International Journal of Sustainable Development and

Planning
Vol., No., Month, Year, pp. **-**
Journal homepage: http://iieta.org/journals/ijsdp

Enhancing Sustainable Mining Practices Through Fracture-Informed Blasting Strategies: A

Case Study of the Aïn El Kebira Limestone Quarry in Algeria
Chemseddine Derbal1, Adel Djellali2, Moussa Attia2*, Fares Zaamouche3, Anissa Belkhiri3
1
Mining Laboratory, Mining Institute, Echahid Cheikh Larbi Tebessi University, 12002, Tebessa, Algeria
2
Environmental Laboratory, Mining Institute, Echahid Cheikh Larbi Tebessi University, 12002, Tebessa, Algeria
3
Mining Institute, Echahid Cheikh Larbi Tebessi University, 12002, Tebessa, Algeria

Corresponding Author Email: moussa.attia@univ-tebessa.dz

https://doi.org/10.18280/jesa.xxxxxx ABSTRACT

Received: In this paper, we delve into the intricate challenge of fine-tuning fragmentation levels in
Accepted: mining operations. This adjustment is often hindered by a myriad of factors, including
natural fractures, those induced by previous blasts, cleavage, and the inherent
Keywords: approximations in geometric and load parameters utilized in blast design. While existing
Fragmentation zones, fracturing, oversized research has primarily concentrated on optimizing mining progress, considering the power
blocks, detonics, digital mapping, blasting, and grade distribution, we advocate for the critical necessity of integrating the dynamic
nature of fractures within the rock mass. This integration holds paramount significance, as
advancement direction, block diagram. fractures can profoundly affect the stability of the rock mass and influence the selection of
blasting techniques. By accounting for the evolution of these fractures, our aim is to gain
better control over the blasting process, subsequently yielding substantial implications for
the technical, economic, and safety aspects of mining operations. Our study systematically
examines the influence of these factors in the formulation of blasting plans. To initiate this
process, we employ geometric modeling techniques, leveraging digital cartography and
stereography tools. The ultimate objective of this research is to minimize the volume of
oversized materials in the mining process, contributing to more sustainable mining
practices. To illustrate these principles in a practical context, we present a case study that
entails the measurement of rock fragmentation resulting from blasts conducted at the
limestone quarry in Aïn El Kebira, located in the Setif province in northeastern Algeria.

1. INTRODUCTION breakage and fragmentation, they have not yet provided a

reliable and precise prediction of particle size distribution
The global demand for raw materials is continually on the based on knowledge of rock geometry, mechanical, and
rise, and the effective utilization of mineral resources plays a physical properties [5].
pivotal role in the economic development of nations across the For example, in the quarries of Krivoï-Rog (formerly in the
globe. Mining enterprises strive to maximize the exploitation USSR), rocks with a hardness level of f=12 or higher typically
of their resources while considering the diverse technical, yield a minimal percentage of oversized fractions, not
economic, and human factors [1]. exceeding 0.5%, whereas the percentage of -400mm fractions
The use of explosives for rock fragmentation in mining is ranges from 75% to 90%. In rocks with a hardness level of up
often described as both a science and an art. Historically, to f=12, the percentage of these fractions can reach 92-97%
chemists dedicated significant efforts to develop stable and [6].
potent explosives and formulate explosive mixtures for Achieving high degrees of uniform rock fragmentation
various applications. In recent years, the imperative to through explosive methods opens the door for the
minimize blasting costs and regulate their impact on implementation of cyclic and continuous technologies in
fragmentation quality has driven extensive research. This field quarries. This technology involves the transportation of ore
of study encompasses computer modeling, explosive within the quarry using cyclic means such as excavators, rail
formulation, and high-speed photography [2]. Despite the transport, trucks, and conveyors to processing sites [7]. To
tireless endeavors of scientists and engineers to optimize the economically justify the application of combined technology,
fragmentation process, attaining precise control over these it's essential that the ore blasted by explosives comprises less
variables remains a persistent challenge [3]. than 80% of the -400mm fraction [8]. The maximum economic
The advent of high-speed computers has led to concentrated benefit of combined technology is achieved when the
research efforts on continuous, discontinuous, and continuous- fractioning rate is -300mm, constituting 77-85% of the total
discontinuous models to describe fracturing and fragmentation. [9]. Consequently, to promote the widespread use of combined
Some researchers have leaned towards a micro-static approach and future continuous technologies in quarries, the primary
to the problem of solid explosive fracturing and fragmentation focus in enhancing drilling and blasting operations is to
[4]. While numerous numerical models now address rock improve rock fragmentation quality [10].
 Industry), supported by firsthand observations, measurements,
The avenues for enhancing the technical and economic determinations, and expert reports [12]. The blasting
performance of drilling and blasting operations include [11]: methodology is rooted in geometric modeling and the use of
✓ Modernizing methods and modes of rock original, previously unpublished formulas. A comprehensive
destruction through explosives, optimizing drilling analytical summary forms the core of this article, with digital
and blasting parameters, and judiciously selecting mapping contributing a fresh scientific perspective and
mining drilling techniques, tools, and explosives to supplying all the essential data for its compilation [13].
enhance their efficiency.
✓ Developing and introducing new explosives, drill 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
types, and their working components, along with
innovative drilling and blasting technologies for The scientific problem at hand revolves around the need to
quarries. reduce the considerably high volume of oversized materials in
✓ Exploring methods for rock destruction based on our working conditions (See Figures: 1 and 2), where there is
the utilization of new forms of energy. clear evidence of suboptimal energy management at the toe of
This article directly addresses the prospects for the future the bench. This deficiency hinders our ability to achieve an
modernization of drilling and blasting operations. To stay increase in the gas energy effect of the explosive used [14].
current, we have chosen to work in the mining conditions of This article is structured around three significant scientific
Ain El Kebira, which primarily involves sedimentary tasks. The first involves an analytical study related to the
limestone. Here, we have observed the presence of two design of blast patterns using an empirical approach. The
systems of fracturing and a third diffuse system with no second task employs digital mapping to obtain the necessary
preferential orientation [12]. tools for geometrically characterizing the rock mass in the
In some instances, the occurrence of oversized fractions is most modern and useful manner possible. Finally, the third
remarkably high, reaching up to 40%, a substantial proportion. task pertains to the design of a blast pattern based on the
This work relies on meticulously analyzed data provided recommendations derived from our study [15].
exclusively by CETIM (Center for the Study and
Technological Services of the Construction Materials

