ARTS – XI - 7

Indian Bronze Sculpture

 Mastery of Bronze Casting: Indian sculptors were highly skilled in working with bronze,
similar to their expertise in terracotta and stone.
 Lost-Wax Process (Cire-Perdue): This technique for bronze casting was known in India as
early as the Indus Valley Civilization.
 Alloy of Metals: Indians also discovered how to make bronze by mixing copper, zinc, and tin.
 Purpose of Bronze Sculptures: From the 2nd to the 16th century CE, bronze sculptures and
statuettes of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain religious figures were created, mainly for ritual
worship.
 Daily Use Items: The metal-casting process was also used to make everyday objects like
cooking and eating utensils.
 Tribal Use: Even today, tribal communities use the lost-wax process for their art.
 Early Bronze Sculptures:
o The 'Dancing Girl' from Mohenjodaro (around 2500 BCE) is likely the earliest known
bronze sculpture from India. It features a simplified tubular form for limbs and torso.
o Bronze statuettes from Daimabad (Maharashtra) dating to around 1500 BCE have
also been found. A significant find is a 'Chariot' with simple circular wheels, an
elongated driver, and sturdy bulls.
 Jain Bronzes:
o Chausa, Bihar (Kushana Period, 2nd century CE): Interesting bronze images of Jain
Tirthankaras were discovered. These show mastery in modeling the masculine
physique and simplified muscles. Adinath (Vrishabhnath) is notable for his long
hairlocks, unlike other Tirthankaras with short curly hair.
o Gujarat and Rajasthan: These regions have been important centers of Jainism. A
significant collection of Jain bronzes from Akota (near Baroda) dates between the
late 5th and late 7th century CE. These were finely cast using the lost-wax process
and often inlaid with silver and copper to highlight details like eyes, crowns, and
textiles.
o The Akota hoard (6th-9th centuries) mainly featured Jain Tirthankaras like Mahavira,
Parshvanath, and Adinath. A new style emerged where Tirthankaras were seated on
thrones, either single, in groups of three, or twenty-four. Female figures representing
Yakshinis (Shasanadevis) like Chakreshvari (of Adinath) and Ambika (of Neminath)
were also cast. These styles showed influence from the Gupta and Vakataka periods.
o Many Jain bronzes from Chausa are now in the Patna Museum, and others from
Hansi (Haryana) and Tamil Nadu/Karnataka are in various Indian museums.
 Buddhist Bronzes:
o North India (Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Gupta and Post-Gupta Periods, 5th-7th
centuries): Many standing Buddha images with the right hand in abhaya mudra
were cast. The monk's robe (sanghati) is draped to cover the shoulders, turning over
the right arm, with the other end over the left. Pleats are often held by the extended
 hand. The drapery falls in a wide curve at the ankles. The Buddha's figure is subtly
modeled, suggesting the thinness of the cloth, and treated with refinement,
appearing youthful and proportionate compared to the Kushana style.
o Different drapery styles existed: Dhanesar Khera (Uttar Pradesh) bronzes followed
the Mathura style with drooping curved folds, while Sarnath-style bronzes had
foldless drapery. The monumental Buddha image at Sultanganj, Bihar, exemplifies
the refined classical style.
o Vakataka Bronzes (Phophnar, Maharashtra, contemporary with Guptas): These
show the influence of the Amaravati style (3rd century CE, Andhra Pradesh). A
notable change is in the draping of the robe, clinging to the right side as the right
hand in abhaya mudra is free. This creates a continuous flowing line. The drapery at
the ankles makes a distinct curve, held by the left hand.
o Portability: Gupta and Vakataka bronzes were portable, allowing monks to carry
them for personal worship or for installation in Buddhist monasteries (viharas). This
helped spread the refined classical style within India and to other Asian countries.
o Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir (8th-10th centuries): These regions produced
bronze images of both Buddhist deities and Hindu gods/goddesses with a distinct
style compared to other parts of India.
o A significant development was the iconography of Vishnu, including the four-headed
Vishnu (Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu), worshipped in these regions. The faces
represent Vasudeva, Narasimha, and Varaha. Dynamic bronzes of Narasimha avatar
and Mahishasuramardini Durga also come from this area.
o Nalanda (Bihar and Bengal, Pala Dynasty, around 9th century): A school of bronze
casting emerged here. Sculptors at Kurkihar (near Nalanda) revived the classical
Gupta style after a few centuries. A notable example is a four-armed Avalokitesvara
in graceful tribhanga posture. The worship of female goddesses grew with Vajrayana
Buddhism, making images of Tara very popular. She is depicted seated on a throne
with a lotus stalk and her right hand in abhaya mudra.
