Progr.

Conflicts over
Religious Pluralism
It is certainly the popes sentiment thatif indulgences, which are a very
insignificant thing, are celebrated with one bell, one procession, and one
ceremony, then the gospel, which is the very greatest thing, should be
preached with a hundred bells, a hundredprocessions, a hundred ceremonies.
—Martin Luther, 95 Theses, 1517

Essential Question: Howdid religious pluralism challenge the concept

of a unified Europe?

OÖ. early reason for Martin Luther’s demandsfor religious reform stemmed
from concerns over the Catholic Church’s policy of selling indulgences, a
practice that had come to mean the buying of forgiveness for sin. However,
over time, many reformers called into question other Catholic practices and
doctrines, such as papal infallibility—the belief that the word of the pope is
supreme on matters offaith. Such concerns fractured the unity of Christianity
in Central and Western Europe, bringing the emergenceof differing and often
competing sects of Christianity in the 16th century, a religious revolution
knownas the Reformation.

Reforms in the Christian Church

The growing Renaissance interest in secular, or nonreligious, matters
strongly affected the Roman Catholic Church in Europe. The desire for fine
art and material wealth caused the Church to be a patron for painters such as
Michelangelo andto build grand cathedrals. Thus, in the view of the reformers,
many Churchofficials, especially the high clergy, had turned away from their
true religious responsibilities. In response to this and other practices, Christian
Humanists called for religious reform.

Christian Humanists Seek Religious Reform

While influenced by the Italian Renaissance, Christian Humanists in Northern
Europe wantedto use their intellectual achievements andlove ofthe classics to
inspire the Christian beliefs. Christian Humanists were critical of the growing
secular spirit of the Church and wanted to restore what they considered a

28 _AP®EUROPEAN HISTORY
 3. Whateffects did the values of individualism, subjectivity, and emotion
have on changingtraditionalpolitical ideologies’ artistic forms?
Writing notes in the margins is one way to plan yourresponse to a question.
If you use accurate historical evidence and clearly organize your thoughts,
writing will be easier, and your argumentwill be easier for readers to identify.
Foreach ofthe following prompts, which statement below it would be most
useful in the argument answering it?

4, Analyze the ways in whichthe revival of classical texts influenced

Italian society during the Renaissance.
a. Classical Greek and Romantexts were written by people such as the
playwright Euripides, the epic poet Homer, and the satirist Horace.
b. The intellectuals of the Renaissance, later known as humanists, used
their knowledge of Greek and Latin to revive classical ideas that put
humansat the centerofall things.

5. Compare and contrast the styles of the visual arts in Italy and in the
Northern Renaissance.
a. Although both Italian and Northern Renaissance artists depicted
religious subjects, Northern Renaissanceartists focused more on
everydaylife and human-centered themes.
b. The Italian Renaissance produced some ofthe most famous artists in
history, including Michelangelo, Donatello, and Raphael.

6. Analyze the ways in which the invention ofthe printing press affected
European society during the Renaissance.
a. Theprinting press spread Renaissance ideas beyondItaly and created
more vernacularliterature, whichled to a rise in national cultures and
a lasting challenge to the powerof the Catholic Church.
b. Europe wasaffected by a movement called the Protestant Reforma-
tion, started by Martin Lutherin Germanyin 1517.

THE RENAISSANCE AND THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 27

purer Christian dogma. Embracing the motto “Adfontes (backto the source),”
Christian Humanists began reading the Bible in Greek and Hebrewas well as
studying writings of early Christian leaders.
ErasmusPleads for Reform Oneofthe best representatives of Christian
Humanism was the Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus. He acquired a
traditional scholastic education as well as a new liberal arts education at the
University of Paris. Erasmuscalled for the reading of the New Testament in
Greek, Latin, and Hebrew in order to understandits original meaning. With
a deep understanding of Roman Catholic teachings, Erasmus began writing
extensively about the need for reform. Particularly important was his book
In Praiseof Folly (1509), in which he addressed Church abuses such as the
lack of knowledge among muchof the clergy and the focus of the papacy on
material rather than spiritual concerns.
While Erasmuscalled for reform,he feared splintering the Roman Catholic
Church. Although Erasmus agreed with concernsraised by Martin Luther, he
felt Luther’s mannerwastoo harsh and his action too defiant.
Thomas More Calls for a Utopia An English Christian Humanist and
close friend of Erasmus’s, Thomas More had studied at the University of
Oxford. This helped him gain government positions such as a member of
Parliament and adviser to Henry VIII, king of England. In 1516, More wrote
the book Utopia about an imaginary land that possessed a perfect, orderly
society. Calling for the creation ofa more just society, More arguedin favor of
education for women andabolition of private property:

Martin Luther Establishes New Doctrine

As Christian Humanists called for Church reform, one of them, Martin
Luther, demanded changeso strongly he threatened Christian unity. Growing
up, Luther had attended a school run by the Brethren of the CommonLife, a
group that taught Christian Humanism. He later attended the University of
Erfurt, receiving a strong liberal arts education and embracing the religious
slogan “Back to the source.” Studying the book of Romans in the Bible,
Luther was struck by the emphasis on God’s grace—an emphasis he believed
the Catholic Church had lost. After earning a master’s degree, Luther entered
an Augustinian monastery, where he continued his studies and arrived at his
belief in sola fide, that people gained eternal salvation “by faith alone.”
Salvation, Luther believed, came from God’s grace rather than from
actions people performed. Luther agreed that attending church and helping
the poor were good works butbelieved that they did not in themselves bring
salvation. To Luther, faith alone brought salvation. Good works werethe result
offaith, not steps on a path to eternallife.
Luther Presents Religious Grievances Luther argued that any religious
practices encouraging the belief that good works led to salvation were
misleading. For example, he strongly disagreed with the practice of seeking
salvation through the buying and selling of indulgences. Luther presented

