Rebuilding India’s Water Resilience

This editorial is based on “Saving water: India needs a balanced management template to
avert crisis” which was published in The Business Standard on 27/04/2025. The article brings
into picture the severe water crisis in India, highlighted by a 23-year low in Himalayan
snowfall and rapid groundwater depletion.

For Prelims: Hindu Kush Himalaya, NITI Aayog’s “Composite Water Management Index” report
2019, Wetlands, Keoladeo National Park, Article 262, Central Water Commission, Composite
Water Management Index, Blue Green Infrastructure.

For Mains: Major Factors Contributing to the Water Crisis in India, Current Framework for Water
Governance in India.

India faces an unprecedented water crisis with Himalayan snowfall at a 23-year low, threatening
major river systems. Nearly 600 million Indians already experience high water stress, with
groundwater depletion accelerating due to agricultural overexploitation and urbanization. Effective
solutions are required to implement realistic water pricing, crop diversification, and stronger
pollution controls, alongside community-based approaches like water harvesting and check dams.

What are the Major Factors Contributing to the Water Crisis in

India?
Climate Change and Decline in Snow Persistence: Accelerated melting of glaciers
and declining snow retention are critically reducing river flows and destabilizing water
availability.
For instance, in 2024, India faced extreme weather events on 93% of the days in the
year's first nine months, highlighting the impact of rising climate
In turn, reduced snowfall in Himalayas directly impacts Ganga, Brahmaputra,
and Indus basin water inflows, heightening summer scarcity.
Recent data suggest that snow persistence over the Hindu Kush Himalaya region
between November 2024 and March 2025 was 23.6% below normal level.
Groundwater Over Extraction and Aquifer Depletion: Excessive dependence on groundwater
for irrigation and urban supply without recharge has exhausted critical aquifers.
Unsustainable drawdown rates threaten long-term water security and agricultural resilience
in northern plains.
For instance, About 450 cubic kilometres of groundwater was lost in northern India during
2002-2021 and climate change will further accelerate its depletion.
According to NITI Aayog’s “Composite Water Management Index” report
2019, India is suffering from the most severe water crisis in its history, with
 almost 600 million people experiencing high to extreme water stress.
Unsuitable Agricultural Practices and Crop Misalignment: Green Revolution legacies
promote water-intensive crops like paddy and sugarcane even in semi-arid regions.
Free power and cheap irrigation water encourage inefficiency, wastage, and overuse
in farming and urban sectors
For instance, according to the Agriculture Census 2015–16, large farmers, who own
10% of the paddy-growing area in Punjab—around 3,50,000 hectares—consume
an estimated 5,337 litres of water to produce just one kilogram of rice,
highlighting the excessive use of water resources.
Urbanisation, Heat Islands and Infrastructure Deficits: Rapid, unplanned urbanisation and
heat islands are aggravating surface water evaporation and exhausting supplies.
As high as 31% of urban households in cities, mostly those who live in unauthorised
colonies and slums, do not have access to piped water leading to unsustainable
urbanisation.
Urban water management systems lag behind demand, risking urban "Day Zero" crises
across major cities. For instance, Bengaluru faced near “Day Zero” in 2024.
Also, research indicates that urban areas with intense heat island effects
experience higher water demand for irrigation, landscaping, and domestic
use, leading to increased water stress in regions already facing water scarcity.
Water Pollution and River Contamination: Industrial effluents, sewage discharge, and
agricultural runoff have heavily degraded surface and groundwater quality.
Toxic water reduces usable resources for drinking, irrigation, and ecosystem health,
compounding scarcity.
A NITI Aayog report on Water Quality stated that 70% of India's water is
contaminated.
Lead contamination due to PVC pipes is one of the major contributing factors of
groundwater pollution in India.
Fragmented Water Governance and Policy Paralysis: Multiple overlapping authorities, poor
coordination, and lack of integrated basin-level planning undermine action.’
Weak enforcement of water laws and absence of accountability accelerates depletion
and mismanagement.
The World Bank found that failing to implement better water management policies could
result in regional GDP losses from 2-10% by 2050.
Slow Adoption of Water-Efficient Technologies: Low penetration of drip irrigation,
rainwater harvesting, and smart water monitoring has limited conservation success.
Traditional flooding methods dominate, leading to massive wastage in agriculture and
urban distribution systems.
Only a few states like Andhra Pradesh,. Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu have adopted
significant areas under micro-irrigation. (NITI Aayog)
Destruction of Natural Recharge Systems: Urban sprawl, lake encroachments, and
floodplain destruction have crippled aquifer recharge capacity.
Reduced groundwater replenishment accelerates long-term aquifer decline, especially in
urban hotspots.
India has lost nearly one-third of its natural wetlands over the last four decades.
Major cities are facing the crisis on a much larger scale. According to a recent
report, about 10,787 acres of lake land in Bengaluru worth Rs 1.5 lakh crore
had been encroached upon.
Water-Related Health and Sanitation Crises: Contaminated and scarce water fuels outbreaks
of vector-borne and waterborne diseases, aggravating public health burden.
Water scarcity directly links to morbidity, mortality, and socio-economic vulnerabilities
among marginalized groups.
According to the Stockholm International Water Institute report, 210 million Indians
lack access to improved sanitation and 21% of communicable diseases are linked to
unsafe water.
Interstate and Local Water Conflicts: Competing demands over finite water resources are
fuelling disputes between regions, farmers, and sectors.
Tensions over water-sharing agreements highlight the emerging risk of "water wars"
within India.
For instance, in Maharashtra's Upper Godavari Project, farmers at the upper end of the
 canal illegally diverted water, triggering disputes over its distribution.
Also, Keoladeo National Park faces recurring disputes with farmers over
irrigation water, as it depends on supplies from nearby rivers and the Panchna
Dam.

