MODULE III

Other Theoretical Approaches to

Personality
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
Albert Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that people learn new behaviors
by observing and imitating others.
The theory emphasizes the importance of observational learning, where
individuals acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs by watching the actions
of others and the consequences that follow, leading to the modeling and adoption
of observed behaviors.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
The theory proposed that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and
modeling and is influenced by factors such as attention, motivation, attitudes, and
emotions. The theory accounts for the interaction of environmental and cognitive
elements that affect how people learn.
According to Bandura, people observe behavior either directly through social
interactions with others or indirectly by observing behaviors through media.
Actions that are rewarded are more likely to be imitated, while those that are
punished are avoided.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
During the first half of the 20th century, the behavioral school of psychology
became a dominant force. The behaviorists proposed that all learning was a result
of direct experience with the environment through the processes of association
and reinforcement.
Bandura's theory believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all
types of learning. For example, children and adults often exhibit learning for things
with which they have no direct experience. Even if you have never swung a
baseball bat in your life, you would probably know what to do if someone handed
you a bat and told you to try to hit a baseball. This is because you have seen others
perform this action either in person or on television.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT:
In the 1960s, psychologist Albert Bandura and his colleagues conducted what is
now known as the Bobo doll experiment. In it, they demonstrated that children may
learn aggression through observation.
The participants for the experiment were 36 boys and 36 girls enrolled at the
Stanford University Nursery School. The children ranged in age between 3 and
almost 6 years.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT:
24 children: an adult modeling aggressive behavior
24 children: an adult modeling non-aggressive behavior
24 children: acted as the control group
These groups were divided again into groups of boys and girls. Each of these
subgroups was then divided so that half of the participants would be exposed to a
same-sex adult model and the other half would be exposed to an opposite-sex
adult model.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT:
In the non-aggressive condition, the adult model simply played with the toys and
ignored the Bobo doll for the entire period. In the aggressive model condition,
however, the adult models would violently attack the Bobo doll.
After the ten-minute exposure to the adult model, each child was then taken to
another room that contained a number of appealing toys including a doll set, fire
engine, and toy airplane.
The children were permitted to play for a brief two minutes, then told they were no
longer allowed to play with any of these tempting toys.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT:
Finally, each child was taken to the last experimental room. This room contained a
number of "aggressive" toys including a tether ball with a face painted on it, dart
guns, and a Bobo doll. The room also included several "non-aggressive" toys
including crayons, paper, dolls, plastic animals, and trucks.
Each child was then allowed to play in this room for a period of 20 minutes. During
this time, researchers observed the child's behavior from behind a one-way mirror
and judged each child's levels of aggression.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT:
Bandura and his colleagues had predicted that children in the non-aggressive
group would behave less aggressively than those in the control group. The
results indicated that while children of both genders in the non-aggressive
group did tend to exhibit less aggression than the control group, boys who had
observed a non-aggressive, opposite-sex model were more likely than those in
the control group to engage in violence.
Children exposed to the violent model tended to imitate the exact behavior they
had observed when the adult model was no longer present.
Researchers were correct in their prediction that boys would behave more
aggressively than girls.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

