Definition

The word athletics is derived from the Ancient Greek (athlētēs, "combatant in public games")

from (athlon, "prize") or (athlos, "competition"). Initially, the term described athletic contests in

general – i.e., sporting competition based primarily on human physical feats, but, In the 19th

century, the term athletics acquired a narrower definition in Europe and came to describe sports

involving competitive running, walking, jumping and throwing. This definition continues to be

prominent in the United Kingdom and the former British Empire. Related words

in Germanic and Romance languages also have a similar meaning.

In much of North America, athletics is synonymous with sports in general, maintaining the

historical usage of the term. The word "athletics" is rarely used to refer to the sport of athletics in

this region. Track and field is preferred, and is used in the United States and Canada to refer to
athletics events, including race-walking and marathon running (although cross country running is
typically considered a separate sport).

Historical background of Athletics

activities—running, walking, jumping, and throwing. Athletics have become the most truly

1
i
Athletics is comprised of track events, the field events and the events done on the road. s

t
Track events
.h

.
Track events can be further divided into three segments, each presenting athletes with a different
challenge. These include:

i. Running on a track over a defined distance,

ii. Running or sprinting with obstacles on the track,
iii. Relay runs or sprints.
The main objective of track events is to run from one location to another in the shortest amount of
time. The following track events list includes some of the most popular running activities:

▪ Sprints (100m, 200m, 400m)

▪ Middle distance (800m, 1500m)

▪ Long distance (3000m Steeplechase, 5000m, 10,000m)

▪ Hurdles (110/100m, 400m)

▪ Relays (4x100m, 4x400m, mixed 4x400m)

- 10km, senior men

2
 - 8km, junior men - 10km, senior
women - 6km, junior women.

Walking events
Men – 20km and 50km

Women – 20km

a
t
✓ The 400m Standard Track (the Track) has straight and curved sections of almost equal
h length and uniform bends which are most suitable to the running rhythm of athletes.
l
Furthermore, the area inside the track is large enough to accommodate all throwing events
e and a standard football (soccer) pitch (68m x 105m).
t
✓ The Track comprises 2 semicircles, each with a radius of 36.50m, which are joined by two
i straights, each 84.39m in length.
c
✓ The Track has 8, 6 or occasionally 4 lanes but the last is not used for international
running

competition. All lanes have a width of 1.22m ± 0.01m

✓ All track markings must be in accordance with the World athletics 400m Standard
Track
Marking
Plan

3
 ✓ All lanes are marked by white lines. The line on the right-hand side of each lane,
in the direction of running, is included in the measurement of the width of each lane.
✓ All start lines (except for curved start lines) and the finish line are marked at right
angles. to the lane lines.
✓ Immediately before the finish line, the lanes are marked with numbers with a
minimum height of 0.50m.
✓ All markings are 0.05m wide.
✓ All distances are measured in a clockwise direction from the edge of the finish
line nearer to the start to the edge of the start line farther from the finish.
✓ The data for staggered starts for the Track (constant lane width of 1.22m)

✓ The essential requirement for all start lines, straight, staggered or curved, is that
the distance for every athlete, when taking the shortest permitted route, is the same, and not
less than the stipulated distance with no negative tolerance.
✓ For races of 800m or less, each athlete has a separate lane at the start.
✓ Races of up to and including 400m are run entirely in lanes.
✓ Races of 800m start and continue in lanes until the end of the first bend.

L= 2P + 2π (R + 0.2) where
L = length of track in metres
P = distance between the centres of the two curves in metres (length of straights or parallels)
=84.39m
R = radius of the curves in metres (this is the same as half the length of one of the short sides of
the rectangle) =36.5m π = 3.1416
0.2 = 20cm expressed in metres (the length of the track is actually measured 20cm from the outside
edge of the inside lane marking (kerb) because it is assumed an athlete cannot run on the precise
inside edge of the track.
Where a running rail is installed the measurement of lane 1 is taken 30cm out.). Applying this
formula to our rectangle, we have: Therefore, for the first lane
L= 2P + 2π (R + 0.3)

4
{
(
x
2
)
}
3
9
.
1
4
4
5

5
 400 Metre Standard Running Track

➢ Track Length: Based on parallels of 84.39m and a radius of 36.5m, making the two turns.
➢ The measurement is taken 30cm from the inner edge for Lane 1 if there is a raised border
of 20cm if there is no border.
➢ All other lane distances are measured 20cm from white line.
➢ Lane Widths: 1 .22m wide and no more than 1.25m. When the inner edge is a chalk line:
Lane 1 measure 1 .12m.
➢ The measurement being taken from the outside edge of the marking line to the outside
edge of the marking line to the outside edge of the next line, going outwards from the
track side of the inner kerb.
➢ All semicircular curves will be equal.