(a) Case of Medjounes I (b) Case of Medjounes II

Figure 1. Pile displaying a high rate of oversized materials to be processed

(a) Case of Medjounes I (b) Case of Medjounes II

Figure 2. Blast resulting in the fragmentation of large oversized blocks beyond the mid-range +400mm
 The estimated rate reaches a high limit of 40% in some areas, with a median value of 20% for the entire deposit, a confirmation
later validated through the use of photoplanimetry.

3. SUSTAINABLE METHOD FOR DETERMINING progression direction based on grade distribution, power
THE VOLUME OF OVERSIZED MATERIALS (which is not an issue for us, given that we are dealing with a
massive deposit in a mountainous terrain), and the
The volume of oversized materials was determined requirements for effective fragmentation control.
through photogrammetry, as illustrated in Figure 3:
For digital mapping, two topographic maps at a 1/50000
scale were used to locate the site (See Figure 4), situated in
the neighboring Algerian cities of Sétif and Kherrata. A
digital terrain model from digital photos was also employed
to digitize the discontinuities of the deposit, including
fractures and bedding joints.
The data was primarily processed using the ArcGIS and
Rockworks software programs to calculate statistical
parameters.

4.1 Delimitation of deposits and site location

The maps were initially imported into the ArcGIS software

and georeferenced to UTM WGS 84 coordinates. The
Figure 3. Diagram of the equipment setup for capturing a property boundaries from the cement factory were added
photoplane image of the blasted rock slope using the "Display data" function. By employing the "Add
Shapefile" function, the property boundary was delineated
The planimetry measurement method is one in which the (See Figure 5).
volume of oversized materials is determined as the ratio of
the total surface area of the oversized pieces in the plan to the
overall surface area over which the measurement is taken.
In situations where precise measurements are required
within a pile of rocks, a favorable spot is photographed, and
then the analysis of the photos is carried out at a specific
scale. This method is referred to as photoplanimetry [16].

4. DIGITAL MAPPING

Figure 5. Site Location Map

4.2 Processing of satellite images and extraction of

lineaments and discontinuities

To obtain good results, the extraction and identification of

discontinuities were carried out in a semi-automated manner,
involving several distinct steps:
Figure 4. Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
• Step 1: Initially, lineaments were extracted using
visual interpretation and the Hill-shade function
Prior to the conception of any blasting pattern, a geometric
(See Figure 6) in the ArcGIS software from the
characterization of the mining rock mass is methodologically
generated image of the SRTM DEM (See Figure 7).
necessary. Regarding digital mapping, where we have
digitized Wülff's templates and obtained block diagrams
depicting grade distribution using various modern software
tools such as ArcGIS, Rockworks, Python, etc., the purpose
is to [17]:

1). Precisely orient our boreholes perpendicular to the

predominant (major) fracture system. 2). Choose the optimal
 directions), along with field measurements using a
geological compass, photos were taken and
imported into ArcGIS. By creating shapefiles, the
discontinuity lines were digitized as shown in the
photos below.

Figure 6. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Map,

Shaded Study Area

(a) Bedding joints

Figure 7. Map of Extracted Lineaments from the Hill-

shade Function

Figure 8 displays the rose diagram depicting the

orientation of lineaments resulting from the statistical
analysis of digitized fracture lines using ArcGIS. Artificial
elements such as tracks and other linear structures were (b) Fractures
excluded from the interpreted lineaments. The extracted
lineaments were overlaid onto the satellite image for Figure 9. Rose diagram of discontinuities digitized from
verification, and some of these lineaments were confirmed in field photos and final dip
the field. The Rockworks software was utilized to extract
statistical parameters (number and length) and create the rose The processing of statistical parameters using the
diagram in angular increments of 10° [18]. Rockworks software enabled the creation of the rose diagram
of directions (see Figure 10).

Figure 8. Rose diagram of the lineaments extracted using

the Hill-shade function
Figure 10. Rose diagram of discontinuities digitized
from field photos and final dip
• Step 2: To gather a substantial number of
measurements of discontinuities (lengths, dips,
 • Step 3: In the absence of a software tool for Table 1. Dip Angles Calculated for 240 Measurements
calculating dips, a script was created in the
PYTHON programming language within the