 South Indian Bronzes (Medieval Period):
o Bronze casting reached a high level of development in South India. While modeling
occurred during the Pallava Period (8th-9th centuries), the most beautiful
sculptures were made during the Chola Period (Tamil Nadu, 10th-12th centuries).
o The skill of crafting bronze images is still practiced in South India, especially in
Kumbakonam.
o Pallava Period: An example is a bronze of Shiva seated in ardhaparyanka asana (one
leg dangling), with the right hand in achamana mudra (drinking poison).
o Chola Period:
 The dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja evolved and fully developed during
this time, with many variations since.
 A wide range of Shiva iconography developed in the Thanjavur (Tanjore)
region. The 9th-century kalyanasundara murti is remarkable for depicting
the marriage ceremony (Panigrahana) with separate statuettes of Shiva
accepting Parvati's hand.
  The union of Shiva and Parvati is ingeniously represented in the
ardhanarisvara murti (half-male, half-female) in a single image. Beautiful
independent figures of Parvati in tribhanga posture were also created.
 Nataraja: Shiva is shown balancing on his right leg, suppressing the demon
of ignorance (apasmara) with his foot. His left leg is raised in bhujangatrasita
stance, symbolizing the removal of illusion (maya). His four arms hold a
damaru (drum), a flame, and are posed in abhaya hasta (gesture of
reassurance) and dola hasta (hanging loosely). His hair flies out, touching
the jvala mala (garland of flames) surrounding him. Shiva is associated with
the end of the cosmic world in this dance.
 The widowed Chola queen, Sembiyan Maha Devi (10th century), was a
significant patron of bronze art.
 Chola bronzes are highly prized by art collectors worldwide.
 Vijayanagar Period (16th century, Andhra Pradesh): Sculptors experimented with portrait
sculpture to preserve the memory of royal patrons. Life-size bronze statues of
Krishnadevaraya and his two queens, Tirumalamba and Chinnadevi, were cast at Tirupati.
These combined realistic facial features with idealization in the body's form, showing them in
praying posture (namaskara mudra).
 The Lost-Wax Process (Detailed Explanation):
o Used in regions like Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and West
Bengal, with slight regional variations.
o Wax Model: A model is made by hand using pure beeswax melted, strained,
solidified, and then pressed into noodle-like shapes (wax wires) that are wound to
form the image.
o Clay Coating: The wax model is covered with a thick paste of clay, sand, and cow-
dung. A clay pot is attached to one side for pouring molten metal.
o Metal Pouring: The weight of the metal (usually scrap metal) is about ten times the
weight of the wax.
o Firing and Melting: The clay-covered model is fired. As the wax melts and drains out,
the molten metal flows into the mold, taking the shape of the wax image. This
process is often carried out with a ritualistic feel in silence.
o Finishing: After cooling, the clay mold is broken, and the bronze image is chiselled
and filed for smoothness and finish.
o Skill and Alloy: Casting bronze requires high skill. Sometimes an alloy of five metals
(gold, silver, copper, brass, and lead) is used.
Expected Prelims Questions:
 The 'lost-wax' technique for bronze casting in India dates back to which of the following
civilizations?
o (a) Vedic Civilization
o (b) Indus Valley Civilization
o (c) Mauryan Empire
 o (d) Gupta Empire
 The bronze 'Dancing Girl' figurine was discovered at which archaeological site?
o (a) Harappa
o (b) Mohenjodaro
o (c) Lothal
o (d) Kalibangan
 Jain bronze images from Chausa, Bihar, belong to which period?
o (a) Mauryan Period
o (b) Sunga Period
o (c) Kushana Period
o (d) Gupta Period
 The abhaya mudra in Buddhist iconography represents:
o (a) Meditation
o (b) Teaching
o (c) Reassurance/Fearlessness
o (d) Earth-touching
 The Nataraja bronze sculpture is most characteristic of which South Indian dynasty?