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 29

his document knownas the 95 Theses after Pope Leo X proclaimed a Jubilee
Indulgence to raise money for the restoration of St. Peter’s Basilica. The most
famous indulgence preacher was Johann Tetzel. He washiredto sell indulgences
in the Germanstates of the Holy Roman Empire. According to legend, Tetzel
said, “As soon asthe goldin the casket rings, the rescuedsoul to heaven springs.”
In response, according to legend, an angry Luther nailed his theses to the
door of the Wittenberg church, denouncing indulgences and other Church
practices. More likely, according to the custom of the time, Luther simply
wanted to prompt his archbishop and otherscholars to discuss possible reforms
within the Catholic Church. But as a result of the printing press, within months
his document was circulating throughout Europe. Luther, an unknown monk,
quickly became the key figure of a rapidly growing protest movement. In
addition to indulgences, Luther and other reformers objected to
* simony: the buying andselling of Church appointments andoffices
° pluralism: the holding of multiple Church positions at the same time
° nepotism: the appointment of family and friends to Churchpositions
° immorality: the decline in moral standards of clergy and monks

The Catholic Church Responds Catholic officials responded forcefully,

accusing Luther of heresy. In 1518, after being allowed to defend his position in
a debate in the imperial city of Augsburg, the Church ordered Lutherto recant
his protests. (An imperial city was one that was subject only to the authority of
the emperor.) Luther refused andreturned to Wittenberg.
The pope issued a decree demanding that Luther recant or be
excommunicated—exiled from the Catholic Church. In April 1521, Luther
appeared before a diet, or assembly of leaders, that convened in the city of
Wormswith the choice to either recant or affirm his beliefs. Luther’s case was so
importantthat presiding over the Diet of Wormswas the newly chosen emperor
of the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V. According to legend, when confronted
with his writings, Luther refused to back down, declaring, “Here I stand. I can
do no other.” His actual words were less dramatic, but the message was the
same: Herefused to recant. The Catholic Church excommunicated Luther, and
Charles V declared him an “outlaw of the empire.”
Protestant Doctrines and Practices In an age whenreligious dissent could
mean death, Luther’s strong stand took courage. However, he was supported by
many Germanrulers. Somecaredlittle about theology, but hoped the religious
controversy would help them reduce Rome’s political power. Luther’s prince,
Frederick III of Saxony, protected him in the prince’s castle known as the
Wartburg. There, Luther began to work out his ideas morefully. For example, he
believed that the Bible was the sole authority for Christians. To make the New
Testament easier for people to read, Luthertranslated it into common German.
While many of Luther’s religious ideas were radical forhis time, his ideas
on politics and economics were not. He called for harsh treatment of people who
wanted to reform society, and he expressed strongly anti-Semitic views.

30 AP®EUROPEAN HISTORY
 Issue Luther’s Beliefs Catholic Teachings

How God Judges People Faith alone, although faith Faith and good works
for Salvation leads to good works
Source of Religious The Bible alone The Bible, the pope, and
Authority centuriesof religious
interpretation
Organization of the Pastors are independent Strict hierarchy
Clergy
Role of Mary, Motherof Honored, but not Revered
Jesus considered holy
Church Art and Simplicity, so peoplewill Beauty, to glorify God
Architecture focus on God

Zwingli and Calvin Bring New Interpretations

Even before Luther challenged the Catholic Church, the group ofstates
known as the Swiss Confederation sought independence from the leaders
of the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire. In 1499, the Swiss
Confederation won enough autonomy to allow Swiss merchants and crafts
workersto flourish economically andpolitically.
In 1519, Huldrych Zwingli, a pastor of the People’s Church in Zurich,
Switzerland, began criticizing the Catholic Churchandits abuse ofpowerafter
reading Erasmus’s texts. Following in Luther’s footsteps, Zwingli criticized
the papal authority and clerical celibacy, or abstaining from marriage and
sexualrelations. In addition, Zwingli demanded a simplified service based on
the principle of “faith alone.”
Zwingli Challenges Luther and the Catholic Church Zwingli chal-
lenged both Luther and the Catholic Churchonthe necessity of the sacraments
(rites such as communion, believed to be a way toattain divine grace). For
example, both Luther and traditional Catholics believed in the presence of
Christ in the communion. Luther believed that the communion’s bread and
wine were both bread and wine and the body and blood of Christ (consubstan-
tiation). In the traditional Catholic belief, the bread and wine of communion
actually became the body and blood of Christ (transubstantiation). Zwingli
rejected both beliefs, insisting that the ritual of communion was symbolic.
The Protestantleader Philip ofHesse, in hope ofuniting Protestants, invited
Luther and Zwingli to meetto discusstheir disputes. In what became known as
the Marburg Colloquy, the two vehemently disagreed, permanently dividing
Protestants. Zwingli rejected Luther’s reformsandinsisted on abolishing the
spiritual necessity of ritual sacraments, such as baptism, confirmation, and
penance. Luther and Zwingli had never merged their movements by the time
of Zwingli’s death in 1531.
Calvinism Takes Root in Switzerland In 1536, French-born theologian
John Calvin published his book Institutes of the Christian Religion, calling

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 31

for religious and political reform. Calvin had studied the ideas of Luther and
other dissidents, and he agreed with manyof their criticisms of the Catholic
Church. However, Calvin developed two unique ideas: predestination and
his concept ofthe elect. In predestination, Calvin believed that an omnipotent
(all-knowing) God already knew who would be saved andthat, even at birth,
a person’s eternal fate was set. From this belief, Calvin later developed his
concept of the elect—those chosen by God to be saved—in order to ensure
people would live according to God’s law. Their pious behavior would be an
outward sign that such people werepart ofthe elect, and their accumulation of
wealth would be another sign of God’s favor.
The year Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion, the leaders
in the Swiss city of Geneva invited him there to live and preach. In Geneva,
Calvin’s doctrines transformed not only the practice of Christianity but also
the role of the government. The Bible served as the highest law in Geneva,
and sinning was a civil offense. The city required residents to denounce the
Catholic faith and to attend church services five times a week. People could be
punished for missing church, playing cards, or dancing. People who failed to
follow the religious laws could be forced to leave the city. While laws enforced
religious practices, they also required churches to provide social services for
the city’s poor andsick.
Anabaptists Reject the Secular World In 1525, another strand of
Protestantism emerged in Zurich. Unlike Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists,
Anabaptists rejected baptism of infants. They stressed that only adults could
makethe decision to believe, and they thus requiredall adults to be rebaptized.
Anabaptists also excluded themselves from society because they believed that
sin existed everywhere. This seclusion placed them in direct conflict with
many governments because Anabaptists refused to serve in the government or
the military. Because of the Anabaptists’ unique doctrine andsolitary lifestyle,
both Catholics and Protestants targeted them. When Anabaptists established
an old-world theocracy (a government based on religious law) at Münster, an
army of both Catholics and Protestants captured the city, torturing andkilling
the leaders.