A live model involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a

behavior.
A symbolic model involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in
books, films, television programs, or online media.
A verbal instructional model involves descriptions and explanations of a
behavior.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
In many cases, learning can be seen immediately when the new behavior is
displayed. For example, when you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you can quickly
determine if learning has occurred by having the child ride his or her bike
unassisted.
But sometimes, we are able to learn things even though that learning might not be
immediately obvious. While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent
change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new
information without demonstrating new behaviors.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
In many cases, learning can be seen immediately when the new behavior is
displayed. For example, when you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you can quickly
determine if learning has occurred by having the child ride his or her bike
unassisted.
But sometimes, we are able to learn things even though that learning might not be
immediately obvious. While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent
change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new
information without demonstrating new behaviors.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling
process:
Attention
Retention
Motor Reproduction
Motivation
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
ATTENTION:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your
attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. The model
must capture the observer’s interest, and the observer must deem the model’s
behavior worth imitating. This decides if the behavior will be modeled.
The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and
form a mental representation of the behavior.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
RETENTION:
The ability to store information is also an essential part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up
information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.
For successful imitation, observers must save these behaviors in symbolic forms,
actively organizing them into easily recalled templates.
The behavior may be noticed, but it is not always remembered, which obviously
prevents imitation.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
MOTOR REPRODUCTION:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned
behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.
Our physical ability limits us, so even if we wish to reproduce the behavior, we
sometimes cannot.
This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the
scenario of a 90-year-old lady who struggles to walk while watching Dancing on
Ice.She may appreciate that the skill is desirable, but she will not attempt to imitate
it because she physically cannot do it.
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
MOTIVATION:
Finally, for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to
imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play
an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly
effective, so can observing others experiencing some type of reinforcement or
punishment.
For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to
class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.
 TRAIT THEORY:
The trait theory of personality suggests that people have certain basic traits, and it is
the strength and intensity of those traits that account for personality differences. A
trait is a personality characteristic that meets three criteria:
it must be consistent
it must be stable
it must vary from person to person
Based on this definition, a trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic
that causes individuals to behave in certain ways.
 TRAIT THEORY:
The combination and interaction of various traits form a personality that is unique to
each person. Trait theory is focused on identifying and measuring these individual
personality characteristics.
Traits predispose one to act in a certain way, regardless of the situation. This means
that traits should remain consistent across situations and over time, but may vary
between individuals.
 TRAIT THEORY- ALLPORT:
The first trait theory was proposed by psychologist Gordon Allport in 1936.
As he came across a dictionary containing 4000 words describing traits, he decided
to categorize them into 3 levels:
Cardinal
Central
Secondary
 TRAIT THEORY- ALLPORT:
Cardinal traits:
Cardinal traits dominate an individual’s personality to the point that the individual
becomes known for them. While cardinal traits are the most dominant personality
traits, they are also the rarest.
Cardinal traits often develop later in life. They shape almost all aspects of an
individual's purpose, behavior, and attitudes.
Mother Teresa: Good, charitable
Adolf Hitler: Evil, depraved
Albert Einstein: Brilliant
 TRAIT THEORY- ALLPORT:
Central traits:
These general characteristics form basic personality foundations. While central
traits are not as dominating as cardinal traits, they describe the major characteristics
you might use to describe another person.
Allport believed that central traits are much more common than cardinal traits and
serve as the basic building blocks of most people’s personality. Allport suggested
that most people have about five to ten central traits. He also theorized that most
people have many of these traits to a certain degree.
Examples of "central traits" include: honesty, kindness, friendliness, loyalty,
generosity, reliability, ambitious, anxious, and outgoing
 TRAIT THEORY- ALLPORT:
Secondary traits:
Secondary traits are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences. They often
appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances.
Secondary traits tend to present themselves in certain situations. For example, you
might normally be a pretty easy-going person, but you might become short-
tempered when under a lot of pressure.
 TRAIT THEORY- CATTELL:
Psychologist Raymond Cattell whittled Allport's list down to 171 characteristics,
mostly by eliminating redundant and uncommon ones. He then used a statistical
technique known as factor analysis to identify interrelated traits and condense his
list into 16 key personality factors.

