uses drugs on a recreational basis
o She is exposed to gang activity as her boyfriend is affiliated to The Reds
o The attempts of the boyfriend’s best friend to lure Summer into joining
The Reds is a cover up for his romantic interest in her
o Summer’s boyfriend is a small-scale drug dealer
o Summer was present during an illegal activity and exposed to a potential
life-threatening situation including violence
o The mother works night shift in a hospital
Category 3: Information on contexts and characteristics that could
positively influence the challenges comprising Summer’s disinterest in
school work and her sleepiness in class
o Summer participates in healthy exercise; she can actualise herself in
dancing
o She is self-disciplined as she attends all dance practices and goes to
school regularly
o She shows dedication and the ability to apply herself and work hard by
practising the moves on her own for hours on end
 o She has not joined the gang, The Reds, despite invites
o Summer’s mother is a loving and strict parent
o Her mother is instilling religious values
o Summer and her mother attend church regularly – they are part of the
church community
o Summer is included in the church youth group
o Summer has a future perspective and dreams of a dance career

The next section shows how you discard the first category (category 1) and how
you work with the remaining categories, namely categories 2 and 3.

3.5 APPROPRIATE RECOMMENDATIONS

o Formulating recommendations – by using the Case study as example

Before recommendations are formulated, the integrated information in categories
2 and 3 is interpreted in relation to Summer’s decreased interest in her schoolwork
and sleepiness in class.

The peer group has an important influence throughout the adolescent’s life (Tomé,
De Matos, Simões, Camacho & Diniz 2012:28). Summer lives for dancing with her
peers. (Note that street dance or “street” is dance styles such as hip hop, locking,
popping, breaking, waacking, freestyle, etc. that originated outside a dance studio.
It requires rigorous exercise to master the moves. The dancers participate in
competitions and championships on national and international level.) Summer may
be exhausted by the long hours of practice.

Summer’s ability to assert herself by declining the invites to join The Reds, shows
that she is less susceptible to group influence (Tomé et al. 2012:27). Although the
best friend’s romantic interest in her may cause some stress or uneasiness,
Summer’s challenges should rather be attributed to her relationship with her
boyfriend. The drug dealing boyfriend most probably supplies her with
“recreational” drugs laced with toxic substances that may cause sleepiness in
class.

Summer is most likely traumatised after looking into the barrel of a gun —a
potential life-threatening situation— during the commission of a crime as well as
the commotion with the jamming of the gun and the assault of the robber that
followed afterwards. Summer’s loving, strict and churchgoing mother would be
horrified, but her parental monitoring is limited due to her night shifts.

Krüger and Swanepoel (2017:92–93; 95–96) conducted the literature study on

trauma below that is relevant to all learners who experience trauma. The format
below also shows you how to cite various sources when writing a literature study.
In this instance the APA style was used which does not require page numbers.
The APA style also applies a different method of punctuation (e.g. a comma before
the ampersand [&]). In ordinary text, the APA style requires a comma before “and”
in a list to improve readability.

Trauma is accompanied by the association of intense fear (Marzillier, 2014),

horror, and helplessness (Sanderson, 2013) and it violates the person's belief and
expectations about the world and the self (Boehnlein, 2007; Cohen, Mannarino, &
Deblinger, 2017; Sui & Padmanabhanunni, 2016; Van der Kolk, 2007).

Emotional, cognitive and behavioural reactions to trauma may affect normal

interactions and daily routines as these reactions break through the normal
defences and create a profound state of disorganisation in which meaning
collapses (Marzillier, 2014). Trauma memories are sorted as isolated fragments of
sensory observations and emotional states of visual images (Van der Kolk, 2007).

Reactions to trauma may include, but are not limited to, insomnia, restless sleep,
muscle tension, loss of appetite, poor concentration, memory problems, confusion,
shock, disbelief, flashbacks, intrusive memories or thoughts, repetition of thoughts,
avoidance behaviour, emotional numbness, heightened vigilance, grief, irritability,
aggression, anxiety, panic, inappropriate guilt feelings, shame, depression,
nightmares, impulsive behaviour, affect dysregulation, loss of meaning,
dissociation, disturbances of identity, increased sense of vulnerability,
psychogenetic pain (chronic pain that cannot be explained medically), and
substance abuse (Alayarian, 2011; Briere & Lanktree, 2012; Briere & Scott, 2015;
Cohen et al., 2017; Dass-Brailsford, 2007; Sanderson, 2013; Van der Kolk, 2007).