Division Among European Christians

The Reformation caused the Catholic Church to reflect on its doctrines and
policies. While the Church mostly reinforced its established belief system, it
also made some changes. This period of change is known as the Counter
Reformation or the Catholic Reformation.
The Counter Reformation Cements Division During the Middle Ages,
the Catholic Church had established several institutions, known togetheras the
Inquisition, to defend its official doctrines. The Inquisition searched for and
punished heretics, Christians who denied important Church doctrines. In 1542,
the pope introduced the Roman Inquisition to stop Catholics from converting
to Protestantism.

32 AP® EUROPEAN HISTORY

 PEN Pe E
Calvinist churches were often very plain so they would notdistract people
from worshipping God.
Credit: Getty Images

= ou wet li a
Roman Catholic churches were often very ornate so that the beauty would
inspire people to worship God.
Credit: Getty Images

Seventeen years later, the pope took another step to stop the spread of
Protestantism, establishing the Index ofProhibited Books, a list of booksthat
- Catholic printers were not to print and Catholics were not to read. Together,
the Inquisition and the Index cemented the growing religious divide in Europe.
The Counter Reformation Revives the Church The Catholic response
to the Reformation included establishment of new religious orders. Each order
had its own focus. For example, in 1540, Ignatius Loyola established the
Jesuits, an order that emphasized obedienceto authority, prayer, and communal
living. The Jesuits provided soldiers to fight Protestants and missionaries to
spread Christianity in the Americas and East Asia. They became famous for
their rigorous scholarship. Manyof the mostprestigious universities in Europe
were founded by Jesuits. This commitmentto research and learning would later

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 33

bring them into conflict with Roman Catholics who disliked their willingness
to questiontraditional teachings.
Anotherinfluential order, the Ursuline Sisters, was established in 1544. It
focused on educating girls.
To promote the unity of the Catholic faith, Pope Paul III convened the
Council of Trent. Meeting three times between 1543 and 1563, the council
wasresponsible for reaffirming traditional Catholic doctrine while addressing
issues such as clerical pluralism and simony. Church officials discussed the
official beliefs of the Catholic Church andthecriticismsofProtestant reformers.
The Council of Trent mostly reaffirmed established Catholic doctrine by:
¢ emphasizing the needfor the seven sacraments (baptism, confirmation,
communion, penance, annointing the sick, matrimony, and holy orders)
° stressing the role of both faith and good works
° affirming Latin as the language of the Church
* continuing clerical celibacy
° maintaining the art in churches
° upholding the powerof the papacy
The Council of Trent did make some minorreformsrelated to pluralism,
celibacy, and education of the priesthood. The actions of the Catholic
Reformation revived Catholicism, particularly in Southern and Central Europe,
in what are today the countries of Spain, Italy, and Austria. Many regions that
had been Protestant reverted back to Catholicism.

State Power and Religion

In someplaces,leaders and religious groups used the religious changesof the
Reformation to promote political unity. In others, such changes led to partisan
turmoil and challenges to a leader’s authority.

Top Down Religious Reform in England

Unlike Central Europe, where religious reformsstarted with a variety of monks
and preachers and spread to the upperreaches ofsociety, in England, reform
started at the top. The king of England changed the religious practice of his
subjects by edicts and laws.
Henry VIII Defends Catholicism In 1509, Henry VIII assumed the
throne of England. During his thirty-eight-year reign, he would becomeone of
England’s most influential monarchs. When Martin Luther begancriticizing
the Catholic Church, Henry VIII quickly cameto the support of Pope Leo X.
Henry VIII, with the help of his trusted advisor Thomas More, argued in favor
of the supremacy of the pope and the importance of the sacraments. For this
loyalty, the pope gave Henry VIII thetitle of “Defenderof the Faith.”
Henry VIII Breaks with the Pope However, Henry VIII soon had
his own criticism of the papacy. In 1527, after more than twenty years of

34 AP*EUROPEAN HISTORY
marriage, Henry VIII desired to end his marriage to Katherine of Aragon,the
youngest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and the aunt of Holy
Roman Emperor Charles
V. During their marriage,
Katherine gavebirth to six
children, but five died and
the only one who survived
to adulthood was female,
Mary Tudor. Without a
clear male heir, Henry VIII
feared for the stability of
the Tudor Dynasty after
his death, especially since
he was only the second
Tudor king. He asked
Pope Clement VII for an
annulment, or cancellation,
of his marriage on the
grounds that it should
never have been allowed.
Katherine had been married
to Henry’s brother before
he died, and Henry argued
that his marriage to her
was improper. The pope,
pressured by Charles V and
unwilling to offend Spain’s
Catholics, refused to grant
1e SON. Henry VIIT of England known for hi ill and
In 1533, Anne Boleyn, scig-contidence.
enry Ol ngland was own Tor His strong will ani “

the mistress of Henry Credit: Getty Images

VII, became pregnant.
Henry VIII divorced Katherine—knowing the pope would object—so he
could marry Anne Boleyn, who gave birth to Elizabeth, another female.
Pope Clement VII declared Henry and Anne’s marriageillegal. Henry VIII
responded by denouncing the authority of the pope. In November 1534,
the English Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy, making the king of
England the headof the Church of England. England wasno longerofficially
a Catholic country. Under Henry, Anne Boleyn was executed foradultery. He
later married Jane Seymour, whofinally presented Henry with a son, Edward.
Seymour diedshortly after giving birth, and Henry married three more times
but had no morechildren.
While the Church of England wasno longerofficially part of the Roman
Catholic Church, many people in England remained loyal Catholics. To enforce
his power, Henry VIII enacted additional religious reforms. One ofthese was