Angle °
Angle °

Angle °

Angle °

Angle °

Angle °

Angle °

Angle °

Angle °

Angle °
Google COLAB environment. This allowed for the
calculation of the dip angle of the layers based on
the geometric data of the lines digitized on the
bedding joints, namely, the coordinates x1 y1 at the 8 5 32 20 0 21 32 0 25 21
beginning of a line and the coordinates x2 y2 at the 16 5 34 20 0 21 32 16 1 21
end of a line (See Figure 11). 16 5 16 20 0 21 32 16 12 5
16 5 16 20 13 21 32 9 12 16
16 5 32 22 12 2 28 11 21 16
16 42 32 22 35 2 28 35 15 16
import math 9 42 32 38 0 42 32 36 17 21
import matplotlib pyplot as plt 9 42 32 38 0 42 21 36 3 21
# Function to calculate the dip angle for a single layer 9 42 5 38 1 42 21 36 7 21
def calculate_dip_angle(layer_depth, layer_thickness): 9 42 32 38 4 42 6 36 1 21
dip_angle_radians = math.atan(layer_thickness / 65 21 32 38 4 42 6 36 0 21
layer_depth) 29 5 32 38 4 26 6 16 0 21
dip_angle_degrees = 29 21 32 39 4 26 6 16 0 21
math.degrees(dip_angle_radians) 29 21 11 39 4 26 7 16 22 21
return dip_angle_degrees 29 21 32 0 4 26 7 16 25 21
# Sample data: depth and thickness of geological layers 32 23 4 26 8 11 32 22 4 26
layer_data = [ 7 16 32 22 4 26 7 16 32 26
16 26 16 7 35 25 16 26 16 7
{"depth": 10, "thickness": 5},
35 26 23 26 9 6 32 1 28 7
{"depth": 15, "thickness": 7},
9 1 32 26 5 15 9 2 32 26
{"depth": 8, "thickness": 3}, 5 15 9 7 32 16 32 30 20 30
] 32 1 4 26 2 5 32 25 4 26
# Calculate dip angles for each layer
dip_angles = [] 240 dip angles have been calculated and are listed in the
for layer in layer_data: following table:
depth = layer["depth"]
thickness = layer["thickness"]
• Step 4: Using the Rockworks software for block
dip_angle = calculate_dip_angle(depth, thickness)
diagram drawing, a conceptual schema of the
dip_angles.append(dip_angle)
deposit was created based on geological surveys in
# Create a plot
the "Medjounes II" part of the deposit. An Excel file
plt.figure(figsize=(8, 6))
containing the coordinates of geological surveys,
plt.plot(range(1, len(layer_data) + 1), dip_angles,
depth, and CaO content was imported using the
marker='o', linestyle='-', color='b')
"Solid" function to proceed with the schematization
plt.title('Dip Angles of Geological Layers')
of the 3D terrain model showing the distribution of
plt.xlabel('Layer')
CaO content (See Figure 12).
plt.ylabel('Dip Angle (degrees)')
plt.grid(True)
# Show the plot
plt.show()

Figure 12. Block Diagram illustrating the CaO content

5. DEVELOPMENT OF A BLASTING PLAN

Figure 11. Python code for calculating the dip angle of Many referenced authors do not present a clear
layers methodology for rock blasting under Algerian conditions. In
this work, using modern digital mapping tools and reliable
references from leading institutions, we are addressing the
development of an explosive blasting methodology that takes (energy capacity, etc.). This dependency is known based on
into account the Algerian mining conditions [19]. the fundamental laws of fragmentation and remains true for
Upon reviewing the existing research, it is evident that the explosive destruction [2].
understanding of the explosive working mechanism remains
unresolved due to the lack of precise observation means for
all detonation sequences and the rather complex
mathematical interpretations that result. Unfortunately,
explosives still remain a destructive agent when they could
be an effective regulator of fragmentation [20].

5.1 Classification of Methods for Controlling Rock

Fragmentation with Explosives

The known methods for controlling the fragmentation of (a) Mechanical fragmentation
rock masses with explosives can be classified based on
various factors [21]:
Adjustment through the influence of the explosion on the
rock mass can be achieved by varying:
a) Specific explosive consumption calculated.
b) Diameter of the charge.
c) Type of explosive used.
d) Charge construction.
e) Orientation of the initiation of continuous charge.
f) The order of initiation of parts of the discontinuous
(b) Rock fragmentation by explosives
charge.
g) Quality of stemming and its length, and more...
Figure 13. Force diagram
During the change in the character of the charge's effect in
the regulated fragmentation zone, the part of the energy
However, there are several distinguishing features
transmitted in the practically unregulated fragmentation zone
between explosive fragmentation and mechanical
varies, resulting in changes in the dimensions of these zones
fragmentation. Mechanical fragmentation has a two-sided
and the intensification of fragmentation in the mass.
force pattern (Fig.13.a), whereas explosive fragmentation
Adjustment of the explosive effect on the rock mass in the
(except for oversize reduction and tight-space blasting)
unregulated fragmentation zone can be achieved by the
exhibits a one-sided force pattern (Fig.13.b).
interaction of adjacent charges and groups of charges through
In mechanical fragmentation, different pieces of rock are
the variation of:
involved, while in blasting, fractured rock masses of
a) Hole layout and the number of rows.
significant dimensions are encountered. The fissures and
b) Delay intervals and the sequence of charge firing, bench
heterogeneity during blasting facilitate the division of large
height, hole layout patterns on the bench.
rock pieces and reduce the specific energy capacity for
Methods for controlling fragmentation can be divided into
destruction. During blasting, fissures act as a barrier to the
two classes:
expansion of energy, reducing the possibility of
The first class relates to methods that ensure the desired
fragmentation and often increasing the specific explosive
level of fragmentation: specific explosive consumption,
consumption required to achieve the desired particle size
calculated diameter, and hole layout.
[22].
The second class includes methods that allow for changing
The smaller the diameter of the charge, the less likely the
the level of fragmentation in limited zones and do not exclude
energy expansion screen effect is between the charge and the
the flow of oversized fractions. This encompasses various
free surface of the bench.
methods that may reduce the volume of oversized material by
With an increase in specific explosive consumption, the
10-20%, including the use of discontinuous charges (solid,
degree of fragmentation in the rock mass increases more
air, water stemming), charges with empty or water-filled
intensively over the output (Fig.14). Then comes the so-
intervals in sub-drilling or between the charge and stemming,
called state of saturation of the rock mass with blast energy,
sequential initiation of different parts, reverse initiation of
where it can't absorb a large amount of energy spent
continuous charges, different types of explosives with
unnecessarily on rock dispersion. In this case, the change in
varying detonation velocities, densities, and volumetric
fragmentation intensity remains insignificant, and the curve
energy concentrations, paired hole blasting, block blasting
roughly parallels the x-axis. The curve's smoothness is also
from high benches, combination of charges with different
influenced by the direction of practically unregulated
diameters and lengths, micro-delay blasting patterns, blasting
fragmentation [14,15].
in confined spaces, pre-splitting, and more.
For a small charge diameter (d < 150mm), the curve passes
lower, and in some cases, it can even reach the x-axis (in this
5.2 Calculation of the blasting plan parameters
case, the oversize output is zero). With a large charge
5.2.1 Theory for calculating specific explosive
diameter (d > 250mm), the curve passes higher, and
consumption
practically, for any specific explosive consumption (q), it's
impossible to achieve a zero-oversize output; in other words,
For the destruction of rock masses down to a specific
there are minimum values for the oversize output, denoted as
particle size, a certain amount of energy needs to be expended
Vct and Vtc [21].
 The curve intersects the y-axis at a point that represents the With increasing fragment sizes, all the lines shift
content of oversize material in the rock mass before blasting. downward, meaning the specific explosive consumption
decreases. To determine its value, if you know the content of
the large fraction in the mass (the point on the line on the
ordinate axis), it is necessary to carry out one or, preferably,
two experimental blasts with selected different specific
consumptions, plot the large fraction flow rate obtained on
the graph, and connect the point on the ordinate axis to the
point obtained using a straight line. By extending this line to
its intersection with the line representing the minimum
oversize flow rate, you can find the threshold value of q.
Beyond this threshold, it is not rational to go because, in this
zone, the curve of the large fractions' flow rate with varying
specific consumption already levels off [20].
Most often, it is not practical to apply the specific
consumptions determined in this way because they result in
a broad rock pile and mining operations that are not feasible
according to the technology. When carrying out experimental
Figure 14. Dependence of the oversize output on q for blasts, you should select rock blocks with similar properties
different charge diameters and their rock breakability. 1-2: based on hardness and fissuring and use a method for
Oversize output from the unregulated fragmentation zone, conducting experimental blasts developed by researchers
1_for d1, 2_for d2. [4] from the Moscow Mining Institute [22].
The practical method for determining specific explosive
Depending on the rock's fissure category and the consumptions for 234 mm diameter holes, taking into
permissible fragment size in the operations, this value can account the fissuring of the rock mass and the strength
vary from 100% to 0. properties of its components, is based on the fundamental
When calculating explosive consumption, it is practical to work of Academician Rjevsky, V. V.[6]. The dependence of
replace the curves on the graph with straight lines. In this q on rock strength properties (hardness coefficient f) during
case, the precision of the results obtained falls within the the blasting of divisions to fragment sizes less than 100 mm
range of 15-20%, which is generally acceptable. The is as follows:
selection of a rational specific consumption is a techno-
economic issue that is resolved based on the cost of 𝑞 = 𝑓. 𝑒. 𝑏. 𝜎𝑐2 0,73.102 . 0,349 (1)
extracting valuable minerals for all processes. However, in
most cases during blasting, efforts are made to minimize the Where:
oversize output, aiming for a value close to 0%. This formula is analogous to the theoretical formula by
In the graph (Fig.15) showing the variation of q for a given Academician Rebinder, P.A., encompassing the laws of
charge diameter and different rocks based on their Patinger, P.R., and Kirpitchev, V.L.[6].
workability, the percentage of oversize blocks (dhg >
700mm) in the rock mass before blasting is plotted on the y- 𝜎𝑐2 𝑆𝑝 𝑃𝑛
axis. 𝐾𝑤 2 = + (2)
2𝐸 𝑉