You could possibly have made the following recommendations for Summer:
o Affirmation of Summer’s positive aspects (such as self-discipline,
dedication, perseverance, dancing skills, future perspective) to build her
self-worth
o Administration of the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC) and
possible referral for post-trauma therapy
o Discontinuation of relationship with boyfriend
o Monitoring of drug use
o Continuation of involvement in church youth group
o Parental feedback interview in Summer’s presence depending on her
preference
o Brief reports from class teachers’ observations every fortnight for a
minimum period of two months

The TSCC (Briere 1996) measures post-trauma distress of children between 8 to

16 years who have experienced traumatic events such as physical and sexual
abuse, bullying, major losses, the witnessing of violence done to others and natural
disasters. The TSCC can be administered and scored by individuals who are not
formally trained in psychology or related fields. The procedures in the manual
should be carefully studied prior to assessment. Teachers may not interpret the
TSCC scores, but the scores provide an indication of the necessity to refer the
learner.
 The next step is to develop an individual support plan for the learner as discussed
in the following section.

3.6 THE LEARNER’S INDIVIDUAL SUPPORT PLAN (ISP)

An ISP is a “plan designed for learners who need additional support or expanded
opportunities, developed by teachers in consultation with the parents and the
School-based Support Team” (DBE 2014:9). The ISP can include referrals to a
social worker, local clinic, counsellor, etc. It should be reviewed at least once a
term.

The SIAS (DBE 2014:8) contains the ISP form that is included in table 3.3. The
ISP is part of the Support Needs Assessment form 2 (see 2.3.1). We use the first
two recommendations in Summer’s case to populate the ISP form – you are the
designated Life Orientation (LO) teacher in the example.

Table 3.3: Individual Support Plan

Area(s) Target Strategy Responsib Time Review Comme
in to be of le person frame date (to nt on
which achieve interventi assess progres
support d on achieveme s made
is nt of the in
needed target) achievin
g
target(s)
Behavio Build Affirmation LO teacher 1 [Date: one
ur self- of positive month month
worth aspects later]
Behavio Measur Administer LO teacher 1 Not [Possibl
ur e post- TSCC sessio applicable e referral
n for post-
 trauma trauma
distress therapy]

Affirmation of positive aspects can be done in the following manner:

o Ask the learner to write down his or her positive aspects while you are doing
the same (i.e. listing his or her positive aspects according to your
judgement).
o Compare and combine the two lists into one.
o Keep a copy of the combined list on the learner’s file and give the other
copy to the learner.
o Inform the learner that he or she has to read the list out loud once a day in
a private space until the next session.
o In the following session, discuss whether the list should be amended and
more positive aspects added.
o Continue with the reading of the list for approximately one month. The
learner can set a daily or recurring reminder at a convenient time on his or
her phone or tablet.
The reason for reading out loud is to focus attention and to involve the sense of
hearing. The learner literally hears and listens to his or her own voice.
Your holistic image of the learner keeps on developing after collaboration with the
role players, e.g. members of the SBST (see 2.3), and feedback interviews with
the parents (see 2.4). Thus, you are now in a position to provide practical support
guidelines to teachers and parents that are discussed in the next section.

3.7 PRACTICAL SUPPORT GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS

YouTube video 3.2

Are teachers and not the learners sometimes the problem? If so, should guidelines
be conveyed to the teacher? Answer the questions after watching the video entitled
Flowers are Red (4 min 59 sec) by clicking on the following link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nHm2KdTTKUw
You can follow the words of the song below:

FLOWERS ARE RED – Harry Chapin

The little boy went to his first day of school. He got the crayons and he started to
draw. He put colours all over the paper, for colour was what he saw.
And the teacher said: “What are you doing young man?”
“I’m painting flowers,” he said.
She said: “This is not the time for Art, young man, and anyway, flowers are green
and red. There’s a time for everything, young man; a way it should be done. You’ve
got to show concern for everyone else, for you’re not the only one.”