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 35

the Treason Act, which maderefusing to recognize the Church of England as
the state religion an actof treason. Violating this act was punishable by death.
While Henry broke away from the control of the pope, he continued to
support most of the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1539, the
governmentreaffirmed core Catholic doctrines on the celibacy of clergy,
importance of confession, and transubstantiation in communion—doctrines
that divided Catholics and Protestants.
The Church ofEngland became knownas the Anglican Church. Anglicans
did not all agree with how closely they should keep to Catholic traditions and
doctrine. Those who wanted to remain close to the Catholics were known as
“High Church,” while those who were moreinfluenced by Protestant doctrines
and practices were known as “Low Church.”
Two Brief Reigns Following Henry’s death, his young son Edward
became king. Hereigned for only six years (1547-1553) before dying at 15.
During these years, the government became more Low Church.
However, his successor, Mary Tudor (reigned 1553-1558), tookthe country
in the oppposite direction. She tried to restore Catholicism to England. Those
in England who had never supported the break with Rome supported her, as
did her powerful husband, the Spanish king Philip II. Mary’s persecution of
some Anglican bishops earned her the nickname “Bloody Mary.”
Elizabeth Takes Control After Mary Tudor’s death, her half-sister,
Elizabeth I (reigned 1558-1603), tried to find a middle ground, sometimes
called the Elizabethan Settlement, that would end religious turmoil. She
returned to Anglicanism, rejecting both Roman Catholicism and strong
Calvinism. During her long reign, she avoided harsh persecution of people
whopracticed their own beliefs quietly.

‘LegalSupport for the C

Act Year Provisions

Act of Supremacy 1558 * Redeclared the King of England

the head of the Church of
England
+ Acknowledged Elizabeth as the
head of the Church of England

Act of Uniformity 1559 « Reestablished the Book of

CommonPrayer
* Noted the need for subjects to
attend church services once a
week

Thirty-Nine Articles 1571 + Reestablished English as the

language of the Church of
England

36 AP*EUROPEAN HISTORY
 Elizabeth was determined to restore the Anglican Church in England
and keep England from returning to Catholicism while at the same time she
wanted to prevent more radical forms of Protestantism from growing. One
such radical group, the Puritans, wanted to “purify” the Church of England,
demanding the elimination ofclerical dress and removal of Catholics from
England. To accomplish many of her goals, Elizabeth employed diplomacy
and often used marriage proposals to form alliances.

Other MonarchsInitiate Religious Reform and Control

While Henry VIII and Elizabeth I respondedto the Reformationby establishing
and strengthening a newstate religion in England,other rulers madedifferent
choices. Someloosenedrestrictions to allow religious pluralism. Others, such
as Philip II of Spain, became strong advocates for Catholicism.
France’s Agreement with the Pope In France in 1516, King Francis I
(reigned 1515-1547) signed the Concordat of Bologna with Pope Leo X in
which the Catholic Church continuedto collect income from French churches.
In return, the king gained the power to tax the clergy and appoint Catholic
bishops in France. Becausethe king created such a powerful relationship with
the Catholic Church,the Reformationinitially had a limited impacton France.
The Holy Roman Emperor Implements Peace By the reign of Holy
Roman Emperor Charles V (reigned 1506-1556), the Habsburg Dynasty
encompassed large landmass throughout Europe and the Americas. His 1.5-
million-square-mile empire included territory in Spain,Italy, the Netherlands,
Austria, the Holy Roman Empire, and South America.
Charles had to spend muchof his rule confronting the expansion ofthe
Ottoman Empire. He also fought a series of wars with France, as French
monarchFrancis I threatened his power. These concerns prevented him from
dealing more forcefully with Lutheranism, and by the time he tried to do
so, it had becometoo entrenched. In 1555, Charles established the Peace of
Augsburg in the Germanstates, a legal agreement allowing each German
ruler to determine whether residents of that state would be Catholic or
Lutheran. Thefaith of the ruler would becomethefaith of all. This agreement
did not acknowledge Calvinism or Anabaptism asoptions.

Religious Challenges to Monarchical Power

Martin Luther published the 95 Theses to promptreligious reform. He had
little interest in politics. However, religion and politics were thoroughly
intertwined in Europeduringhis lifetime. His challengesto religious authority
created an environmentthat prompted others to challengepolitical authority.
In the German Peasant Wars of 1525 and 1526, farmers rebelled against the
feudal power of the nobles. The peasants were crushed, and around 200,000
were killed. Though they were unsuccessful, the rebellions demonstrated how
the Reformation could lead to unrest.

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 37

 Puritans Challenge the English Crown The same day that England’s
Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, James I took the throne. The son of Mary
Tudor, James waspart of the Stuart family and already king of Scotland. Since
he had beenraised as a Roman Catholic, Puritans feared he would reinvigorate
Catholicism in England. As ruler, James was sympathetic to Catholics, but
only those who publicly supported the Church of England.
James’s successor, Charles I, also worried Puritans. He married a French
Catholic, Henrietta Maria, and he did not aid the Protestants in their battle
against Catholics known as the Thirty Years’ War (see pages 41-42).
The struggle between the Puritans and the Stuart monarchy came to a
head in the English Civil War (1642-1649) when the Puritans supported
the Parliamentarians against the Royalists. In 1649, the Parliamentarians
successfully overthrew the Stuart monarchy and executed Charles I.