The formula contains the following variables:

𝐾: A coefficient for unit conversion into the SI system.
𝑤 : The specific energy consumption for rock
fragmentation in J/m³.
𝜎𝑐 : The uniaxial compressive strength of the rock in
Pascals (Pa).
𝐸: The rock's modulus of elasticity in Pascals (Pa).
𝑃𝑛 : The specific surface energy in J/m².
𝑆𝑝 : The new surface area created in square meters (m²).
𝑉 : The volume of the rock to be fragmented in cubic
meters (m³).
Let us apply the notion of fragmentation coefficient K frag
as the ratio of the surface of the block before the shot (Sn) and
Figure 15. Dependency of the oversize output rate on q the surface after the shot (Sp). Afterwards, the energy
for different rock categories. [4] expenditure equation, for the case of fragmentation at the
explosive, takes the form:
As the acceptable rock fragment size changes, the content
of this fraction in the rock mass also varies. The slope angle 𝜎𝑐2
𝑊= + θK frag + ε (3)
of the lines and the flow rate of the large fractions in the non- 2𝐸

regulated fragmentation zone change. Therefore, the

Where:
threshold values for specific explosive consumption change,
θ: Coefficient taking into account energy expenditure for
but the methodological principle of choosing q to ensure the
fragmentation;
minimal oversize flow remains the same [15-17].
 2
ε: Coefficient taking into account energy losses. 𝑑 ρ
The processing of the results of the experimental shots
5
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑠 (0,6 + 3, 3.10−3 . 𝑑𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔 . 𝑑𝑐 ). ( 𝑐 ) . 𝑒. ( ) (9)
𝑑𝑘 2,6
made it possible to design the above formula as follows:
And finally :
𝜎𝑐2
𝑊= + 1111,004𝐾𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑔 + 39,693 (4)
2𝐸
𝑞 = (0,77.10−8 𝜎𝑐 + 0,345). (0,6 +
Taking for the average conditions σc2/(2E) = 11.10-4 and 𝑑
2
5 ρ (10)
3, 3.10−3 . 𝑑𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔 . 𝑑𝑐 ). ( 𝑐 ) . 𝑒. ( )
returning to the specific consumption taking into account the 𝑑𝑘 2,6
mechanical equivalent we will have :
Where:
𝑄𝑠 = 25.10−10 . 𝜎𝑐 + 2,6 𝐾𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑔 + 0,093 (5) q: specific consumption calculated to obtain the required
degree of rock fragmentation, Kg/m3;
The dependence of the fragmentation coefficient on the b: coefficient taking into account the degree of cracking of
limit of the rock to compression according to experimental the rock;
data in the form: a: coefficient taking into account the energy expenditure to
overcome the connections between the divisions;
𝐾𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑔 = 20.10−10 𝜎𝑐 + 0,0965 (6) dc: average diameter of the division in the massif, m;
dk: admissible (fixed) dimension of the piece, m;
The specific consumption characterizing the e: relative working capacity of the explosive;
fragmentation of the divisions in Kg/m3: ρ: density of the rock, t/m3.