What is the Current Framework for Water Governance in India?

Constitutional and Legal Framework
Water is a State Subject under Entry 17 of the State List in the Seventh Schedule, giving
states primary responsibility for water supply, irrigation, canals, drainage, and
embankments.
However, the Union Government plays a role in inter-state river regulation and
disputes under Entry 56 of the Union List.
Article 262 empowers Parliament to adjudicate inter-state water disputes and bars the
jurisdiction of the Supreme Court over such disputes.
Key laws include the Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956 and River Boards
Act, 1956.
Institutional Architecture
The Ministry of Jal Shakti (created in 2019) oversees national water resource
management, combining the Ministry of Water Resources and Ministry of Drinking Water
and Sanitation.
Central Water Commission (CWC) advises on flood control, irrigation, and multipurpose
projects.
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) manages groundwater resources and regulatory
approvals.
Regulatory and Policy Initiatives
National Water Policy (2012) provides guiding principles for water management,
advocating integrated water resource management, prioritising drinking water, and
promoting conservation.
Model Groundwater (Sustainable Management) Bill, 2017: Drafted by the Centre,
empowering local bodies to regulate groundwater.
Power Tariff Policy 2016: It mandates that thermal power plants within a 50km radius of
sewage treatment plants must use treated sewage water, with the cost passed through in
the tariff.
Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) by NITI Aayog tracks and ranks states
on water management performance to promote cooperative and competitive federalism.
National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM) by CGWB for
detailed groundwater mapping.
Judicial and Rights-Based Developments
The Supreme Court has recognised access to safe water as part of the Fundamental
Right to Life under Article 21.
Courts have intervened in issues related to pollution of rivers (e.g., Yamuna,
Ganga), groundwater extraction limits, and industrial compliance norms.

What are the Key Case Studies Related to Effective Water Management in
India?

Mission Kakatiya, Telangana: Restores tanks to boost minor irrigation across Telangana.
Promotes community-based water management for sustainable agriculture.
Neeru-Chettu Programme, Andhra Pradesh: Focused on improving irrigation and water supply
in drought-prone areas through better management practices. Prioritizes repairing and maintaining
irrigation infrastructure.
Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan, Maharashtra: Targets making Maharashtra drought-free by improving
water storage and conservation. Uses innovative solutions like geo-tagging for efficient
monitoring.
Kapil Dhara Yojana, Madhya Pradesh: Provides irrigation support to small farmers through
MGNREGA. Focuses on constructing water-harvesting structures on private lands.
Pani Bachao, Paise Kamao Scheme, Punjab: Encourages farmers to save water and electricity
 by providing financial incentives. Helps reduce wastage and promotes resource efficiency.
Jakhni Village Model, Bundelkhand, Uttar Pradesh: Community-driven efforts led to water
self-sufficiency in a water-scarce village. Involves rainwater harvesting, pond restoration, and
sustainable agriculture practices.

What Measures can India Adopt for Effective Water Management?

