The structure of the past perfect tense:

Affirmative:​
Subject + had + past participle​
Example:

●​ She had finished her homework before she went to bed.

●​ They had left by the time I arrived.​

Negative:​
Subject + had + not + past participle (often contracted to hadn't)​
Example:

●​ I hadn't eaten lunch before the meeting.

●​ He hadn't seen the movie before.​

Interrogative:​
Had + subject + past participle?​
Example:

●​ Had you seen her before yesterday?

●​ Had they finished their work by the time we arrived?​

Usage of the Past Perfect Tense:

1.​ Action before another past action:

○​ It is used to show that one event happened before another in the past.
○​ Example: She had already left when I arrived.​

2.​ Action with a result in the past:

○​ It emphasizes that an action had a clear result or impact at a particular
moment in the past.
○​ Example: He was tired because he had worked all day.​

3.​ Reported speech:

○​ It’s used when the reporting verb is in the past, and you want to refer to an
earlier action.
○​ Example: She said she had visited the museum before.​

4.​ Third conditional (hypothetical past situations):

○​ Used in "if" clauses to describe a situation that didn't happen in the past.

Example: If I had known, I would have helped you.​

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Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in the past
perfect tense.

1.​ By the time the concert started, they had arrived at the venue.
2.​ She had already left by the time I called her.
3.​ I had never seen such a beautiful sunset before I went on vacation last year.
4.​ He had finished all the work before the deadline.
5.​ When I arrived at the airport, the flight had taken off already.

Exercise 2: Choose the correct option (past perfect or simple past).

1.​ She had visited Paris several times before she moved there.
2.​ By the time we arrived, the meeting had already started.
3.​ They had never seen such a beautiful movie before.
4.​ I had eaten breakfast when she called me.
5.​ When we left, it started raining.

Exercise 3: Correct the mistakes in the sentences below.

1.​ By the time I arrived, she had already gone home. (Corrected: "went" → "gone")
2.​ He had never seen that movie before. (Corrected: "saw" → "seen")
3.​ They had finished their lunch when the waiter brought the bill. (Correct - no change
needed)
4.​ She hadn't studied for the test when she passed it. (Correct - no change needed)
5.​ I had known him for years before we moved to the same city. (Corrected: "knew" →
"had known")

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Exercise: Fill in the blanks with the correct word.

Words to use: suicide, funeral, suspect, arrest, invalid, reveal, nonsense, assume,
suspicion, share

1.​ The police suspected that the man was involved in the robbery, but they didn't have
enough evidence to charge him.
2.​ She didn’t attend the funeral because she was out of town.
3.​ He made a serious accusation, but it turned out to be pure nonsense.
4.​ The detective found a new clue that could reveal the identity of the real culprit.
5.​ The witness’s testimony was considered invalid because it contradicted the facts.
6.​ The family was in complete shock after hearing the news of the tragic suicide.
7.​ They decided to share their findings with the rest of the team during the meeting.
8.​ It is easy to assume that someone is guilty without having all the facts.
9.​ The police made an arrest at the suspect's house early this morning.
 10.​There was growing suspicion about the company's financial activities, leading to a
full investigation.​
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Usage of Modal Verbs with the Perfect Infinitive:
1.​ Expressing a past possibility​
Use modal verbs like could, might, or may to talk about something that could have
happened in the past, but didn't.
○​ Could have + V3: Indicates a possibility that didn't happen but was possible.​
Example: She could have helped you if you had asked her.
○​ Might have + V3: Indicates something that was possible but uncertain.​
Example: They might have missed the bus.
2.​ Expressing a past obligation or advice​
Use should have to indicate that someone ought to have done something, but
didn't.
○​ Should have + V3: Shows that someone made a mistake by not doing
something or expresses regret.​
Example: I should have studied harder for the exam.
3.​ Expressing a past regret or hypothetical situation​
Use would have to talk about something that would have happened if
circumstances had been different. It is often used in the third conditional (hypothetical
situations in the past).
○​ Would have + V3: Talks about a result that didn't happen but would have,
given different circumstances.​
Example: If I had known about the party, I would have gone.
4.​ Expressing certainty or deduction about the past​
Use must have to express a strong belief or deduction about something that
definitely happened in the past.
○​ Must have + V3: Indicates something that is certain or highly probable in the
past.​
Example: He must have forgotten to call you, that's why he didn't answer.
5.​ Expressing a past action that was avoided or failed​
Use can’t have to indicate something that was not possible or definitely didn't
happen.
○​ Can’t have + V3: Expresses certainty that something didn't happen in the
past.​
Example: She can't have known about the meeting because she wasn’t
there.

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=> When modal verbs are combined with the perfect infinitive, they indicate the possibility,
necessity, or certainty of an action that could have occurred in the past but didn't.

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with the correct modal verb + perfect
infinitive (have + past participle).

1.​ She might have called me earlier if she had known I was waiting for her.
2.​ You should have studied harder for the test; you would have passed it.
 3.​ He must have taken the wrong bus to get here; that’s why he’s late.
4.​ They could have arrived on time, but their flight was delayed.
5.​ I would have helped you with the presentation if you had asked me.

Exercise 2: Choose the correct modal verb + perfect infinitive to

complete the sentences.

1.​ She must have gone to the doctor. She looks very ill.
2.​ They should have invited me to the party, but they forgot.
3.​ If I had known about the situation, I would have acted differently.
4.​ I can’t have imagined that she was the one who did it.
5.​ You might have seen him at the concert; he’s a huge fan of the band.

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The relative pronouns who, which, and that are used to introduce relative clauses, which
provide additional information about a noun in the main clause​
Who → used for people (subject or object).
Which → used for things or animals.
That → used for people, things, or animals (informal, often in restrictive clauses).​
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Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with "who," "which," or "that."

1.​ The teacher who helped me with the project was very patient.
2.​ The book which I borrowed from the library is really interesting.
3.​ The person who called you yesterday is my cousin.
4.​ The movie that we watched last night was fantastic.
5.​ The car that is parked outside belongs to my neighbor.
6.​ The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
7.​ I met a man who works in the same office as my brother.
8.​ The dog that bit me ran away.

Exercise 2: Choose the correct relative pronoun (who, which, or that).

1.​ The artist who painted this picture is very famous.

○​ Correct answer: a) who
2.​ The house which I grew up in is now for sale.
○​ Correct answer: b) which
3.​ The team that won the championship was very talented.
○​ Correct answer: c) that
4.​ The book that is on the table belongs to Sarah.
○​ Correct answer: c) that
5.​ The child who lost his toy was very upset.
○​ Correct answer: a) who