𝑞𝑠 = 0,77.10−8 𝜎𝑐 + 0,345 (7) Based on the generalization of firing work through

experience in quarries and the method proposed by
Taking into account the dependencies obtained previously: researchers of the Moscow Mining Institute and the Scientific
Research Institute of Ferrous Metals, a classification on the
firingability of massifs of rocks was established when
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑠 (𝑎 + 𝑏. 𝑑𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔 + 𝑑𝑐 ) (8)
applying loads of Φ 250 mm and according to which it is
recommended to choose the specific consumption of the
We obtain :
explosive (Table 2).

Table 2. Rock Classification Based on Drillability for Quarries. /4/

Distance Content of Approximate categories (group)

Category Calculated specific between divisions in the Compressi Rock of rocks
(class) of consumption, Kg/m3 natural massif (%), ve strength density,
rocks cracks of size of rock, Pa t/m3
according all +500 +1500 According to
to Class Class systems Professor Seloern
drawability limit average in the Protodiakonov forability
massif, m 's scale
I 0,12-0,18 0,150 0,10 0-2 0 100-300 1,40-1,80 VII-VI V-VIII

II 0,18-0,27 0,225 0,10-0,25 2-16 0 250-450 1,75-2,35 VI-V VI-X

III 0,320 0,20-0,50 10- 0-1 300-650 2,25-2,55 V-IV IX-XII

0,27-0,38
52

IV 0,450 0,45-0,75 45- 0-4 300-900 2,50-2,80 IV-IIIa XI –XIII

0,38-0,52
80

V 0,600 0,75-1,00 75- 2-5 700-1200 2,75-2,90 IIIa-III XIII-XV

0,52-0,68
98

VI 0,780 0,95-1,25 96- 10-30 1100-1600 2,85-3,00 III-II XIV-XVI

0,68-0,88
100

VII 0,88-1,10 0,990 1,20-1,50 100 25-47 1450-2050 2,95-3,20 II-I XVI-XVIII

VIII 1,10-1,37 1,235 1,45-1,70 100 43-63 1950-2500 3,15-3,40 I XVII-XX

IX 1,37-1,68 1,525 1,65-1,90 100 58-78 2350-3000 3,35-3,60 I XIX-XX

X 1,855 1,85 and + 100 75-100 2850 and + 3,55 et +

1,68-2,03
 The distinctive features of the proposed classification
include: the introduction of about ten categories that group
the various rock formations encountered in quarries, taking
into account their main properties, which significantly
influence the results of fragmentation, namely, fissuring and
mesh hardness. According to this classification, for each
quarry, no more than four types of rock are selected, taking
into account the required specific consumption. This
approach eliminates one of the main drawbacks of existing
classifications: in each quarry, there are rocks that are easily,
moderately, and difficult to drill, but the specific
consumption of explosives for mass blasting for a given
category can vary by two times or more. When using the (a)
given classification, the corresponding drillability categories
are chosen based on the specific consumption of explosives.
This approach provides an objective characteristic of the
specific rock formation [23].
In the future, within this classification, it is advisable to
replace the mesh hardness with impact resistance (resilience),
which to a large extent characterizes the destruction of the
mesh during blasting. It is necessary to take into account the
degree of water saturation in the rock masses to be blasted,
as well as the methods of transitioning from the standard
blasting conditions of the given classification to other
conditions (different bench heights, charge diameters,
explosive types, permissible fragment sizes, micro-delay
schemes, etc.) [24].
Other authors provide its approximate value, which is (b)
determined based on experimental results or industrial
blasting, taking into account rock properties. The specific
consumption of explosives for multi-row blasting is applied
for the first row from the tables provided, but for the second
and subsequent rows, it is increased by 5-10% in rocks of
fissure categories I-III and by 10-15% in rocks of categories
III-X.

5.2.2 Theory of Calculating Charge Diameter

For quarries, the following specific features of boreholes

can be formulated [25]:
1. For rocks in the drillability category I-III, it is
advisable to choose the largest possible diameter (c)
(250-300 mm).
2. For rocks in the drillability category IV-VIII, as well
as homogeneous category III rocks in the case of the
possibility of using multi-row delay blasting, the
preferred diameter is (200-250 mm).
3. For rocks with large meshes in drillability category
VIII-X, as well as heterogeneous and often alternating
category III rocks, it is advisable to reduce the charge
diameter to 150 mm.
Since the output of mined material per meter of borehole
is proportional to the square of the charge diameter, in this
case, the efficiency of drills increases with the amount of
material drilled by large-diameter holes, and the drilling cost
per cubic meter decreases. That's why in modern conditions, (d)
there is a trend toward using large-diameter holes, especially
for high-capacity quarries. Figure 16. Destruction process on different fissure models:
a) vertical fissure model; b) horizontal fissure model; c)
6. RULES TO BE ADOPTED BEFORE ANY DESIGN inwardly inclined fissure model, and d) outwardly inclined
fissure model. [8:10]
It is necessary to adapt inclined boreholes to the main
fissure system, as studies and tests demonstrate through the The geometric representation of fissures is achieved
four cases in the following figure: through digital mapping and other stereoscopic canvases like
the Wulff net, which provide information about the number σdépl: It is the resistance of the rock to displacement; it
of fissure systems and their orientations. For the initiation depends on the compressive stress and can be calculated
direction of the charges, the following scheme is using the following formula:
recommended when planning multi-row blasting:
𝜎𝑑é𝑝 = (0,13 ÷ 0,33)𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 (12)

σdépl=0,23×772,4 = 177,65 kgf/cm2(Medjounes I);

σdépl=0,23×1062,03 = 244,26kgf/cm2(Medjounes II).

