Word meanings
Contents:
1. Meaning & Semantics
2. Semantic components
3. Polysemy & Polyseme
4. Main types of transference
5. Other types of meaning development
6. Figure of speech
What is meaning?
Meaning can be more or less seen as a
component of the word through which a
Definitions concept (mental phenomena) is
communicated thus, providing the word
with the ability of denoting real objects,
qualities, actions, and abstract notions, etc.
(Nguyen Manh Hung, 2014)
What is semantics?
1. Semantics comes from the Greek word seme meaning sign.
2. The term semantics was not widely used until the 20th
century.
3. Semantics is the study of meaning in language.
(Nguyen Manh Hung, 2014)
Semantics generally refers to how the meaning is
conveyed through the symbols of a written language.
Semantic components
(Components of lexical meaning)
1. Denotative meaning (denotation): refers to the literal meaning
of a word, the ‘dictionary definition’.
2. Connotative meaning (connotation): refers to the associations
that are connected to a certain word or the emotional suggestions
or all the implications related to that word.
Note:
- Denotation of a word exists together with connotation.
Lexical meaning: snake
the realization of
concept or emotion
Lexical Grammatical
meaning meaning
Denotative Connotative A countable
noun in
meaning meaning singular form
Semantic components
A kind of long, An evil/ a (Components of L.M.):
cylindrical reptile. danger. - Denotation
- Connotation
Polysemy vs. Polyseme
1. Polysemy is the existence of several language
connected meanings within a word as the result
of the development or changes of the original
meaning.
Polysemy results in polyseme.
Definitions
2. Polyseme is a type of word / phrase with
multiple, related meanings.
E.g.:
mouth:
(1): a part of human body
(2): any opening
(Nguyen Manh Hung, 2014)
Polyseme – wood
A small forest
Material
(a geographical area with
(a piece of a tree) many trees)
Polyseme – crane
A tall bird with long thin A tall metal structure used
legs and a long neck for lifting and moving
heavy objects
Process of development of a new meaning
A change of meaning = Transference New meaning
Development & Changes of new meanings
Main types
(basing on logical Further types
associations)
(Transference)
Generalization
Specialization
Degradation
Metaphor Metonymy
Elevation
Types of transference
1. Transference based on resemblance (Metaphor): A type of
figurative language in which 1 thing is described in terms of some other
thing.
Resemblance = Similarity
E.g.:
We live at the foot of the
mountain
She is a star.
Metaphor & its features
Metaphor is the transference of names based on the
association of similarity.
Metaphor is a hidden comparison.
There are many types of similarities.
Types of similarities
1.The similarity of shape:
the head of a cabbage; …
2.The similarity of position:
the foot of a mountain; ..
3.The similarity of function:
the head of the class; …
4.The similarity of movement:
to worm; …
5.The similarity of color:
rosy cheeks; …
6.The similarity of size:
pool of blood; …
7.The similarity of behavior or characters:
flood of bad news; a snake; …
Metaphor & Simile
Similarity Difference
The mouth of the river
Metaphor
More direct
Same form of Hidden comparison
comparison
She is like a fox.
Simile He is bright as stars.
Open comparison with
linking elements
A metaphor can be extended into a simile.
A simile can be condensed into a metaphor.
Types of transference
2. Transference based on contiguity (Metonymy): A type of
figurative language in which the name of 1 thing is replaced with
another commonly associated with it.
Contiguity = Relatedness
E.g.:
The Downing Street released the news.
Metonymy & its features
Metonymy is the transference of name based on the association of
contiguity.
The name of one thing is changed for that of another to
which it is related.
I can drink another glass.
Types of relations
1. Relation bet. containers & things contained:
He drank 10 glasses.
2. Relation bet. names of body parts & symbols:
She has a good ear for music.
3. Relation bet. proper names & common names:
The boy eating a sandwich is wearing an expensive cardigan.
4. Relation bet. geographical names & the products:
Do you like cognac?
5. Relation bet. names of inventors & names of inventions:
Here is the mackintosh.
Types of relations (cont.)
6. Relation bet. names of separate parts & a whole thing or vice versa:
Give me a hand, please.
7. Relation bet. names of the notion & symbols:
TheWhite House has passed the law.