Conflicts Among Religious Groups

The growingreligious tension between Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, and
Anabaptists throughout Europe, combined with political rivalries that often
fell along religious lines, brought nearly a century of warfare. Between 1562
and 1648, millions would be slaughtered or would die from hungeranddisease
related to internal rebellion, civil war, and international conflicts.

DOMINANT FAITHS IN WESTERN EUROPE,1560

EE
7] angtican ET Lutheran
Calvinist Roman
Catholic
SWEDEN*,
Holy Roman Empire border
Stockholm .

RUSSIA

4 ‘PRUSSIA
Berling BOLAND Warsaw
Bar oPragué
HOLY ROMAN-
\a EMPIRE /
ATLANTIC
OCEAN

OTTOMAN
EMPIRE

o 500 Miles MEDITERRANEAN

SEA
0 500 Kilometers

38 AP*EUROPEAN HISTORY
The French Warsof Religion
The Concordat of Bologna signed in 1516 worked for several decades,
as long as nearly all French were Catholics. However, by 1562, French
Calvinists, known as Huguenots, represented 10 percent of the country’s
population, or about 2 million people. More importantly, an estimated 40
percent of the French noblesidentified as French Calvinists and sought to
gain morepolitical rights.
Origins of the Religious Conflict The French monarchy persecuted
the Huguenots in order to diminish the power of the nobility and protect
Catholicism. In 1559 and 1560, France suffered the death of two monarchs,
which brought 11-year-old Charles [X to the throne. His mother, Catherine
de’ Medici, acted as regent andruler. The ascension of Charles IX caused a
power vacuum in whichreligious and political persecution flourished. With
religious andpolitical motivations, the French Wars ofReligion continuedto
escalate leading to nine civil wars from 1562 to 1589.
Religious Violence In 1562, after a massacre of Huguenots at Vassy,
French Calvinists tookto the streets and looted Catholic Churches, destroying
artwork and breaking stained-glass windows.
Tensions between Catholics and Huguenots reached a peak in 1572 at
the marriage of Margaret of Valois, the sister of the king of France, to Henry
of Navarre, a leading Calvinist. Henry Navarre invited many wealthy
and influential Huguenots to the wedding in Paris. Catherine de’ Medici,
in collaboration with the reactionary Catholic Guise family, ordered the
massacre of the Huguenots, which pleased the pope and other reactionary
Catholics. Starting in Paris and spreading outward, an estimated 10,000
to 20,000 people were killed in an event knownas the St. Bartholomew’s
Day Massacre.
Political Rivalry As civil war persisted in France, three men, each
named Henry,vied to be king.
+ Henry II of Valois was a Catholic, He was the fourth son of King
Henry II and supported by his mother, Queen Catherine de’ Medici,
who wasItalian. Henry III became king of France in 1574 after the
death of Charles IX. Catherine was influential throughouthis reign.
° Henry of Navarre, the husband of Margaret of Valois, was a Huguenot
with support from Elizabeth I of England. He was heir-presumptiveto
the throne after Henry III of Valois.
° Henry of Guise was a Catholic with support from Philip II of Spain.
Heestablished the Catholic League, which wantedto ensurethat only
Catholics ruled France.
The Warof the Three Henrys wassettled by assassinations. In 1588,
the bodyguards of Henry III killed Henry of Guise. A yearlater, a Catholic

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 39

monk, on the orders of Henry of Guise’s brother Louis, assassinated Henry
TIL, wholeft no direct male heir to the throne. The Huguenot Henry of Navarre
ascended the French throne and took the name Henry IV.
Political Ending Henry IV took power in a French society torn by
religious conflict. Raised as a Protestantbut ruling a majority-Catholic country,
he looked for a compromise that would end religious conflict. In 1593, he
took a bold step by converting to Catholicism. This angered his Huguenot
supporters, but reassured Catholics. His conversion demonstrated that he was
a Politique, a French moderate who valued unity and peace more than any
particular religious group.
Reacting against four decades of bloodshed overreligion, Henry IV took
a historic step in 1598 toward religious toleration with the Edict of Nantes.
Underthis policy, the government recognized Catholicism as France’s official
religion. However, the policy also allowed Huguenots to worship freely in
certain provinces. This ended much ofthe religious violence in France.
However, many people rejected toleration of beliefs they found not just
wrongbut dangerous. In 1610, Henry IV, like Henry III and Henry of Guise
before him, wasassassinated. His killer was a Catholic extremist.

Decline of the Habsburgs

Like England and France, the Habsburg Empire faced deadly political and
religioustensionsin the 16th and 17th centuries. These tensions became worse
after 1556, when the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V abdicated his throne.
Troubles in Eastern Europe Charles V’s younger brother, Ferdinand,
took control empire’s eastern European lands, including Austria. Ferdinand
ruled in the middle of a 230-yearconflict between Austria and the Ottoman
Empire. In 1453, Ottoman forces had captured Constantinople, completing
their conquest of the Byzantine Empire. The Ottomans then attacked Habsburg
lands in central and eastern Europe. In 1683, the Habsburgs successfully
defended Vienna against an Ottomansiege, finally stopping the Ottoman’s
advance. The long conflict used up valuable resources of each empire,
weakening both. Asa result, Catholics lost some powerin Eastern Europe.
Troubles in Western Europe Charles V’s son, Philip II acquired his
German lands and waselected the new emperor. Philip II was wasfiercely
anti-Protestant, and he devotedhis rule to making all of Europe Catholic again.
Philip’s first conflict over religion emerged in the Spanish Netherlands,
Many members of the Dutch middle class there had converted to Calvinism.
They embraced Calvin’s emphasis on hard work. UnderPhilip’s father, the
Dutch had remained loyal. However, Philip ignored the local customs,
demandedstrict adherence to Catholicism, and raised taxes to fund exploration
in the Americas and Asia.
Then, in 1566, Philip began to persecute Dutch Calvinists as heretics.
In response, William of Orange took leadership of the Dutch resistance
movement. In 1581, underhis leadership, the seven northern provinces ofthe

40 AP®EUROPEAN HISTORY
Netherlands declared their independence and established a Dutch Republic
that was Calvinist rather than Catholic.
England’s Protestant queen, Elizabeth I, supported the Protestant rebellion
in the Netherlands. Encouragedby the pope, Philip II responded by attacking
England.Hesent the Spanish Armada,a largefleet of ships, to invade England
in 1588. Because of bad weather and the use of English fire ships (shipsfilled
with explosives, set on fire, and floated toward enemy ships), the Armada
was defeated. The English victory, like the Dutch rebellion, strengthened the
Protestant government. Such victories enabled Protestant groups to gain both
religious andpolitical strength in Europe.