The tensile strength, which is determined by the following

empirical formula:

𝜎𝑡 = (0,08 ÷ 0,12)𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 (13)

σt=0,10x772,4=77,24 Kgf/cm2 ; Medjounes I

(a) σt=0,10x1062,03=106,20 Kgf/cm2 ; Medjounes II.

Table 3. Initial data

Compressi

Displacement resistance
resistance
σcomp

Tensile strength σt
on

σdépl kgf/cm2
Ps (g/cm3)

Kgf/cm2
Kgf/cm2
(Mpa)
(b)

Medjounes I 2,76 75,75 772,4 177,65 77,24

Medjounes II 2,68 104,15 1062,03 244,26 106,20

𝑞é𝑡=0,02 (772,4+177,65+77,24) +2. 2,76 = 26,07 g/m 3 ...

Medjounes I;
𝑞é𝑡=0,02 (1062,03+244,26+106,2) +2. 2,68 = 33,61 g/m 3 ...
Medjounes II.

(c) Table 4. Classification of rock by drillability index

Figure 17. Initiation direction of charges: a) From bottom Rock drillability Qét Classes Categories
to top, b) From top to bottom, and c) Mixed level
Very easy drillability ≤10 I 1, 2,3,4,5
(recommended). [8:10]
Average drillability 10,1÷20 II 6, 7, 8, 9,10
Difficult drillability 20,1÷30 III 11, 12, 13, 14,15
7. PROPOSED SCHEME Very difficult 30,1÷40 IV 16, 17, 18, 19,20
drillability
1. Determination of drillability (standard q): The Exclusively difficult 40,1÷50 V 21, 22, 23, 24,25
resistance of rocks to blasting is characterized by the specific drillability
standard consumption of explosives. It is determined by the
following formula: Medjounes I → Difficult tirability, Class III, Category 14.
Medjounes II → Very difficult tirability, Class IV,
𝑞é𝑡 = 0,02(𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 + 𝜎𝑑é𝑝 + 𝜎𝑡𝑟 )2𝛾 (11) Category 17.

Where : 2. The drillability of rocks can be determined using the

σcomp: Compressive strength of rocks; kgf/cm2; empirical formula of Academician Rjevsky.
σdép: Displacement strength of rocks; kgf/cm2;
σtra: Tensile strength of rocks; kgf/cm2; 𝐷𝑓 = 0,007 (𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 + 𝜎𝑑é𝑝 ) + 0,7ρ (14)
γ : Density; kg/m3.
Df=0.007(772.4+177.65)+0.7*2.76= 8.58; easy drillability,
σcomp =75,74 MPa= 772,4 Kgf/cm2 (Medjounes I) category 8; Medjounes I.
σcomp =104,15 MPa=1062,03Kgf/cm2 (Medjounes II) Df=0.007(1062.03 + 244.26) + 0.7*2.68 = 11.02; moderate
drillability, category 11; Medjounes II.
 Table 5. Rock Classification by Drillability Index Au: Used explosives (Marmanite III and Anfomil)
q = 0.45 x 1.1 = 0.49 kg/m3 (Medjounes II)
Similarly for Medjounes I, where q = 0.40 x 1.1 = 0.44
Degree of Df Classes Categories
kg/m3.
Drillability
Very easy drillability 1÷5 I 1, 2,3,4,5
Average drillability 5,1÷10 II 6, 7, 8, 9,10 Length of the hole:
Difficult drillability 10,1÷15 III 11, 12, 13, 14,15
Very difficult 15,1÷20 IV 16, 17, 18, 19,20 𝐻
𝐿= + 𝑙𝑠𝑓 (20)
drillability sin 𝛽
Exclusively difficult 20,1÷25 V 21, 22, 23, 24,25
drillability With: β = 75°

The permissible particle size of large blocks after blasting The length of the subdrilling is determined by the
is limited by the following conditions: following formula:

a. By the capacity of the loader bucket: 𝑙𝑠𝑓 = 𝑘𝑠 . 𝐷 (21)

3
𝐶 ≤ 0,8 √𝐸 (15) Other authors propose the following formula : []
3
𝐶 ≤ 0,8 √8 ≤ 1,6( m) 𝑙𝑏 = 0.75. w (22)

Where : lb = (20÷30)*D=29*0.15=4.35 m (Medjounes I)

C: maximum block size, (m); lb = (20÷30)*D=30*0.15=4.5 m (Medjounes II)
E: loader bucket capacity, m3.
Determination of the line of least resistance:
b. According to the capacity of the truck's bed (or
volume). The volume of the truck's bed is 34.2 m 3, so √𝑝2 +4𝑚𝑞𝑝𝐻𝐿−𝑝
𝑊= (23)
the average diameter of the rocks (pieces) will be 2𝑚𝑞𝐻
equal to:
m = 0.95 for both Medjounes I and II.
3
𝐶 ≤ 0,5 √𝑉 (16)
This value is the most suitable for cement limestone based
3
𝐶 ≤ 0,5 √34,2 ≤ 1,62(m) on the academic experience of former Soviet trainers who
have worked in Algeria []. The explosives used are Marmanit
c. By the size of the crusher's opening: III and Anfomil, so the recommended initiation rate is 20%.