Cattell made a distinction between source and surface traits. Surface traits are very
obvious and can be easily identified by other people, whereas source traits are less
visible to other people and appear to underlie several different aspects of behavior.
 TRAIT THEORY- CATTELL:
Source Traits:
The fundamental traits that make up a person's personality.
These traits are often combined in ways that appear as a single trait on the
surface.
For example, a person with a high level of conscientiousness may be organized
and detail-oriented.
Source traits are inferred through statistical methods.
 TRAIT THEORY- CATTELL:
Surface Traits:
The observable behaviors and characteristics that are associated with source
traits.
These traits are more specific and situational in nature.
For example, a person with a high level of extraversion may be talkative and
outgoing.
Surface traits are more easily observable and can be assessed through direct
observation or self-report measures.
 TRAIT THEORY- CATTELL:
As with all of his work, Cattell took a statistical, measurable approach to studying
personality rather than utilizing observational and qualitative research. Applying
factor analysis to personality, he categorized data into three parts to achieve a
large, comprehensive method of sampling.
 TRAIT THEORY- CATTELL:
The three types were:
Life data (L-data) – L-data includes information about an individual's everyday
behaviors and their behavioral patterns. This includes things such as the grades
they received in school, their marital status, their social interactions, and more.
Experimental data (T-data) – T-data includes recorded reactions to standardized
experiments in a lab setting designed to test participants’ responses to certain
situations.
Questionnaire data (Q-data) – Q-data includes responses to questions about
participants’ behavior and feelings. This data provides a deeper look into a
person's personality that is not always clear through behavioral data.
 TRAIT THEORY- CATTELL:
Cattell eventually identified 16 personality traits that each person possesses to
varying degrees. These personality traits are referred to as “primary factors”, which
an individual can display within a range of extremes. The 16 primary factors of
personality as described by Cattell's personality theory are as follows:
Warmth Social boldness Self-reliance
Reasoning Sensitivity Perfectionism
Emotional stability Vigilance Tension
Dominance Abstractedness
Liveliness Apprehension
Rule-consciousness Openness to change
 TRAIT THEORY- CATTELL:
Cattell believed that intelligence was primarily an inherited trait. Cattell distinguished
two types of intelligence viz., (i) Fluid intelligence (ii) Crystallised intelligence.
According to him:
Fluid intelligence allows the persons to learn new things regardless of past
experience.
Crystallized intelligence is the ability to solve problems based upon previous
experience.
 TRAIT THEORY- CATTELL:
Fluid Intelligence:
Fluid intelligence involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve
problems. This ability is considered independent of learning, experience, and
education.
Fluid intelligence tends to decline during late adulthood.
Example: Figuring out how to use a new app or device.
 TRAIT THEORY- CATTELL:
Crystallized Intelligence:
Crystallized intelligence involves knowledge that comes from prior learning
and past experiences. In other words, it's all of the facts, figures, and other
accumulated knowledge that you've acquired over the course of your life.
The more learning and experience you have, the more you build up your
crystallized intelligence.
Example: Understanding and following instructions in a recipe.
 TYPE THEORIES
Type theories, unlike trait theories, suggested that human behaviour and personality
can be classified into few clearly defined types and that each person can be
described as belonging to a certain type.
According to Morgan and King, “ A type is simply a class of individuals said to share a
common collection of characteristics.” It means that people are classified into
categories according to the characteristics they share in common.
For example, some people prominently show tendencies of being outgoing, happy-
go-lucky nature, mixing with people, less task orientation etc. These people are
classified as extrovert.
 TYPE THEORIES
Hippocrate’s typology:
In 400 B.C. Hippocrates attempted to explain personality in terms of body fluid or
humors. He postulated that our body has four types of fluid; yellow bile, black bile,
blood and phlegm. Every person is characterised by the prominence of one type of
fluid which determines the temperament of the person concerned.
Hippocrates suggests that there are four fundamental personality types:
sanguine(pleasure seeking and sociable)
choleric (ambitiousand leader like)
melancholic(analytical and literal)
phlegmatic (relaxed and thoughtful)
 TYPE THEORIES
Sanguine personality (Blood: Predominant fluid in the body): Light-hearted,
carefree, optimistic, easy-going, hopeful, accommodating, happy, responsive,
sociable, talkative, lively, has leadership qualities.
Choleric personality (Yellow bile: Predominant fluid in the body): Irritable, restless,
aggressive, impulsive, excitable, active, angry but passionate, strong with an
active imagination, touchy, flexible.
Phlegmatic personality: (Phlegm/Mucus: Predominant fluid in the body): cahn,
tempered, controlled, reliable, slow/sluggish, indifferent, thoughtful, peaceful,
passive, careful.
Melancholic personality (Black bile: Pre-dominant fluid in the body): Pessimistic, rigid,
unsociable, bad-tempered, sad, deplorable, self-involved, dejected, anxious, moody,
reserved.
 KRETSHMER TYPE THEORY
Ernst Kretschmer (8 October 1888 – 8 February 1964) was a German psychiatrist who
studied the human constitution and inaugurated a typology. Kretschmer was the first to
illustrate the persistent vegetative state, also called Kretschmer's syndrome.

\Kretschmer associated each of his body types with certain personality traits and, in a
more extreme form, with other mental disorders.

Kretschmer's method of classifying personality was based on bringing in arthroscopic

observations of the individuals. He also related the physique with the traits, including the
person's temperament.
 KRETSHMER TYPE THEORY
1. Pyknic:
Kretschmer's pyknic type is illustrated by the peripheral growth of the body cavities
(breast, head, and stomach) and a tendency to distribute fat about the torso.
They also have a more refined construction of the motor instrument (limbs and
shoulders).
The female pyknics' covering of fat is more strongly focused over the hips and chest.
These are people who are harsh and have a round body. They will have the character
traits of extroverts.
These people are more inclined to suffer from a mental disorder called Manic
Depressive Psychosis.
 KRETSHMER TYPE THEORY
2. Athletic:
Kretschmer's male athletic class is portrayed by the strong growth of the
muscular, skeleton, and skin.
The athletic type among females conforms to the male form. A particular
characteristic variation is the development of fat; it is rich but not electively
abnormal, as with pyknics.
These people will have muscular bodies and are more vibrant and assertive.
Also, they will be strong enough, specified, adventurous, and proportional.
They are identical to ambiverts and are more prone to suffer from MDP.
 KRETSHMER TYPE THEORY
3. Asthenic
In Kretschmer's words, the crucial factor of the asthenic type is "a deficiency in
thickness combined with an average lessened length."
The weakness is present in all body parts: muscle, bone, face, trunk,
extremities, and all the tissues (skin, bone, fat, muscles, and vessel system).
The moderate weight and the other body measurements are below the
general value for males.
These people were long, slim, and linear, and their bodies lacked fat and
muscles.
These people have long linbs with underdeveloped muscles. They are
underweight and fragile.
They are mostly irritable and shrink away from responsibilities.
 KRETSHMER TYPE THEORY
4. Dysplastic:

This type of physique does not show uniformity and hence, is disproportional.
These people will have an unproportionate body and do not be owned by any
of the three types mentioned above. This disproportion is due to hormonal
imbalance, and their behavior and nature are also imbalanced.
According to Kretschmer, dysplastic types had a high risk of endocrine
disorders and severe schizophrenia.
 SHELDON TYPE THEORY
William Sheldon's theory of personality, also known as somatotype theory,
proposed that body types (endomorph, mesomorph, and ectomorph) correlate
with personality traits, with endomorphs being relaxed and sociable, mesomorphs
assertive and energetic, and ectomorphs introverted and intellectual.

Somatotype is a discredited theory of personality that associates different body

compositions with various personality traits and behavioral characteristics.
 SHELDON TYPE THEORY
According to Sheldon, there are three somatotypes: slim ectomorphs, muscular
mesomorphs, and smooth endomorphs. Endomorphs, in his view, are relaxed and
sociable, mesomorphs active and assertive, and ectomorphs quiet and restrained.
Three somatotypes are ideal types: most people have a mixture of multiple
somatotypes.
Sheldon was heavily influenced by Ernst Kretschmer’s constitutional psychology.
Ernst Kretschmer, using a similar classification of body types, attempted to find
correlations between body type and psychiatric syndromes. Sheldon, in contrast,
focused more on personality.
 SHELDON TYPE THEORY
These body types could be modulated by body composition. Certain diets,
exercises, and training techniques can change body composition.
For example, during starvation, an endomorph may resemble an ectomorph, while
an athletic mesomorph may look like an endomorph as the result of muscle.

Aging can also increase the amount of fat tissue and its distribution, seemingly
altering body type. However, there are certain characteristics of the somatotype
that cannot be changed.
For instance, bone structure — save for a few changes due to the reduction of
distance between joints due to aging or physical deformities — is a fixed
characteristic.
 SHELDON TYPE THEORY
Endomorph:
Body Type: Rounded, soft, and tending to gain weight easily.
Temperament: Viscerotonic, characterized as relaxed, comfortable, sociable,
and enjoying food and comfort.

Mesomorph:
Body Type: Muscular, strong, and athletic.
Temperament: Somatotonic, characterized as assertive, energetic, active, and
sometimes aggressive.

Ectomorph:
Body Type: Thin, slender, and delicate.
Temperament: Cerebrotonic, characterized as introverted, intellectual,
thoughtful, and sometimes anxious
 SHELDON TYPE THEORY
1. Ectomorphs are quiet, restrained, noon-assertive, sensitive, introverted, artistic,
and self-conscious.
2. Endomorphs (also known as viscerotonic) were seen as relaxed, sociable,
tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful, good-humored, and in need of affection.
3. Mesomorphs are active, assertive, vigorous, adventurous, dominant, and
competitive.
 GALTON’S TYPE THEORY
Sir Francis Galton, while not a "type theory" of personality in the modern sense, is
known for his work on hereditary genius and eugenics, believing that mental and
physical traits, including intelligence, were inherited and could be improved
through selective breeding.
Galton was the creator of the subfield of psychometrics. Psychometrics focuses on
the research aspects of measurements, tests, and other parts of studies that
cannot be measured directly.
 GALTON’S TYPE THEORY
In the book “Hereditary Genius” most well known as being the foundations of
eugenics - Galton hypothesised two important notions with regard to leadership:

1. That it's a unique ability, possessed by certain extraordinary individuals, and

their opinions and decisions are capable of bringing about radical changes.
2. These unique attributes are part of their genetic makeup; therefore, leadership
is hereditary.
 GALTON’S TYPE THEORY
Inspired by Darwin's theory of natural selection, Galton developed the concept of
eugenics, which advocated for improving the human race through selective
breeding.
He believed that individuals with desirable traits should be encouraged to
reproduce, while those with less desirable traits should be discouraged.

