NAME REACTION

A. HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

1. Wurtz reaction : Alkyl halides react with sodium in dry 2R – X +2Na D
ry e
t
her R – R + 2NaX
ether to give hydrocarbons(Alkanes) containing double
the number of carbon atoms present in the halide. 2CH3 –Br +2Na D  CH3 – CH3 + 2Na Br
ryether

2. Fittig reaction: Aryl halides(Haloarenes) when treated 2Ar – X +2NaD  Ar – Ar + 2NaX

ryether

with sodium in dry ether gives in which two aryl groups

are joined together.
Wurtz-Fittig reaction : A mixture of an alkyl halide Ar – X + Na + R – X D  Ar – R + 2NaX
ryether

(Haloalkanes) and aryl halide(Haloarenes.) gives

alkylarene when treated with sodium in dry ether.
3. Finkelstein reaction: Alkyl chlorides/ bromides reacts R – Cl +NaI a  R – I + NaCl
cet one
with NaI in dry acetone to give Alkyl iodides.
R – Br +NaI a  R – I + NaBr
cet one

Swarts reaction Heating of alkyl chloride/bromide in the R – X AgF, Hg 2F2 , CoF2 or SbF3
       R–F
presence of a metallic fluoride such as AgF,Hg2F2, CoF2 or CH3 –Br + AgF CH3 –F + AgBr
SbF3 to give alkyl fluorides
12. ALCOHOLS,PHENOLS AND ETHERS
Hydroboration –oxidation reaction : The alcohol CH3-CH=CH2(
i ) B2 H 6 ( ii ) H2O2/O H 
 
 CH3-CH2-CH2-OH
obtained through anti- Markownikov ’s addition of H2O
Reimer-Tiemann reaction-
Phenol reacts with chloroform and NaOH to give
salicylaldehyde

Kolbe’s reaction:-
Phenol reacts with NaOH followed by CO2 in acidic
mediumto give salicylaldehyde
Williamson’s synthesis :In this method an primary CH3Cl + CH3 ONa → CH3OCH3 + NaCl
alkyl halide reacts with a sodium alkoxide to form
symmetrical or unsymmetrical ethers.
12. ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACID
Aldol Condensation : Aldehydes and ketones having at
least one α – hydrogen undergo a condensation
reaction in the presence of dilute alkali (NaOH ,KOH
etc.)as catalyst to form β- hydroxyaldehyde (aldol)or β –
hydroxyketone (ketol) respectively
Cross Aldol Condensation: When aldol condensation is carried out between two different aldehydesand / or ketones, it
is called cross aldol condensation. If both of them contain α-hydrogen atoms, it gives a mixture of four products.

Cannizzaro Reaction: Aldehydes, which do not have an

α-hydrogen atom, undergo self oxidation and reduction
reaction on treatment with concentrated alkali.In this
reaction one molecule of the aldehydeis reduced to
alcohol and another is oxidized to carboxylic acid salt.

Clemmensen Reaction: The carbonyl group of CH3CHO n  H

Z g ,Conc.H
Cl  CH3CH3
aldehydes and Ketones are reduced to CH2 group on
treatment with zinc amalgam(Zn/Hg) and concentrated CH3CO CH3 Z   CH3CH2CH3
nH g,H Cl

hydrochloric acid.(Conc.HCl)
Wolf Kishner Reaction:- reaction used to convert
carbonyl group (-CO-) into methylene groups through
reaction with hydrazine and KOH- ethylene glycol
Rosenmund Reaction: Acyl chloride (acid chloride) is
hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium on BaSO4

Etard Reaction- oxidation of toluene with chromyl

chloride (CrO2Cl2) in CCl4 to give aromatic aldehyde

Stephen Reaction: Alkyl nitriles on reduction with SnCl2

and Conc. HCl, give corresponding aldehydes.

Gatterman-Koch reaction: benzene is treated with

carbon monoxide in the acidic medium in presence of
anhydrous aluminium chloride to give benzaldehyde

Ozonolysis of alkenes involves the addition of ozone

molecule to alkene to form ozonide, and thencleavage
of the ozonide by Zn-H2O to Aldehyde and/or Ketones.
Decarboxylation : Sodium salts of acids when heated
with soda lime, alkanes are formed.