8. Relation bet. names of the place & the people there:
The whole village is kind-hearted.
9. Relation bet. names of material & the products made of them:
I bought a new iron.
Development & Change of new meanings
(Further types)
1. Generalization (Extension)
2. Specialization (Narrowing)
3. Degradation (Pejoration)
4. Elevation (Amelioration)
Generalization (Extension)
1. Def.:
“Generalization is the existence of semantic capacity of a word in
its historical development process.”
2. E.g.:
bird (a young bird)
a creature having 2 wings, 2 legs covered with feathers
Specialization (Narrowing)
1. Def.
“Specialization is the restriction of semantic capacity of a word in
its historical development process.”
2. E.g.:
girl (a young person)
a young woman
Degradation (Pejoration/Degeneration)
1. Def.:
“Degradation is the acquisition of less pleasant or less emotive
meaning of a word in its historical development process.”
2. E.g.:
notorious:
- Past meaning: famous
- Present meaning: widely known for criminal acts/
bad traits of character
Elevation (Amelioration)
1. Def.:
“Elevation is the acquisition of more pleasant or less emotive meaning of a
word in its historical development process.”
2. E.g.:
nice:
- careless, weak, poor, ignorant (old French)
- stupid, foolish (late 13c)
- fastidious (late 14c)
- agreeable, delightful (1769)
- kind, thoughtful (1830)
Figures of speech
A figure of speech is a word or phrase
which is used for special effect, and
Definitions which does not have its usual or literal
meaning.
(Richards, et al., 1987)
A figure of speech is also called
figurative language.
Figures of speech (Figurative language)
1. Simile
2. Metaphor
3. Personification
3. Metonymy
4. Synecdoche
6. Hyperbole (Overstatement)
7. Litotes (Meiosis/Understatement)
8. Irony
9. Euphemism
10. Onomatopoeia
Simile & Metaphor
1. Simile (an explicit or direct comparison)
a. My hands are as cold as ice.
b. He eats like a horse.
2. Metaphor (an implicit or indirect comparison; based on
resemblance)
a. He was a lion in the fight.
b. She has a heart of stone.
Personification
1. Personification is a special kind of metaphor in which some
human characteristic is attributed to an inanimate object or
abstract notion.
2. E.g.
a. The sun glared down at me from the sky.
b. The ocean danced in the moonlight.
Metonymy & Synecdoche
1. Metonymy (based on contiguity/relatedness)
a. He is the best pen.
b. The kettle is boiling.
2. Synecdoche is a special kind of metonymy in which a part of
something is substituted for the whole, or vice versa.
a. Vietnam won.
(Vietnam’s football team)
b. Gray hairs should be respected.
(old/elderly people)
Hyperbole
1. Hyperbole (Overstatement) is the use of exaggerated
statement that is made for special effect and is not meant to be
taken literally.
(Crowther (ed.), 1992)
2. E.g.
a. I invited millions of people to my party.
b. Don’t live in such a sea of doubt.
Litotes
1. Litotes (Meiosis/Understatement) is the use of deliberately
gentler, milder or weaker statements to express something in a
controlled way.
2. E.g.
a. I don’t think I would agree with you.
(I disagree with you)
b. It’s not bad.
(It is fine.)
c. It wasn’t easy.
(It was very difficult.)
d. Always remember that she is no fool.
(She is worldly-wise.)
Litotes is usually an ironical understatement, especially using negative
to emphasize the contrary.
Irony
1. Irony is the expression of one’s meaning by saying the direct
opposite of one’s thoughts in order to be emphatic, amusing,
sarcastic, etc.
(Crowther (ed.), 1992)
2. E.g.
a. He is lucky to have such an ugly and awkward wife.
b. She is extremely unlucky to be born in such a prosperous
family in a developed European country.
c. Your plan was really tricky. The other team will figure it
out in about one play.
Euphemism
1. Euphemism is the use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or
phrases in place of more accurate or direct ones.
2. E.g.
a. funeral directors (morticians/undertakers)
b. a sanitation engineer (a garbage man)
Onomatopoeia
1. Onomatopoeia is the imitation of natural sounds by means of
words or groups of words.
2. E.g.
a. He felt a tap on his shoulder.
b. Rain was dripping down from the trees. Its steady drip
kept me awake all night long.