And she said: “Flowers are red, young man, and green leaves are green. There’s
no need to see flowers any other way than the way they always have been seen.”
But the little boy said: “There are so many colours in the rainbow, so many colours
in the morning sun, so many colours in a flower, and I see everyone.”

Well, the teacher said: “You’re sassy! [naughty] There’s ways that things should
be and you’ll paint flowers the way they are, so repeat after me:

And she said: “Flowers are red, young man, and green leaves are green.
There’s no need to see flowers any other way than the way they always have been
seen.”
But the little boy said again: “There are so many colours in the rainbow, so many
colours in the morning sun, so many colours in a flower and I see everyone.”

Then the teacher put him in a corner. She said: “It’s for your own good and you
won’t come out ‘til you get it right and are responding like you should.” Well, finally
he got lonely. Frightened thoughts filled his head and he went up to the teacher
and this is what he said.
And he said: “Flowers are red and green leaves are green.
There’s no need to see flowers any other way than the way they always have been
seen.”

Of course, time went by like it always does. They moved to another town and the
little boy went to another school. This is what he found: The teacher there was
smiling; she said: “Painting should be fun and there are so many colours in a
flower, so let’s use everyone.” But that little boy painted flowers in neat rows of
green and red and when the teacher asked him why, this is what he said …

And he said: “Flowers are red and green leaves are green. There’s no need to see
flowers any other way than the way they always have been seen.”

But there still must be a way to have our children say:

“There are so many colours in the rainbow, so many colours in the morning sun,
so many colours in a flower and I see everyone.”

• 3.8 GENERAL SUPPORT GUIDELINES

Practical support guidelines could assist teachers and parents in dealing with
psychosocial, emotional and behavioural challenges or they could assist with the
in-service training of teachers. The guidelines could also serve as preventative
measure (primary and secondary) in some instances. General support guidelines
should be compiled from reliable sources such as books written by experts or
websites of support networks as teachers cannot have all the guidelines at their
fingertips. The following book can be consulted to compile practical support
guidelines:
Landsberg, E., Krüger, D. & Swart, E. (Eds.). 2019. Addressing barriers to learning
– A South African perspective. (4th ed.). Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Landsberg et al. (2019) cover a wide spectrum including xenophobia, various

disabilities and giftedness that could affect emotions and behaviour.
 Developing guidelines should be done in an orderly fashion for ease of future
reference. You can create a library in the following manner:
o Create a folder, named “Guidelines psychosocial etc” (no full stop after etc),
on your computer.
o Create two subfolders named “Teachers” and “Parents”.
o Create a sub-subfolder, named accordingly e.g. ADHD, for each challenge
in both the Teachers and Parents subfolders.
o Write the guidelines in reader friendly and gender neutral language. Do not
identify learners by name as the guidelines are largely generic.
o Discuss the guidelines with the teachers and/or parents and update your
guidelines to include their suggestions if applicable.
o Update your guidelines when you come across other relevant information.
o Network with teachers to share guidelines.
o Make regular backups of your guidelines on an external hard drive which is
more stable than a USB flash drive or “memory stick”.

3.9 SPECIFIC SUPPORT GUIDELINES

Some cases require specific support guidelines and others a combination of

generic and specific guidelines. We use Summer’s case to illustrate specific
guidelines for teachers and parents. Take note of the approach that is followed:
o While discussing the guidelines, suggestions from Summer’s teachers
and/or mother could also be added to the guidelines. They may already
have provided some sort of support that appears to yield positive results.
o The guidelines could also be emailed to the teachers to save time.
▪ Attach a read receipt to ensure that the email is read. Check
whether the read receipts are returned to you. Remember that a
read receipt does not imply that the content of the email is being
understood.
▪ Invite the teachers to respond with additional guideline proposals
within a specific time frame.
 ▪ Include in your email that the teachers should request clarity if the
guidelines are unclear.
o During the discussion with the teachers, focus on their initial concerns (i.e.
disinterest in schoolwork and sleepiness in class) instead of divulging
information that was confidentially entrusted to you. The reason for
Summer’s challenges can be described as that she is going through a
difficult time in her life and that she needs the support of her teachers in
dealing with it.
o Thank the teachers for their support and willingness to walk an extra mile.