Hell Volhard Zelinsky: (HVZ) Carboxylic acids having an

α-hydrogen are halogenated at the α-position on
treatment with halogenin the presence of small amount
of red phosphorus to give α- halocarboxylic acids
13. AMINES
Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction: primary RCONH2 + 4NaOH + Br2 →RNH2 + 2 NaBr + Na2CO3 + 2H2O
amides are treated with bromine in thepresence of an
CH3CONH2  Br2  4 KOH  CH3 NH2  K2CO3 
alkali, a primary amine containing one carbon less than
2KBr  2H2O
the amide is formed.
Gabriel phthalimide synthesis: Phthalimide on treatment with KOH which on heating with alkyl halidefollowed by
alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding primary amine.

Carbylamine reaction(Isocyanide test):Aliphatic and

aromatic primary amines on heating with chloroform
and ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides Isocyanides or carbylamines which are foul smelling

Diazotization reaction- Aromatic amine reacts with

nitrous acid and Conc HCl to form diazonium salt

Sandmeyers reaction: The Cl–, Br– and CN–

nucleophiles can easily be introduced in the benzene
ring in the presence of Cu(I) ion [CuCl]

Gatterman reaction: The Cl–, Br– and CN– nucleophiles

can easily be introduced in the benzene ring in the
presence of copper powder
 DISTINGUISH TEST
S.No Test Reagent Inference
1. Lucas test :To distinguishbetween ZnCl2/HCl 0
(3 ) Alcohols gives Turbidity
Primary (10), Secondary (20), & (immediately), 20 Turbidity after some
Tertiary (30) Alcohols) time (5-10 min) 10 does not give
Turbidity at room temp.
2. Iodoform test (Alcohols I2 / NaOH Yellow Ppt of CHI3 is formed
containing CH3-CH(OH)-linkage)
and CH3CO- in Ald/Ketone
3. Neutral ferric chloridetest Neutral FeCl3 Phenols give Violet colouration
(Phenol)
4. Tollens test [Aliphatic Ammonical AgNO3 Bright silver mirror [Ag] is produced due
Aldehydes(e.g.Ethanal,Pro panal etc) & to the formation of silver metal.
Aromatic Aldehydes (Benzaldehyde) (HCOOH is gives this test)
5. Fehling’s test [OnlyAliphatic Fehling solution A Reddish brown precipitate of [Cu2O] is
Aldehydes] (aqueous CuSO4 & obtained.
**Aromatic aldehyde do not Fehling solution B (alkaline sodium potassium tartarate is
give this test alkaline sodium also known as Rochelle salt)
potassium tartarate)
6. Sodium bicarbonate test (Aliphatic NaHCO3 Effervescence due to evolution of CO2
& AromaticCarboxylic acids) Sodium gas.
Hydrogencarbonate
7. Isocyanide test Primary Aliphatic Chloroform(CHCl3) Unpleasent odur (foul smelling) of
& Aromatic amines. + Alcoholic KOH isocyanides or carbylamines.
8. Heinsberg test(To distinguish Benzenesulphonyl Product of 1o Amines soluble in alkali.
between (10), (20), & (30) Amines. chloride C6H5SO2Cl Product of 2o Amines are insoluble in
alkali 3o amines do not react.
9. Azo dye test(Aniline) (NaNO2 + HCl) Reaction with NaNO2 + HCl at 273-
[Nitrous acid] followed 278 K gives BDC which forms a
by β -napthol brilliant orange Azo dye with β-
napthol in sodium hydroxide

REASONING TYPE OF QUESTIONS

10. HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES
QUESTION-REASONING ANSWER- REASON
1 Benzyl chloride is highly reactive towards the SN1 Due to the stability of benzyl carbocation due to
reaction. resonance
2 2-bromobutane is optically active but 1- Because 2-Bromobutane has a chiral centre so mirror
bromobutane is optically inactive image are nonsuperimposable
3 Electrophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes Due to – I effect of halogen predominant over +R
occur slowly. effect
4 Which would undergo SN1 reaction faster because 3o carbocation is more stable than
1ocarbocation

5 Why haloarenes are less reactive than haloalkanes In haloarenes C—X bond acquires a partial double
towards nucleophilic substitution reactions bond character due to resonance
6 Which compound in each of the following pairs will (i) iodine is a better leaving group because of its larger
react faster in SN2 reaction? Why? size. (ii) three bulky methyl group hinder the
(i) CH3Br or CH3I (ii) (CH3)3C-Cl or CH3-Cl approaching nucleophile
7 Compound (I) reacts faster in SN1 reaction as it is a 2°
alkyl halide