The Thirty Years’ War

Religious conflicts continued in central Europe in the 17th century because
of a weakness in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg. That agreement allowed the
Germanprinces the power to determine whether their state would beCatholic
or Lutheran. However, it excluded other Protestants, particularly Calvinists,
from the same power.
In 1618, a German Calvinist leader, Frederick I, refused to accept the
Catholic absolutism of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I. The conflict
between Frederick I and Ferdinand II touched off the Thirty Years’ War.
The warhad four phases:
+ During the Bohemian Phase (1618-1625), armies of Holy Roman
Emperor Ferdinand IT defeated Frederick I at the Battle of White
Mountain, allowing Ferdinand to reimpose Catholicism in manyof the
empire’s German states and the province of Bohemia.
e During the Danish Phase (1625-1630), the Lutheran king of Denmark
took up the Protestant cause, but overwhelmingvictories by the armies
of FerdinandII enabled him to issue the Edict of Restitution, which
was designed to force Protestant princes to return to Catholicism or
pay huge sums of money for taking control of Catholic lands.
° During the Swedish Phase (1630-1635), King Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden, a brilliant military leader, took control of Protestant forces,
fundedto a large degree by Cardinal Richelieu of France, who was
the chief minister to King Louis XIII. Winning several important
victories before being mortally woundedat the Battle of Lutzen,
Gustavus Adolphus was able to reverse many ofthe gains made by the
Catholic forces in the previous phases.
+ During the French Phase (1635-1648) and with the death of Gusta-
vus Adolphus, the French entered the war directly, on the side ofthe
Protestants. The Spanish entered on the side ofthe Catholics, and this
phase saw the Frenchfighting the Spanish primarily in the northern
Germanstates, with the French ultimately gaining the upper hand.

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 41

 The Thirty Years’ War ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. This
wasa setoftreaties that included the following provisions:
° Officially recognized independenceof the Netherlands and the Swiss
Confederation
° Strengthened French, Swedish, and Germanrulers
* TookItalian regions from the Holy Roman Empire, which caused them
to focus on their traditional holdings in Central and Eastern Europe
° Confirmed Peace of Augsburg
¢ Added Calvinismas an officially recognizedreligion
Political Uses of Religion While the Thirty Years’ War wasa religious
conflict between Protestants and Catholics, it was also a political and
economicconflict. Rulers exploited the fight over beliefs in orderto strengthen
themeselves. For example, France was led by a Catholic king, Louis XII,
and his chief minister was Cardinal Richelieu. However, they sided with the
German Protestants against the Catholic Habsburgs of Austria. France was
more concerned with weakening their political foes the Habsburgs than with
rolling back Protestantism.
The Thirty Years’ War, which cost between three and six millionlives, was
the last large religious war in Europe. The Peace of Westphalia was a turning
point in European history. France had becomethe dominant continental power,
and Calvinism had joined Catholicism and Lutheranism as a majorforce.

| a

Carl Wahlbom, The Battle of Lutzen. 1632. National Museum of Sweden.

Theturmoil portrayed in this painting captured the chaos ofthe Thirty Years’ War.
Credit: Wikimedia Commons

42 AP*EUROPEAN HISTORY
Emergenceof Religious Pluralism
With the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, the religious wars of Europe had come
to end. Yet rivalries among different versions of Christianity continued, and
manystill faced discrimination and persecution for beliefs that dissented from
the official religion of their state. However, the large-scale bloodshed had
ended. European rulers had accepted that the continent would be home to
various types of Christians. These rulers accepted religious pluralism—but
not religious freedom.
Further, by 1648, the boundaries of political states and the boundaries
of cultural areas were more aligned than before the Reformation had begun.
Europe was moving toward becoming a land where most people who shared
a culture lived under the same government, and most people wholived under
a governmentshared a culture. The map of Europe was beginning to looklike
the mapoftoday.

Christians, Jews, and Muslims

Besides conflicts among Christians, Europe also suffered from conflicts
between Christians and other faiths. These began before the Reformation
had divided Christianity. In Spain, Muslims hadruled since the 8th century.
Christian armies had slowly pushed them out, with the last Muslims expelled
in 1492. Over a period of 200 years, England, France, and Spain had expelled
Jews. Most moved to Central or Eastern Europe or to the Middle East. Jews
often faced discriminatory laws and sometimes violent persecution.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: HOW GERMAN WAS LUTHER?

Just over 500 years ago, Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses at the
University ofWittenberg,inviting his fellow scholarsto a debate. Luther’s
relationship with German culture and politics has been controversial
eversince,
Unintentionally Political Writing a few years after World War II, the
British historian, G. R. Elton, portrayed Lutheras strongly shaped by his
cultural heritage as a German. In The New Cambridge Modern History,
Vol. Il, The Reformation, Elton argued that Luther saw a Roman-based
church exploiting Germans and rebelled against it. Elton focused on
political rather than cultural aspects, pointing out that the Reformation
took root only where princes and lords supportedit. To Elton, Luther
was a benefactor of the German princes seeking to establish modern
states independent of Rome’s influence. Luther himself may not have
beeninterested in politics, but his ideas provided support for those who
were.
A Friend of Germans By the early 21st century, the focus on
Germanpride shifted. Germany had evolvedinto a solid member of an
internationalist, integrated Europe that downplayed particular national

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 43

 identities. In Martin Luther: Renegade and Prophet (2016), anotherBritish
historian, Lyndal Roper, portrayed Luther as a manneither looking backward
toward a Germanpast norasa tool ofpolitical leaders. Roper focused on the
personallife of Luther as a man. She saw significance in Luther’s friendship
with those who were proud to be German. Protestantartist friends such as
Albrecht Diirer, Hans Holbein, and Lucas Cranach surrounded him. Luther
waspartof an intellectualtrend to see pridein their identity as Germansas the
answerto their problems. In the words of one reviewer, “Luther’s campaignto
‘restore’ Biblical Christianity to 16th-century Germany wasa battle for land
and national supremacy.”