Guidelines for Summer’s teachers:

The following guidelines are provided to the teachers:
o Keep in mind that Summer’s adolescence may be compounded by her
artistic inclination. (She excels in street dance as you may or may not know.)
o Limit pressure on Summer.
o Assist with and arrange for catching up of school work, if need be.
o Offer individual assistance (reteaching) that Summer has to request.
o Express appreciation for any effort, irrespective of how small.
o Accommodate “down days” to a certain extent. They ought to become less
in weeks to come.
o Show interest in her dancing if you share her passion.

Guidelines for Summer’s mother:

The guidelines for Summer’s mother can be given during the feedback interview
after Summer has been excused (had she been present), or they can be conveyed
telephonically at a prearranged time that does not interfere with her sleep schedule
due to working night shift. Keep in mind that Summer’s mother may choose to
consider or ignore the guidelines. The guidelines are as follows:
o Assure Summer of your love and support although you may be disappointed
in her behaviour and unsettled by the consequences.
 o Take Summer’s fragile state into account – as her mother you know best
how to deal with it.
o If you are perhaps second-guessing your parental skills, you should not
measure your skills against these challenges. Many good parents find
themselves in similar situations.
o In your talk with Summer, we suggest that you focus on errors in judgement
that we all make from time to time and how they should be used as a
learning curve to avoid future challenges.
o Listen patiently to Summer’s explanations, excuses, accusations, etc. She
needs to recount her side.
o If emotions run high, postpone the talk to a time when everybody has
calmed down.
o Negotiate new house rules with Summer to promote her health and safety.
o If you consider to ground her, exclude her dance and church activities.
o Be open to reasonable changes in your behaviour suggested by Summer.
o Firmly believe that negative events can lead to positive outcomes.

Some parents nowadays punish their children by taking away their technology for
a period of time. However, Summer’s safety could be compromised if her phone is
taken from her. The next section deals with technology and challenges.

3.10 GUIDELINES FOR SOCIAL MEDIA

Learners can fall prey to social media and they need protection. Both teachers
and parents can recommend the following book to children:
Sadleir, E. & Harrison, L. 2017. Selfies, sexts and smartphones: A teenager’s
online survival guide. Cape Town: Penguin Books.
Sadler and Harrison (2017) discuss the risks of entrusting online content to
others; cyber bullying; iCloud hacking of privateinformation; access by
the police, paedophiles, prospective employers and phishers; the
permanence of online content; the folly of anonymity, etc. Safety
 measures about passwords, personal information, privacy settings,
location settings and spam are provided.
Parents can be advised to enter into a contract with their children when buying
them their first smartphone. The contract should among others allow parents to
monitor the phone. This would imply that parents have to be knowledgeable about
the apps on their children’s phones.

3.11 CONCLUSION

Making appropriate recommendations on the basis of a holistic interpretation and

integration of all the information derived from the behavioural and social
assessment, bring us a step closer to developing the ISP and practical support
guidelines for teachers and parents. The road could however cross mountains and
rivers, but the teacher can leave a legacy for generations to come as attested to in
YouTube video 3.1.

Self-assessment questions for LU 3

List reactions to trauma.

Obtaining a holistic image of a learner comprises among others the

identification of protective and risk factors. Explain how wealth can be either a
protection or a risk factor.

Teachers sometimes label learners, for example: That girl is just a drama
queen or If there is trouble, just look for Pine and you have the culprit. Why
should you avoid labelling a learner?

Being able to maintain a balance between physical, intellectual, emotional and

social aspects contributes to mental health and to the quality of your work and
relationships. What are the characteristics you need to keep in mind to function at
full capacity as an individual in the helping profession?
REFERENCES

Alayarian, A. 2011. Trauma, torture, and dissociation: A psychoanalytic view.

London, England: Karnac Books.

Boehnlein, J.K. 2007. Religion and spirituality after trauma, in Kirmayer, L.J.,
Lemelson, R. & Barad, M. (Eds.). Understanding trauma: Integrating biological,
clinical, and cultural perspectives. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press:
259–274.

Briere, J.1996. Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC): Professional

manual. Lutz, FL: PAR, Inc.

Briere, J.N. & Lanktree, C. 2012. Complex trauma in adolescence and young
adulthood, in Briere, J.N. & Lanktree, C. (Eds.). Treating complex trauma in
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