6
➢ Staggers: Lanes 2-8 measurements are taken along a 20cm line from inside edge of each
lane. On the diagram, the staggers for 1 00m and 300m apply only when the straights are
84.39m and must be adjusted for tracks of other proportions.
➢ Take Over Zones: 10 m before and after the takeover scratch line in each lane.
➢ Line Width: 5cm wide
➢ Colour: White
➢ In international competition the 800 metre race is run in lanes as far as their first bend,
making the use of the staggered starts necessary.

7
: -Imaginary distance where athletes are expected to run around the 400m.It’s calculated 30cm

8
B
l
a n 1) Level /flatness of the ground.
k 2) Space/ where track can fit. e 3)
Free from obstacles.
t 4) Avoid waterlogged areas/ swampy areas/drainage.
5) Wind direction. f
6) Sun direction. i
7) Accessibility n
8) Safety of the area i
9) Spectators’ facilities
s 10) Topography of the
area h 11) Funds available
track events
– ▪ Whistle/pistol/gun/clapper board
Starting blocks
Hurdles
Steeple chase hurdles.
Flags/sign boards white, yellow and red, green.
Lap counter numbers /number cards.
Batons
Time keepers stand.
Number discs –for showing lanes.
Stop watch
Bell-to signal the last lap.
Rostrum- for winners ▪ Warning boards – for walk races.
Finishing tape.
Photo finish system for automatic timing ▪ Photo finish camera.
Transponder system on athletes’ bibs or shoe for timing.
9
1. Crouch start

a) Elongated start.

b) Medium/bullet start

c) Bunch start

(i) Straight start

This is whereby the competitors are in a straight line e.g. 100m, 110mH.
(ii) Staggered start

(a) The starter’s command.

✓ At the beginning of the race, the competitors will be placed by the starter’s assistant in
their correct lanes on the assembly line 3m behind the starting line.
✓ The starter gives the command ‘On your mark’.
✓ The competitors take their position on their lanes.
✓ The rear foot kneels depending on the crouch start.
10
 ✓ The hands are stretched alongside the body. Eyes focused forward.
✓ Hands, knees, and feet must be behind the starting line.
✓ The athlete should be relaxed, feet on the blocks waiting for the next command.

(b) Set
✓ When all competitors are motionless, the starter will command ‘Set.’
✓ The rear foot is straightened, and the weight transferred to the leading foot.
✓ Hips get in line with the shoulders or slightly higher.
✓ The athlete must retain the contact of the hands with the ground.

(c) Go/gunfire.

i) The runner should spring forward powerfully by pushing both feet against the blocks or
the ground.
ii) To build up running power, the arm opposite the takeoff leg should swing powerfully
forward as the other arm swings backwards.
It’s signalled using a green flag. The particular race is restarted.

False start

It’s an offence committed during the start of a race. The following offences amount to false start;
Leaving one’s mark with either hand or foot before the gun is fired. Taking unnecessary long to
settle into position. delay.
Disturbing fellow competitors by sound or any other means after the first command.
Penalty.
Any competitor who makes a false start is disqualified.

i) Assuming full or final set position on the command ‘On your mark’/Set’ ii) No disturbing a
fellow competitor by sound or any other means after the command ‘On your marks’
iii) A competitor should not leave the mark with the hands or feet after the command ‘On
your marks’.

11
Categories of track events

Rapidly moving from one place to another, also known as sprinting, is an action that is required in
many different sports and activities. Sprinting can be broken down into four different phases, each
distinguishable from the others by comparing three different variables. These variables are stride
length, stride frequency and ground contact time.

- 100m
- 100mH (women)
- 110mH (men)
- 200m
- 400m
- 400mH

• They are anaerobic in nature i.e. less oxygen is used.

• Started on blocks (starting block).
• Started in crouch position.
• Have three commands (‘On your mark, Set, Go’) Take a very short time to perform.
• Involve strength, power and speed.
• Result to oxygen debt.

improved through techniques and training. A sprinter ’s talent is built on the following
techniques.