KEY TERMS BY THEME

| States Peace of Westphalia the elect

| Henry VI Cardinal Richelieu Geneva
| Act of Supremacy Society Counter Reformation
Elizabeth| indulgences Anabaptists
| Concordat of Bologna Reformation Roman Inquisition
| Charles V secular Index of Prohibited
| Peace of Augsburg Christian Humanists ROBES
| Edict of Nantes Jesuits
Desiderius Erasmus
Politique Council of Trent
Thomas More
Philip Il Puritans
Martin Luther
Ottoman Empire Huguenots
95 Theses
HenryIll Henry of Navarre
Diet of Worms
War of the Three Henrys St. Bartholomew’s Day
John Calvin Massacre
Thirty Years’ War
predestination

44 AP® EUROPEAN HISTORY

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Questions 1-3 refer to the passage below.

So it was determined to exterminate all the Protestants and the plan was
approved by the queen. They discussed for some time whether they should
makean exceptionofthe king ofNavarre and the prince of Condé. All agreed
that the king of Navarre should be spared by reason of the royal dignity
and the new alliance. The duke of Guise, who wasput in full command of
the enterprise, summoned by night several captains of the Catholic Swiss
mercenaries from thefive little cantons, and some commanders of French
companies, and told them that it was the will of the king that, according to
God’s will, they should take vengeance onthe bandof rebels while they had
the beastsin the toils. Victory was easy and the booty great and to be obtained
without danger. The signal to commence the massacre should be given by
the bell of the palace, and the marks by which they should recognize each
other in the darkness were a bit of white linen tied around theleft arm and a
white cross on the hat.
—Jacques de Thou (1553-1617), French historian describing
the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, August24, 1572

1. What was the “new alliance” made by the king of Navarrethatis

referredto in the passage?
a) A marriage between the Protestant king and a Catholic princess
b) A treaty between the French monarch and Swiss mercenaries
c) A pledge by the royal family to grant more powerto each region
d) An agreement between the king and nobles to endreligious
toleration
2. Whichstatementbest describes the context in the 16th and 17th
centuries for the events described in the passage?
a) Tension between France’s central government and local governments
b) An alliance between Roman Catholics in France and Ireland
e) Emigration from Europe to North and South America
d) Violent conflict between Roman Catholics and Protestants

3. What was the relationship between the events of 1572 describedin the
passage and the Edict of Nantes issued in 1598?
a) Both were examples of deadly religious persecution.
b) Both were examples ofgreaterreligious toleration.
c) Reaction against the events of 1572 led to more persecution in 1598.
d) Reaction against the events of 1572 led to moretoleration in 1598.

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 45

Questions 4-6 refer to the passage below.

The king’s Majesty justly andrightfully is and ought to be the supreme head
of the Church of England, and so is recognized by the clergy of this realm
in their convocations... and to repress and extirpate [eliminate] all errors,
heresies, and other enormities and abuses heretofore used in the same, be it
enacted, by authority of this present Parliament, that the king, our sovereign
lord, his heirs and successors, kings of this realm, shall be taken, accepted,
and reputed the only supreme head inearth of the Church of England,called
Anglicana Ecclesia; and shall have and enjoy, annexed and united to the
imperial crown ofthis realm, as well thetitle and style thereof, as all honors,
dignities, preeminences [signs of superiority], jurisdictions, privileges,
authorities, immunities, profits, and commodities to the said dignity of the
supreme head of the same Church belonging and appertaining; and that our
said sovereign lord, his heirs and successors, kings of this realm, shall have
full powerand authority from time to time to visit, repress, redress, record,
order, correct, restrain, and amend all sucherrors, heresies, abuses, offenses,
contempts and enormities, whatsoeverthey be.
—TheAct of Supremacy,issued by the English Parliament, 1534

. How dothe ideasin this passage compare to those of Martin Luther?

a) This passage focused on the power of a monarch overa church,
while Luther focused on theology and doctrine.
b) This passage wanted church leaders to eliminateerrorsin belief,
while Lutherdid not think Christians shouldcriticize each other.
c) This passage thoughtprofits and commodities of a church belonged
to its leader, an idea that Luther agreed with.
d) This passage described a national church for English Christians, and
Luther rejected the idea of a single, universal form of Christianity.

. Which best describes the context in which the passage was issued?
a) Economic change threatened the power of English religious leaders.
b) Several countries had already established a national church.
e) Reformers on the continent were challenging the Catholic Church’s
power.
d) Europeans were becoming more tolerant of religious diversity.

. Which English monarchdid some Protestants perceive as a threat to

reverse the action taken in this document?
a) Henry VIII(reigned 1509-1547)
b) Edward VI(reigned 1547-1553)
€) Mary I (reigned 1553-1558)
d) Elizabeth I (reigned 1558-1603)

46 AP® EUROPEAN HISTORY

Questions 7-8 refer to the passage below.