Transition to Integrated Water Resource Management: India must adopt a basin-centric
approach by managing water as an interconnected ecological system.
Watershed restoration, river reforestation, and catchment area protection must be
prioritized to secure natural hydrological cycles.
Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) models can incentivize rural
communities for conserving water catchments.
Ecological flow norms must be mandated in dam operations. Water management must
internalize biodiversity, soil health, and climate resilience objectives.
Institutionalise Participatory Water Governance: Water governance must shift
from top-down bureaucratic control to empowering Panchayats and Water User
Associations (WUAs).
Decentralising decision-making ensures context-specific conservation practices and
equitable water sharing.
Capacity-building and accountability frameworks for local institutions should be
strengthened.
Community-led watershed development must be mainstreamed as a governance
model.
Reorient Agricultural Policies Towards Water-Smart Farming: Crop diversification policies
must incentivise low-water-use crops adapted to local agroecological conditions.
Linking Minimum Support Prices (MSP) to water productivity rather than calorie
output will shift incentives.
Micro-irrigation systems like drip and sprinkler must become the norm, not
the exception.
Agroforestry, rainfed farming systems, and precision agriculture need targeted
expansion.
Effective Water Pricing: India must rationalise water pricing to discourage wastage,
while ensuring affordable access for the poor and rural communities.
Introducing volumetric water pricing for industries and large farmers can create strong
conservation incentives.
Urban water tariffs can be designed progressively based on usage slabs.
Transparent tariff-setting mechanisms aligned with groundwater and surface water
stress levels are critical.
Urban Water-Sensitive Planning and Infrastructure Revamp: City master plans
must integrate water-sensitive design principles (Blue Green Infrastructure), protecting
recharge zones, wetlands, and drainage systems.
Stormwater harvesting, aquifer recharge, and decentralized wastewater
reuse must be embedded into city development.
Smart metering, leak detection, and water recycling infrastructure need urgent scaling.
Cities must be mandated to achieve a circular urban water economy.
Also, there is a need for Tiered volumetric water pricing that can be introduced by
charging lower prices for recycled or non-potable water (used for chores like cleaning and
gardening) and higher prices for potable (drinking) water.
This approach encourages use of treated wastewater for non-essential
purposes, saving fresh water for critical needs.
Groundwater Aquifer Mapping and Regulation: Comprehensive mapping and zoning of
aquifers should precede any extraction permissions.
Groundwater management must shift from a "private good" mindset to
regulated community resource stewardship.
Legal frameworks for aquifer-based collective management models are needed.
 Technology-driven groundwater monitoring networks must be expanded
nationwide.
Enforce Strict Pollution Control Across Rivers, Lakes, and Aquifers: Water bodies must be
protected through stringent enforcement of effluent discharge standards and zero liquid discharge
mandates.
Polluter-pays principles and penalties must be rigorously applied on industries,
municipalities, and agricultural runoffs.
Sewage treatment plants must be upgraded to tertiary levels before river
discharge.
Restoration of urban lakes and wetlands (like Restoration of the Wazirabad
lake in Gurgaon) must be made legally binding on local bodies.
Anchor Water Conservation in Education, Behaviour Change, and Cultural Revival: Water
literacy campaigns must become part of school curricula and adult education programs across
India.
Reviving traditional water harvesting systems and culturally embedded conservation
ethics can boost local stewardship.
Mass movements around "Water as a Sacred Resource" must be created through civil
society partnerships.

Conclusion:

India's escalating water crisis, driven by climate change, groundwater depletion, and unsustainable
practices, demands urgent, multifaceted solutions. To mitigate the crisis, the country must
adopt integrated water resource management, decentralized governance, and water-smart
agriculture. Achieving SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) will require a collective effort across
sectors to enhance water efficiency, conservation, and equitable distribution.

Drishti Mains Question

"India is facing an unprecedented water crisis exacerbated by climate change. In light of this, discuss the
major factors contributing to it and propose a comprehensive strategy to address this crisis.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims:

Q.1. Which one of the following ancient towns is well known for its elaborate system of water
harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into
connected reservoirs? (2021)

(a) Dholavira

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Rakhigarhi

(d) Ropar

Ans: A

Q.2. With reference to ‘Water Credit’, consider the following statements: (2021)

1. It puts microfinance tools to work in the water and sanitation sector.

2. It is a global initiative launched under the aegis of the World Health Organization and the World
 Bank.
3. It aims to enable the poor people to meet their water needs without depending on subsidies.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: C

Mains:

Q.1 What are the salient features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan launched by the Government of India for water
conservation and water security? (2020)

Q.2 Suggest measures to improve water storage and irrigation system to make its judicious use under the
depleting scenario. (2020)

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