12
 ▪ It’s the torso that determines the finishing of a race.

▪ Immediately after finishing the race, don’t lie down but assume a bending position with

Phases of Sprinting

1. Starting Phase
✓ The initial phase of sprinting is known as the starting block phase, ✓ The sprinter is in
contact with the blocks.
✓ This phase has the greatest amount of ground contact time, or the total time in which the
feet are in contact with the ground or blocks.
✓ This is when force production is the greatest.
✓ Thee rear leg produces force for only 45 percent of the contact time.
✓ The front leg is believed to be of more importance at the start.
✓ Your arms should be shoulder-width apart, and both the head and spine should be in
straight alignment to ensure sufficient stability and power transfer as you propel yourself
forward.
✓ Stride length and stride frequency are not factors in this phase because the sprinter is not
moving.
2. Acceleration Phase
✓ It is also known as the “transition phase” of your sprint, this is the point when your body
shifts from running with horizontal forces to primarily vertical forces.
✓ For a successful acceleration phase, the key is to achieve full leg extension for maximal
force production into the ground.

13
✓ When the sprinter takes off from the blocks, they begin to accelerate by increasing stride
length and stride frequency.
✓ The length of this phase can be anywhere from 30 to 50 meters among top sprinters during
a 100-meter race.
✓ To achieve as many forces as possible, lean forward as much as possible (typically around
40-50 degrees) throughout the acceleration phase
✓ During acceleration, the time in which the foot is in contact with the ground is relatively
long in order to generate high levels of force, but decreases as the sprinter achieves
maximum running speed.

3. Constant Speed/ The Drive (Top Speed) Phase

➢ This phase can be submaximal, maximal or supramaximal.
➢ It is characterized by both the stride length and stride frequency remaining the same over a
period of time.
➢ This phase is generally achieved between the 60 to 80 meter mark in men and 50 to 70 meter
mark in women.
➢ The top sprinters can sustain this phase over a distance of 10 to 20 meters.
➢ The difference between elite and sub-elite sprinters is the frequency of stride, demonstrating
that it is more important than the length of the stride.
➢ This is where you begin to run in a more upright position. i.e. your head starts to rise, your
spine elongates and straightens out, and your eyes are locked onto the end of your sprint
lane.
➢ At this point, you’re using a combination of momentum and muscle power to carry you
through to the end of your sprint.
➢ Sprint by presenting a high cadence/frequency of strides. With faster stride turnover, your
feet make more contact with the ground,
➢ Maintain a footstrike underneath the hip (i.e., your center of gravity). This will ensure that
you minimize any braking forces upon landing and continue at top speed.
➢ The main gist of the drive phase is to minimize any potential braking forces or points of
deceleration that could slow you down!
➢ Harness those vertical forces with each step you land and driving yourself forward.

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 4. Deceleration Phase
✓ The last phase is categorized by a decrease in sprinting speed, usually occurring between
the 80 and 100-meter mark in top sprinters.
✓ This is typically the point in a sprint where athletes run low on power and have to work
harder to stave off any fatigue or factors that may cause slow-down.
✓ Velocity begins to decrease on a scale of .5 to 1.5 meters per second and is caused by central
and peripheral fatigue.
✓ The decrease in speed is mainly caused by a decrease in stride frequency, as stride length
and ground contact time is increased when compared to the third sprinting phase.
✓ That last 20 meters can pose quite a challenge for both your physical and mental fortitude,
so be sure to apply all your effort to that final portion of the race.
✓ To help maintain that maximal force output, in your final stretch of the sprint, be sure to
achieve high knee action and plenty of arm drive (keep those elbows bent at 90 degrees).

I
n
of relay
, a) Shuttle relay e ➢ The athletes line up opposite one another e.g. two athletes up one end and
two at the r other. The first person starts with the baton, runs to the other end and passes it to the
— first runner there.
They continue back and forth until the last runner crosses the finish line. Or a competitor
runs from one point straight to another and back. No baton is carried.
15
 The exchange is done by touch and contact must be made within the clearly defined
area.
The baton is held vertically at the bottom. It is received at chest level with the receiver’s
arms outstretched and their hands creating the shape of a butterfly.

b) Medley relay
’s mainly for enjoyment and done by both genders e.g. 100m-200m-300-400m etc.

c) Circuit relay

i. 4x100m (short relay)

ii. 4x400m (long relay)
➢ These events are for both men and women.
➢ Each team has four competitors.
➢ The race involves the use of batons to be handed over from the one athlete to the
next.