Let no one think that this Commandment entirely forbids the arts of
painting, engraving, or sculpture. The Scriptures inform us that God Himself
commanded to be made images of Cherubim [a category of angel], and also
the brazen serpent. The interpretation, therefore, at which we must arrive, is
that imagesare prohibited only inasmuchasthey are used as deities to receive
adoration, and so to injure the true worship of God... .
He [the pastor] will also inform the unlettered . . . of the use of images, that
they are intendedto instruct in the history of the Old and New Testaments,
and to revive from time to time their memory; that thus, moved by the
contemplation of heavenly things, we may be the moreardently inflamed to
adore and love God Himself. Heshould,also, point out that the images ofthe
Saints are placed in churches, not only to be honored,but also that they may
admonishus by their examples to imitate their lives and virtues.
—Council of Trent: Catechismfor Parish Priests, 1566

7. Who would moststrongly disagree with the passage?

a) Charles V
b) John Calvin
c) The pope
d) King Henry VIII

8. What wasthe context in which this passage was written?

a) Roman Catholics were rejecting earlier positions and adopting the
ideas proposedby Protestants.
b) Roman Catholics were attempting to find compromises that would
persuade Protestants to accept papal authority.
c) Roman Catholics were trying to explain that they and Protestants
actually agreed on most issues.
d) Roman Catholics were defending their views against the challenges
posed by Protestants on how to interpret the Bible.

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM 47

SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Use the passage below to answerall parts of the question that follows.

The repudiation of ordination as a sacrament demolished the caste system

of clericalism and provided a sound basis for the priesthoodofall believers
since, according to Luther, ordination is simply a rite of the Church by
which a ministeris installed to discharge a particular office. He receives no
indelible character, is not exemptfrom thejurisdiction ofthe civil courts, and
is not empowered byordination to perform the sacraments. At this point what
the priest does any Christian maydo, if commissioned by the congregation,
because all Christiansarepriests.
—Roland H.Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life ofMartin Luther, 1950

a) Describe ONE way Bainton thought that Luther’s view on ordination

challenged the structure of the Roman Catholic Church.
b) Describe ONEspecific piece of evidence that supports the view that
Lutherdid not want to challenge the structure of the Roman Catholic
Church.
c) Explain ONE Roman Catholic response to Luther’s teachings that
challenged traditional doctrines.

2. Answerall parts of the question that follows.

a) Describe ONE religious cause of the English Reformation.

b) Describe ONEpolitical cause of the English Reformation.
c) Explain ONEsignificant outcome of the English Reformation.

LONG ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Evaluate the extent to which nation-states or individual rulers differed

in their attempts to resolve the conflicts between Protestants and
Catholics during the 16th and 17th centuries,

2. Evaluate the extent to which reform movements transformed Christian

beliefs or practices during the 16th and 17th centuries.

REFLECT ON THE CHAPTER ESSENTIAL QUESTION

1. In one to three paragraphs, explain how religious pluralism challenged

the concept of a unified Europe.

48 AP® EUROPEAN HISTORY

WRITE AS A HISTORIAN: USE EVIDENCE

Evidence is specific information based on facts or reasons, not a

generalized or unsupported opinion. The most accurate evidence for an
essay uses specific names ofpeople, places, and events.
Which evidence below each question would be most useful in answering
it? Explain your choice.

1. How did Protestant Reformation change Christian theology?

a. Martin Luther and John Calvin criticized Catholic teachings,
leading to new beliefs such as the priesthoodofall believers, the
primacyofscripture, predestination, and salvation by faith alone.
b. Protestant leaders charged that the Catholic Church wascorrupt
andthat its leaders used their positions to gain wealth and power.

2. How did religious reform result in increased state control of

religious institutions in England?
a. One Reformation idea was to implementa top-down approach to
centralize powerand bring aboutreligious reform.
b. The English monarchsinitiated reform that gave them more,
control over religiouslife,
Evidence mustbe relevant. It should focusontheright culture, time period,
and topic. For example, if a question asks about religious intolerance
in France, facts about the persecution of the Huguenots would be more
relevant than facts about the Versailles palace.
Foreach claim below, evaluate the relevanceof the evidence.

3. Conflicts among religious groups overlapped with political and

economic competition amongstates.
a. The Thirty Years’ War was Europe’s most deadly religious war,
but it becamealso a rivalry between France and the Habsburgs
for political domination of the European continent.
b. Members ofthe House of Habsburg ruled the Holy Roman
Empire for three centuries. During this time, they fought off both
foreign challengers and domestic opposition.

4, Theprinciple ofreligious toleration emerged overtime.

a. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) allowed princesin the Holy
Roman Empireto choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for their
subjects, but not Calvinism or Anabaptism.
b. Groupslike the Huguenots, the Puritans, and the nobles of
Polandall challenged the monarchs’ control over religious
institutions in theregionsthey lived in.

CONFLICTS OVER RELIGIOUS PLURALISM

 Exploration and Encounters
Overseas
“I believe that... you will achieve the conversion of a great numberof peoples
to our holy faith, with the acquisition of great lordships and riches and all their
inhabitants for Spain. For without a doubt there is a very great amountofgold in
these lands.”
—Christopher Columbus, Letter to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, 1493

Essential Question: How did European’s overseas explorations affect both

them and indigenous populations?

During the Renaissance, Europeans became more interested in the world

around them. Intellectuals of the time studied classical texts and observed the
natural world in orderto understandit better. By the late 15th century, educated
Europeans knew that the earth was round. Yet they hadlittle understanding
of the size of their world, as few Europeans hadtraveled beyond their own
region. This new era of exploration and expansion would have profoundeffects
on Europe and the rest of the world. However, it was more than curiosity that
sparked the era of exploration and colonization beginning in the 15th century
and continuing well into the 19th century.

Motives for Exploration

In the 15th century, Europe was not a particularly wealthy or intellectually
advanced region of the world. Two overarching reasons historians sometimes
give to explain why Europeanstates took the lead in exploration were “God
and gold.” Yet behind these reasons also wasthe desire to gain power and glory
for monarchs and emerging centralizedstates.

Christianity Stimulates Exploration

The desire of Europeans to spread and strengthen the Christian faith affected
events both within and beyond the continent. Between the birth of Jesus and
1492, Christians had spread the faith throughout the Mediterranean world and
into northern and eastern Europe. After Muslims woncontrolof Spain in the 8th
century, Spanish Christians spent the following seven centuries reconquering

50 AP2EUROPEAN HISTORY