𝐶 ≤ 0,8. 𝑏 (17) ∆= 0,20 × 0,95 + 0,80 × 0,90 = 0,91 𝑘𝑔 /𝑚3

With: P = 785. 𝑑 2 . . ∆ (24)

b : Crusher's feed opening: b= 1300 mm;
C ≤ (0.8*1.3) ≤ 1.04 m , with a threshold value : C ≤ 1.04m. 𝑃 = 785 × (0,150)2 × 0,91 = 16,07 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

√16,072+4×0,95×0,44×16,07×15×17,55 −16,07
Based on the obtained results, the acceptable block size is 𝑊= = 5,54𝑚
2×0,95×0,44×15
set at 1.04 m. Any block not meeting this dimension will be
(Medjounes I)
considered an oversized rock and will require a secondary
fragmentation operation (secondary blasting) to reduce its
√16,072+4×0,95×0,49×16,07×15×17,62 −16,07
size. 𝑊= = 5,32𝑚
2×0,95×0,49×15
(Medjounes II)
3. Hole Diameter Determination: We choose a hole
diameter based on the initial recommendations Calculation of W according to safety conditions:
proposed in our analytical summary, considering
both quantitative and qualitative criteria (based on 𝑊 ≥ 𝐻𝑡𝑔𝛼 + 𝑐 (25)
the categories of fissuring and drillability). For our
case, we adopt: D = 150 mm. This sentence means: "Htgα+c=15 . tg85°+3=4.13m
Htgα+c=15×tg85°+3=4.13m; therefore, the conditions are
q = q’. K ex (18) met."
It's confirming that the calculated value of 4.13 meters
q' is chosen from the table of q selection in this article, satisfies the specified conditions.
equal to 0.45 kg/m3.
The distance between the holes in the first row:
K ex = 𝐴é𝑡 /𝐴𝑢 (19)
𝑎 = 𝑚. 𝑊 (26)
Kex = 1.1
Aét: Standard Explosive - Ammonite N6GV
 𝑎 = 𝑚. 𝑊 = 0,95 × 5,54 = 5,26𝑚 (Medjounes I)
𝑎 = 𝑚. 𝑊 = 0,95 × 5,32 = 5,05𝑚(Medjounes II) 𝑙𝑏2 = 𝐿 − 𝑙𝑐ℎ2 = 17,55 − 9,66 = 7,89𝑚 (Medjounes I)
𝑙𝑏2 = 𝐿 − 𝑙𝑐ℎ1 = 17,62 − 9,91 = 7,71𝑚 (Medjounes II).
The distance between rows of holes: staggered pattern due
to the shape of the blocks. - Mining mass flow:

𝑏 = 0,85. 𝑎 (27) 𝑄𝑐ℎ1 +𝑄𝑐ℎ2 (32)

𝐽𝑚 =
2.𝐿.𝑞
𝑏 = 0,85. 𝑎 = 0,85 × 5,26 = 4,47𝑚 (Medjounes I)
𝑄𝑐ℎ1 +𝑄𝑐ℎ2 192,33+155,18
𝑏 = 0,85. 𝑎 = 0,85 × 5,05 = 4,29𝑚 (Medjounes II) 𝐽𝑚 = = = 22,50 𝑚3 /𝑚
2.𝐿.𝑞 2×17,77×0,44
(Medjounes I)
- Load quantity of a hole: 𝑄𝑐ℎ +𝑄𝑐ℎ2 197,46+159,28
𝐽𝑚 = 1 = = 20,66 𝑚3 /𝑚
2.𝐿.𝑞 2×17,62×0,49
• 1st row: (Medjounes II)
(28)
𝑄𝑐ℎ1 = 𝑞. 𝑊. 𝐻. 𝑎1 - Volume of a block:

𝑄𝑐ℎ1 = 𝑞. 𝑊. 𝐻. 𝑎1 = 0,44 × 5,54 × 15 × 5,26 V = 1988,5𝑚3 (Medjounes I)

= 192,33 𝑘𝑔/𝑡𝑟 (Medjounes I) V =14963 𝑚3 (Medjounes II)
𝑄𝑐ℎ1 = 𝑞. 𝑊. 𝐻. 𝑎1 = 0,49 × 5,32 × 15 × 5,05
= 197,46 𝑘𝑔/𝑡𝑟 (Medjounes II) - The length of drilled holes required for a block:
𝑉 (33)
• 2nd row: ∑𝐿 =
𝐽𝑚

(29)
𝑄𝑐ℎ2 = 𝑞. 𝑊. 𝐻. 𝑏 ∑𝐿 =
𝑉 11988,5
= = 532,82𝑚 (Medjounes I)
𝐽𝑚 22,50
𝑉 14969
𝑄𝑐ℎ2 = 𝑞. 𝑊. 𝐻. 𝑏 = 0,44 × 15 × 5,26 × 4,47 ∑𝐿 = = = 724,25𝑚 (Medjounes II)
𝐽𝑚 20,66
= 155,18 𝑘𝑔/𝑡𝑟 (Medjounes I)
𝑄𝑐ℎ2 = 𝑞. 𝑊. 𝐻. 𝑏 = 0,49 × 15 × 5,05 × 4,29 - Number of holes drilled:
= 159,23 𝑘𝑔/𝑡𝑟 (Medjounes II)
∑𝐿 (34)
𝑁𝑡𝑟 =
- Load length: 𝐿

∑𝐿 532
• 1st row: 𝑁𝑡𝑟 = = = 30,36 ≅ 30 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (Medjounes I)
𝐿 17,55
∑𝐿 724,25
𝑄𝑐ℎ1 (30) 𝑁𝑡𝑟 = = = 41,1 ≅ 41 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (Medjounes II)
𝐿 17,62
𝑙𝑐ℎ1 =
𝑃
- Number of sounders:
𝑄𝑐ℎ1 192,33
𝑙𝑐ℎ1 = = = 11,97𝑚 (Medjounes I)
𝑃 16,07
𝑄𝑐ℎ1 197,46 𝑁𝑠 =
∑𝐿 (35)
𝑙𝑐ℎ1 = = = 12,29𝑚 (Medjounes II) 𝑅𝑠 .𝑛𝑝𝑠 .𝑁𝑗
𝑃 16,07

532
• 2nd row: 𝑁𝑠 = = 2,357 ≅ 03 sounders
224 × 1 × 1
𝑄𝑐ℎ2 (31) 𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑢𝑘𝑎𝑤𝑎 (Medjounes I)
𝑙𝑐ℎ2 = 532
𝑃
𝑁𝑠 = = 3,325 ≅ 04 sounders
160 × 1 × 1
𝑄𝑐ℎ2 155,18
𝑙𝑐ℎ2 = = = 9,66𝑚 (Medjounes I) 𝐴𝑡𝑙𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑐𝑜 (Medjounes I)
𝑃 16,07 724,25
𝑄𝑐ℎ2 159,23 𝑁𝑠 = = 3,23 ≅ 04 sounders
𝑙𝑐ℎ2 = = = 9,91𝑚 (Medjounes II) 224 × 1 × 1
𝑃 16,07
𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑢𝑘𝑎𝑤𝑎 (Medjounes II)
- Jam length: 724,25
𝑁𝑠 = = 4,53 ≅ 05 sounders
160 × 1 × 1
• 1st row: 𝐴𝑡𝑙𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑐𝑜 (Medjounes II)

(32) (RsFurukawa = 224 m/shift), (Rs Atlas Copco = 160 m/shift).