Baton Exchange

This is done in the relay race, when team mates come together passing the baton from one member
to the other using the various techniques.

Checkmark

The baton exchange requires matching the speeds of the incoming and outgoing athletes so that
they are together towards the end of the change-over zone. It requires the outgoing runner to
commence their run when the incoming runner reaches a checkmark. The distance of the
checkmark from the start of the zone needs to take into consideration the following:

• running speed of the incoming runner

• reaction and acceleration capacity of the outgoing runner
16
The following is a general guide on the distance of the checkmark from the outgoing runner's
starting point:

• Men - 7 to 9 metres
• Women - 6 to 7 metres
• Children - 5 to 6 metres

A more accurate calculation of the checkmark

❖ Strict correspondence of speeds by the outgoing athlete and the incoming athlete within
the passing zone is an essential condition of a successful change-over. Consequently, the
optimum correlation of speeds of the athletes in the passing zone may be achieved using a
precisely calculated checkmark.
❖ Deciding on the position of the checkmark is a vital aspect of the relay running technique.
For this, we put a checkmark on the running track in front of the zone. The moment of
crossing the checkmark by the incoming athlete is the signal for the outgoing athlete to
start running.
❖ The method of deciding the position of the checkmark begins with establishing the exact
spot of baton exchange (25 metres into the zone). We need to determine the following:
✓ Time the outgoing athlete takes to run 25m from a standing or modified crouch
start, e.g. 3.24 seconds
✓ The time it takes the incoming athlete to run the last 25m of their leg, e.g. 2.25
seconds
✓ Difference for the two athletes, e.g. 3.24 - 2.25 = 0.99 seconds
✓ Average velocity of incoming athlete over the last 25 metres, e.g. 25 ÷ 2.25 =
11.11 m/s.
❖ With the difference in time (0.99 secs) and the incoming athlete's average velocity
(11.11m/s), we can work out the checkmark as 11.11 x 0.99 = 10.99m
❖ The reaction of the outgoing athlete to the incoming athlete hitting the checkmark must
also be considered. Investigations with top-class athletes indicate that this reaction time is
+0.20 seconds. By the time the outgoing athlete commences their running, the incoming
athlete will have travelled 0.20 x 11.11 m/s = 2.22 metres which will mean the outgoing
athlete will begin from a shorter start of 10.99 - 2.22 = 8.77m rather than the calculated
10.99m. The checkmark, therefore, needs to be placed at 10.99 + 2.22 = 13.21m
17
 ✓ For 4 x 100m Circular Relays, there is a 30m takeover zone in which the baton must be
passed. There is a 20m takeover zone for 4 x 400m relays.
✓ For the Swedish Relay, the 30m takeover zone for the 4 x 100m and 4 x 200m and 20m
takeover zone for the 4 x 400m are used for baton passing.

✓ If the baton is dropped, the athlete who dropped it must pick it up.
✓ Athletes may leave their lane to do this as long as they do not interfere with any of the
other runners on the track.
✓ Once the baton has been retrieved, the athlete can return to their lane and continue with
the race from the point at which the baton was dropped.

When will a team be disqualified?

✓ If the baton is thrown between runners.
✓ If the baton is not carried by hand the whole way.
✓ If an athlete interferes with any other competitors.
✓ If the baton is not changed in the 30 or 20m takeover zone.

A baton should be a smooth hollow tube made of metal or wood.

It shall be coloured to make it visible.

Length =28-30cm
Circumference =12-13cm
Weight =50g

✓ Non-visual exchanges are used for shorter events that are run at full speed.

✓ In these events, athletes will use a block start for the first leg.

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✓ In a relay, the mechanics and technique used for a block start are the same as in other
sprinting events. The one difference is that the athlete must hold the baton.

✓ All parts of the athlete's hands must be behind the starting line, but the baton may extend
beyond the line.

✓ The baton is held at one end with the pinky, ring, and middle fingers holding the baton
against the palm of the hand. The thumb and index fingers form a bridge to support the
upper body.

✓ For athletes who are too small to hold the baton with this grip while in the blocks, an upright
starting position is advisable.

✓ At the starting command, the first runner accelerates to full speed and races toward the first
exchange zone.

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 Baton exchange is done within the takeover zone/box. Each take over zone is 20m long
with the scratch line at the centre.