o (a) Pallava
o (b) Chola
o (c) Pandya
o (d) Vijayanagar
 Sembiyan Maha Devi was a noted patron of bronze art during the period of which dynasty?
o (a) Pallava
o (b) Chola
o (c) Chalukya
o (d) Rashtrakuta
 During the Vijayanagar period, bronze sculptures were primarily focused on:
o (a) Religious icons
o (b) Portrait sculptures of rulers and queens
o (c) Scenes from epics
o (d) Nature motifs
Expected Mains Questions:
  Discuss the significance of bronze sculpture in understanding the religious and artistic
developments in India between the 2nd and 16th centuries CE. [Based on the overall
timeframe and religious icons mentioned in the source]
 Trace the evolution of bronze casting techniques and the stylistic features of bronze
sculptures from the Indus Valley Civilization to the Chola period. [Based on the chronological
progression of styles and the mention of the lost-wax process throughout]
 Compare and contrast the Buddhist bronze sculptures of the Gupta period in North India
with those produced under the Pala dynasty in Eastern India. [Based on the descriptions of
styles from these two regions and periods]
 Analyze the Nataraja figure as a masterpiece of Chola bronze art, highlighting its
iconographic significance and artistic features. [Based on the detailed description of the
Nataraja in the source]
 How did patronage influence the development of bronze sculpture in different periods and
regions of India, as evidenced by the Chola queen Sembiyan Maha Devi and the Vijayanagar
rulers? [Based on the specific examples of patronage mentioned]
Keywords and Definitions:
 Cire-Perdue (Lost-Wax Process): An ancient method of metal casting in which a wax model is
created, covered in a mold, the wax is melted away, and molten metal is poured into the
cavity to create a metal replica.
 Alloy: A mixture of two or more metals, in this context, specifically the mixing of copper, zinc,
and tin to create bronze.
 Tirthankara: In Jainism, a spiritual teacher who has conquered the cycle of rebirth and has
made a path for others to follow.
 Abhaya Mudra: A hand gesture in Buddhism and Hinduism that signifies fearlessness,
reassurance, and protection, typically with the right hand raised, palm facing outwards, and
fingers extended upwards.
 Sanghati: The monastic robe worn by Buddhist monks, often depicted draped over one or
both shoulders of Buddha images.
 Tribhanga: A standing pose often seen in Indian art where the body is curved in three places
– at the neck, waist, and knee – creating a graceful, sinuous form.
 Yakshini/Shasanadevi: In Jainism, attendant female deities associated with the Tirthankaras.
 Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, Mahamandapa, Garbhagriha, Vimana: These are terms related
to the architectural components of a Hindu temple. While the source discusses bronze
sculptures found in relation to these religious contexts, these terms themselves describe the
temple structure. (Note: This information is drawn from our conversation history about
temple architecture, as the current source doesn't explicitly define these terms in the
context of bronze sculpture.)
 Nataraja: A depiction of the Hindu god Shiva as the cosmic dancer, performing the Tandava,
which is the dance of creation, preservation, and destruction.
 Apasmara: In the Nataraja iconography, the dwarf demon lying under Shiva's right foot,
symbolizing ignorance and ego.
 Bhujangatrasita: A dance stance in the Nataraja iconography where Shiva raises one leg
across his body, symbolizing the kicking away of illusion (maya).
 Abhaya Hasta: A variant of abhaya mudra, often used in the context of the Nataraja figure.
 Dola Hasta: A hand gesture where the arm hangs loosely and naturally.
 Damaru: A small two-headed drum held by Shiva in his Nataraja form, representing the
rhythm of the cosmos.
 Jvala Mala: The circular garland of flames surrounding the Nataraja figure, representing the
cosmic energy.
 Ardhaparyanka Asana: A seated posture where one leg is folded and the other hangs down.
 Achamana Mudra: A hand gesture suggesting the act of sipping or drinking.
 Kalyanasundara Murti: A depiction of the wedding ceremony of Shiva and Parvati.
 Panigrahana: The ritual of holding hands during a marriage ceremony.
 Ardhanarisvara Murti: A composite form of Shiva and Parvati depicted in a single image,
representing the unity of male and female principles.
 Namaskara Mudra: A gesture of greeting, reverence, or prayer, with the palms joined
together.