Galton is credited with recognizing what is now known as the lexical hypothesis,
which suggests that the most important and socially relevant personality
differences are encoded in language
 EYSENCK’S THEORY
One such personality test laid first by Hans Jugen Eysenck describes that
personality has a lot to do with biological factors such as genes and environmental
cues. The Eysenck theory of personality describes the so-called "Eysenck
Personality" (also known as Eysenck's personality).
This theory claims that all humans have a basic set of traits that define them as
human beings, and each individual has an individual temperament or
temperament type.
In this way, persons with a particular temperament tend to behave differently from
those with other temperament types.
 EYSENCK’S THEORY
Eysenck (1952, 1967, 1982) proposed a theory of personality based on biological
factors, arguing that individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects their
ability to learn and adapt to the environment.

He utilized a statistical technique known as factor analysis to identify what he

believed were the two primary dimensions of personality: extraversion and
neuroticism. He later added a third dimension known as psychoticism.
 EYSENCK’S THEORY

According to Eysenck, higher order factors are similar to types, and they represent
combinations of primary personality traits. Thus, he considered the sixteen factors
that Cattell included in the 16-PF as primary factors, whereas extraversion,
neuroticism, and psychoticism were second-order factors (or types).
Introversion/Extraversion:
Introversion involves directing attention to inner experiences, while extraversion
relates to focusing attention outward, onto other people and the environment. A
person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in
extraversion (often spelled "extroversion") might be sociable and outgoing.

Extraverts are sociable and crave excitement and change, and thus can
become bored easily. They tend to be carefree, optimistic, and impulsive.
Eysenck argues that this is because they inherit an under aroused nervous
system and so seek stimulation to restore the level of optimum stimulation.

Introverts lie at the other end of this scale, being quiet and reserved. They are
already over-aroused and shun sensation and stimulation. They tend to be
serious, reliable, and pessimistic.
Neuroticism/Emotional Stability:
This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to moodiness versus being
even-tempered. The trait of neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to
become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain
emotionally constant.

A person’s level of neuroticism is determined by the reactivity of their sympathetic

nervous system. A stable person’s nervous system will generally be less reactive
to stressful situations, remaining calm and level headed.

Someone high in neuroticism on the other hand will be much more unstable, and
prone to overreacting to stimuli and may be quick to worry, anger or fear. They are
overly emotional and find it difficult to calm down once upset.
Psychoticism/normality:
Later, after studying individuals with mental illness, Eysenck added a personality
dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high in this
trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-
empathetic, and manipulative.

It is characterized by lacking of empathy, being cruel, being a loner, aggressive

and troublesome.
This has been related to high levels of testosterone. The higher the testosterone,
the higher the level of psychoticism, with low levels related to more normal
balanced behavior.
 5 FACTOR THEORY

Both Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theories have been the subject of considerable
research. This has led some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many
traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often
referred to as the "Big Five" theory emerged.
Many contemporary personality psychologists believe that there are five basic
dimensions of personality, often referred to as the "Big 5" personality traits.
 5 FACTOR THEORY
While researchers often disagree about the exact labels for each dimension, they
are commonly described as:

Agreeableness: level of cooperation and caring for others

Conscientiousness: level of thoughtfulness and structure
Extraversion: level of socialness and emotional expressiveness
Neuroticism: level of mood stability and emotional resilience
Openness: level of adventure and creativity
 5 FACTOR THEORY
Openness:

People who are high in openness tend to have a broad range of interests. They
are curious about the world and other people and are eager to learn new
things and enjoy new experiences.

Conversely, people low in this personality trait are often much more traditional
and may struggle with abstract thinking.
 5 FACTOR THEORY
Conscientiousness:

Conscientiousness is defined by high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse

control, and goal-directed behaviors.
Highly conscientious people tend to be organized and mindful of details. They
plan ahead, consider how their behavior affects others, and are conscious of
deadlines.
If a person scores low on this personality trait, it might mean they are less
structured and organized.
 5 FACTOR THEORY
Extraversion:

Extraversion (or extroversion) is a personality trait characterized by excitability,

sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional
expressiveness.
People high in extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in social
situations. Being around others helps them feel energized and excited.
People who are low in this personality trait (or introverted) tend to be more
reserved. They have less energy in social settings, and social events can feel
draining.
 5 FACTOR THEORY
Agreeableness:

This personality trait includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness,

affection, and other prosocial behaviors.
People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more cooperative while
those low in this personality trait tend to be more competitive and sometimes
even manipulative.
 5 FACTOR THEORY
Neuroticism:

Neuroticism is a personality trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and

emotional instability. This trait is generally defined as a negative personality
trait that can have detrimental effects on a person's life and well-being.
Individuals who are high in neuroticism tend to experience mood swings,
anxiety, irritability, and sadness.
People who are low in this personality trait tend to be more stable and
emotionally resilient.