𝑙𝑏1 = 𝐿 − 𝑙𝑐ℎ1
8. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
𝑙𝑏1 = 𝐿 − 𝑙𝑐ℎ1 = 17,55 − 11,97 = 5,58𝑚 (Medjounes I)
𝑙𝑏1 = 𝐿 − 𝑙𝑐ℎ1 = 17,62 − 12,29 = 5,33𝑚(Medjounes II)
In the present work, we have contributed to solving a
current problem, which results in the improvement of
• 2nd row: fragmentation in the conditions of the limestone quarry of the
Ain El Kebira cement plant (reduction of the volume of
𝑙𝑏2 = 𝐿 − 𝑙𝑐ℎ2 (33)
oversizes and improvement of the technical indices - [2] Zhang, Z. X., Sanchidrián, J. A., Ouchterlony, F., &
economic) in the context of Sustainable Mining. Luukkanen, S. (2023). Reduction of fragment size from
mining to mineral processing: a review. Rock
The results obtained made it possible to draw the following Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 56(1), 747-778.
conclusions and recommendations: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-022-03068-3
[3] Bustamante, M. M., Roitman, I., Aide, T. M., Alencar,
• The geological study of the limestone deposits of A., Anderson, L. O., Aragão, L., ... & Vieira, I. C.
Algeria and in particular in Ain El Kebira, as well (2016). Toward an integrated monitoring framework to
as the bibliographic analysis, have shown that the assess the effects of tropical forest degradation and
latter are affected by great cracking, which recovery on carbon stocks and biodiversity. Global
represents the most important factor considerably change biology, 22(1), 92-109.
influencing the results of the shot. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13087
• The analysis of the methods developed by [4] Mi, J., Grant, P. S., Fritsching, U., Belkessam, O.,
researchers in the field of adjusting fragmentation Garmendia, I., & Landaberea, A. (2008). Multiphysics
taking into account the cracking of the massif modelling of the spray forming process. Materials
showed that their application remains limited and Science and Engineering: A, 477(1-2), 2-8.
cannot be generalized for Algerian limestone https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2007.08.083
quarries, including Ain El Kebira. [5] Latham, J. P., Munjiza, A., & Lu, P. (1999). Rock
• The work carried out and the observations made fragmentation by blasting—a literature study of
during the experimental firings made it possible to research in the 1980′ s and 1990′ s. Fragblast, 3(3), 193-
demonstrate that the determination of the number of 212. https://doi.org/10.1080/13855149909408046
cracking systems, as well as the geometrization of [6] Pittman, K. L. (1984). Rock quality as a guide to
the natural blocks, is necessary, which allows the fragmentation (Doctoral dissertation, University of
good management of the energy of the firing in the Nevada, Reno).
rock massif. [7] Moghrani, R., Aoulmi, Z., & Attia, M. (2023). Hybrid
• The analysis of the experimental results obtained RPI-MCDM Approach for FMEA: A Case Study on
under the conditions of Djebel Medjounes makes it Belt Conveyor in Bir El Ater Mine, Algeria. Journal
possible to recommend the division of the block to Européen des Systèmes Automatisés, 56(3).
be pulled into three sub-blocks in accordance with https://doi.org/10.18280/jesa.560314
the cracking density: [8] Habib, K. M., Shnorhokian, S., & Mitri, H. (2022).
a) dm <dc for dm = 0.2 ÷ 1.04m (strongly cracked mass); Evaluating the application of rock breakage without
b) dm ≤ dc for dm = 1.04 ÷ 1.20m (moderately cracked explosives in underground construction—a critical
mass); review of chemical demolition agents. Minerals, 12(2),
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We can conclude that obtaining a better adjustment of the [9] Baneshi, M., & Bahreini, S. A. (2018). Impacts of hot
fragmentation must take particular account of the opening of water consumption pattern on optimum sizing and
the cracks, the roughness of the latter and the material of their techno-economic aspects of residential hybrid solar
filling, the inclination of the loads in relation to the main water heating systems. Sustainable Energy
cracking system, etc.; and for the determination of the Technologies and Assessments, 30, 139-149.
specific consumption, we recommend the formula developed https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2018.09.008
by Koutousov because it takes into account the main factors [10] Bamford, T., Medinac, F., & Esmaeili, K. (2020).
that influence the fragmentation adjustment. Continuous monitoring and improvement of the
To determine the parameters of the drilling and blasting blasting process in open pit mines using unmanned
work, the parameters of the meshes in the massif must be aerial vehicle techniques. Remote Sensing, 12(17),
considered. For this, we recommend the following main 2801. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12172801
parameters with discontinuous loading: [11] Fedotenko, V., & Esina, E. (2018). Substantiation of the
Technology of Efficient Transition to High Bench
a) (dm = 0.2m) << dc, shock blast: q = 0.35 kg/m3; a = Stripping of Thick Coal Seams. In E3S Web of
3.5m; d = 168mm; Conferences (Vol. 41, p. 01044). EDP Sciences.
https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20184101044
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applying MWD technology for quality management of
drilling and blasting operations at mining
The direction of progression adopted is not the one that
enterprises. Minerals, 10(10), 925.
ensures the best firing performance ; work on digital
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