8 A solution of KOH hydrolyses CH3CH(Cl)CH2CH3 and CH3CH2ClCHCH3 more easily hydrolysed as it forms 20
CH3CH2CH2CH2Cl. Which one of these is more easily carbocation which is more stable than 10 carbocation
hydrolysed and why?
9 State one use each of DDT and iodoform DDT: It is used as insecticide Iodoform: Iodoform is
used as an antiseptic.
10 What is known as a racemic mixture? Give an An equi-molar mixture of d- and l- isomers(50:50 d+l)
example. For example, butan-2-ol. A racemic mixture is optically
inactive due to external compensation
11 Although chlorine is an electron withdrawing Through resonance effect, chlorine tends to stabilize
group, yet it is ortho-, para-directing in the carbocation and the effect is onlyapplicable at
electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions. ortho and para-positions.
Explain why it is so?
12 Grignard’s reagents should be prepared under This is because Grignard reagent forms alkanes by
anhydrous conditions, why? reacting with moisture.
13 the dipole moment of Chlorobenzene is lower than due to resonance ,Chlorobenzene shorter C—Cl
that of Cyclohexyl chloride bond(sp2)than cyclohexyl chloride C—Cl bond(sp3)
14 Chloroform is stored in closed dark brown bottles chloroform is slowly oxidised by air in the presence of
light to form poisonous gas phosgene.COCl2
11. ALCOHOL, PHENOL AND ETHER
1 p-nitro phenol is more acidic than p-methyl phenol Due to –I/–R effect of –NO2 group & +I /+R effect of CH3
2 p-nitrophenol is more acidic than o-nitrophenol OR p-nitro phenol has intermolecular H-bond while o-nitro
O-nitrophenol is steam volatile ,not p-nitrophenol phenol has intramolecular H-bond.
3 Phenol is more acidic than ethanol. phenoxide ion stabilised by resonance)
4 Boiling point of ethanol is higher in comparison to Because of hydrogen bonding in ethanol
methoxymethane.
5 The C – O – H bond angle in alcohols is slightly less Due to lone pair- lone pair repulsion on oxygen
than the tetrahedral angle (109o28’).
6 Although phenoxide ion has more number of carboxylate ion stabilized through equivalent resonance
resonating structures than carboxylate ion, whereas phenoxide ion through non equivalent
carboxylic acid is a stronger acid than phenol. resonance
12. ALDEHYDES KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

1 Increasing order reactivity towards nucleophilic ,

addition OR (reactivity towards HCN) Butanone < Propanone < Propanal < Ethanal
Methyl tert-butyl ketone < Acetone < Acetaldehyde
2 Acidic Character =(1/ pKa)
(CH3)2CHCOOH < CH3CH(Br) CH2COOH < CH3COOH < Cl-CH2-COOH < F-CH2-COOH
CH3CH2CH(Br)COOH 4-Methoxy benzoic acid <Benzoic acid < 4-Nitrobenzoic
acid < 3, 4-Dinitrobenzoic acid.
3 Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones towards due to steric hinderence of 2-alkyl group in ketone
nucleophilic addition and more +I effect of 2-alkyl group in ketone
4 Cyclohexanone forms cyanohydrin in good yield but due to steric hindrance in 2, 4, 6-trimethyl
2, 4, 6-trimethylcyclohexanone does not.
5 Carboxylic acids are higher BP than alcohols due to more intermolecular hydrogen bonding
13. AMINES AND DIAZONIUM SALT
1 increasing order of basic strength , aqueous solutions C6H5-NH2 < CH3-CH2-NH2 < (C2H5)3N < C2H5-NH- C2H5
NH3 < (CH3)3N < CH3—NH2 < (CH3)2NH.
2 increasing order of basic strength , gas phase C6H5-NH2 < CH3-CH2-NH2 < C2H5-NH- C2H5< (C2H5)3N
3 In increasing order of solubility in water
4 p-methylaniline is more basic than p-nitroaniline ―CH3 group +I – effect ,–NO2 group shows –I Effect (
5 Acetylation of – NH2 group is done in aniline before To reduce activating effect of –NH2 group.
preparing its ortho and para compounds.
6 pKb for aniline is more than that for methylamine In aniline due to resonance
7 Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction Aniline Lewis base, reacts lewis acid AlCl3 to form salt.
8 Why do amines behave as nucleophiles? Due to the presence of a lone pair
9 Aniline, p-nitroaniline and p-toluidine p-Toluidine > Aniline > tr-nitroaniline
10 Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by aryl halides do not undergo nuleophilic substitution
Gabriel phthalimide synthesis. easily due to presence of partial double character
11 Although amino group is o– and p– directing in In presence of conc HNO3 ,aniline gets protonated to
electrophilic substitution rean, aniline on nitration form the anilinium ion which is meta directing
gives a substantial amount of m-nitroaniline.
 MECHANISM
1. SN1 mechanism
 It is Two step reactions.
 Step I: In the first step slow dissociation of alkyl halide takes place by reversible reaction forming a
carbocation.

 Step II: The carbocation at once combines with the nucleophile to form final
product (racemic mixture)

2. SN2 mechanism
 It is One step reaction

3. Mechanism for the Hydration of alkenes to alcohol

Mechanism- The mechanism of the reaction involves the following three steps:
Step 1: Protonation of alkene to form carbocation by
electrophilic attack of H3O+.

Step 2: Nucleophilic attack of water on carbocation

Step 3: Deprotonation to form an alcohol

4. Mechanism for the acidic Dehydration of alcohols to give alkenes (At 443 K)
Step 1: Formation of protonated alcohol.

Step 2: Formation of carbocation: It is the slowest step

and hence, the rate determining step of the reaction.

Step 3: Formation of ethene by elimination of a proton

5. Mechanism for the acidic Dehydration of alcohols to give ethers (At 413K)

6. Nucleophilic addition reaction in carbonyl compounds.

 BIOMOLECULES
Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behavior on hydrolysis :
Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler unit of
examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.
Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis. For
example, sucrose , Maltose and Lactose
Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield more than 10 of monosaccharide units on
hydrolysis are called polysaccharides. Some common examples are starch,
cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc.
Reducing sugars: All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent are
referred to as reducing sugars. Examples: All monosaccharides, Maltose and Lactose.
Non-reducing In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e., aldehydes or
sugars: ketone groups are bonded, these are non-reducing sugars e.g. Starch, Sucrose
Anomers: α & β - Glucose , which differ in the orientation of − OH group at C1 .
Proteins: proteins are polymer of α- amino acids ,joined by peptide bonds . They also
known as polyamides.
Types of Proteins: (i) Fibrous proteins:- The polypeptide chains run parallel and are held by H-
bond or disulphide linkage , Insoluble in water Eg : Keratin ,Myocin
(ii) Globular proteins:- Polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape, Soluble
in water Eg : Insulin ,Albumins
Structure and shape 1) Primary structure : It is a specific sequence of amino acids
of Proteins: 2) Secondary structure: It represent shape ie. α - halix and β- pleated sheet.
i) α - halix : polypeptide chain twisted in to a right handed screw by
forming H-bonds b/w NH group and >C=O grup.
ii) β- pleated sheet : peptide chains laid side by side and held together by H-bonds
3) Tertiary structure: It represent further folding of the secondary structure. It
gives rise to two major molecular shapes viz. fibrous and globular.
4) Quaternary structure of proteins: composed of two or more
polypeptide chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial arrangement of these
subunits with respect to each other.
Denaturation of Disturbing the 20 and 30 structures of proteins by heating or changing pH. eg:
proteins
coagulation of egg white on boiling .
Nucleic acids Polymer of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester linkage -3’ 5’ linkage
Nucleotide Each nucleotide contains N-base, Sugar and Phosphate.
Nucleoside Contains N-base & Sugar.
Double helical Two strand of DNA coiled around each other and held together by H-bonds
structure of DNA b/w pairs of bases. Such as − C≡G−, and −A =T−
Purines : Adinine & Guanine And Pyrimidines : Cytosine, Uracil & Thymine
DNA N-Bases : A,G ,C &T, Double helix, Contains 2-deoxy ribose
sugar, Transfer heredity characters.
RNA N-Bases: A,G C & U, Single helix, Contains Ribose sugar, Helps
in proteins synthesis.
Preparation of Glucose
 Structure of Glucose

Reactions of Glucose

Reactions that prove cyclic i. Aldehyde group present but glucose does not react with NaHSO3& NH3.
structure of Glucose ii. Glucose does not give the Schiff’s Test & 2,4-DNP test for aldehyde.
iii. Glucose penta-acetate does not react hydroxyl amine, which shows that
aldehyde group is absent in glucose.
iv. Glucose exist in two stereo-isomeric forms ( &).
 All observations indicate that free aldehydic group is not present in glucose.
Cyclic Structure of Glucose

Structure of Nucleotide

Prepared By:- Dr M R Choudhary K V SAC AHMEDABAD 8469113570