✓ The zones shall start and finish at the edge of the zone lines nearest the start line in the
running direction.
✓ Takeover zones for the second and last takeover in 4x400m will be the normal 10m lines
either side of the start/ finish lines.
✓ For the first take over the outgoing runner remains at scratch line.
✓ In 4x400m relay the first lap as well as part of the second lap will be run entirely on
individual lane until after the first bend where break line is drawn.
✓ 2nd, 3rd x 4th runners are not allowed to commence running outside take over zones.
✓ Members of the team other than the 1 st runners may commence running not more than 10m
outside the takeover zone.
✓ Each athlete is designated to run100m/400m, but this changes depending on where the
baton is being handed and taken over.

• The baton shall be carried by hand throughout the race.

• The baton shall be passed literally to the next person and should not be hurled (thrown
Failure to pass the baton properly, or losing the baton may result in disqualification.

• If dropped the same athlete should pick it.

• The passing of baton shall take place with the changeover box.
• A competitor after passing the baton shall not escort the fellow competitor but waits for
the area to clear and then leaves the track.
• In 4x400m, in the1st round the competitor shall maintain his/her lane throughout.
• Each team shall have 4 competitors and shall wear identical uniforms.
• For a team to win the last competitor (anchor) must have a baton with him/her.
• The competitor receiving the baton is allowed to move within the changeover box but
not beyond the acceleration zone 10m.
• Athlete who willingly impedes (block) members of the opposing teams will be
disqualified.

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 ✓
• Pushing or assisting during the exchange is not allowed.
• At the end of the race, the baton must not be thrown away in triumph or disgust.

Start here ******HPE201

Types of Baton exchange (a) Non-Visual Exchanges
❖ A non-visual exchange means that the runner who is going to receive the baton will not see
the baton place into his or her hand. Non-Visual Exchanges or hand-offs are commonly
used in 4x100m relays. This means that four runners run 100m each to complete the race.
Typically, the athlete running the first leg carries the baton in the right hand and passes it
to the second runner's left hand. the second runner will pass it to the third runner's right
hand who will bring it to the fourth or anchor leg's left hand. This pattern is however not
mandatory as coaches may decide to allow athletes or teachers allow students to pass and
receive the baton in the hand that they are comfortable using.
❖ Non-visual exchanges are used for shorter events and so a block start will be used for the
first leg. This is the same start used in other sprint races with the exception being the baton
in the hand of the athlete. In this case, all parts of the athlete's hand must be behind the
line, but the baton maybe extended beyond the line.
❖ Once the outgoing athlete has seen the incoming athlete reach the checkmark, they will
start as if reacting to the starting gun in a sprint race. The incoming athlete will call 'Hand'
when they are in a position to pass the baton to the outgoing athlete safely. The outgoing
athlete puts back their hand, the incoming athlete places the baton into the hand, and the
exchange is complete. The outgoing athlete does not watch the baton into their hand, hence
non-visual.
b) Visual Exchanges: This exchange is used when doing long distance relays as it is
not a requirement for runners to be at top speed. This exchange requires receiving
runners to looking back for help.

(a) Non-Visual Exchanges (i) Upsweep Pass

The outgoing runner's (receiver’s) hand should be extended at waist height with palm
facing down forming inverted V-shape slightly behind the hip

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 ✓ The other fingers held together and facing away from the body
✓ The Incoming runner extends the hand behind the outgoing runner at hip height with their
palm facing down.
✓ The incoming runner then swings the baton up in the outgoing runner's hand placing it
between the thumb and fingers.
✓ The outgoing runner grasps the baton and accelerates away

Advantages

This is a standard position for the receiving hand.

Disadvantage

It may require some manipulation of the baton in hand to make the next exchange safely.

(ii) Down Sweep Pass

➢ The outgoing runner holds the receiving hand back with the palm facing up with the
thumb forming a V-shape turned towards the torso.
➢ The arm is straight and held higher than the hip
➢ The incoming runner uses a downsweep motion to place the baton in the runner's hand.
➢ The outgoing runner reaches back and receive a third of the baton that is swung
downwards by the incoming runner.

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 ✓

➢ This method will require no manipulation of the baton to make the following baton
exchange safely.

➢ It is not a natural position of the outgoing athlete's hand to receive the baton.

(iii) Push Pass

➢ The outgoing runner holds the receiving hand at shoulder height with the thumb down
➢ The palm facing the incoming runner, and the fingers pointing to the inside of the track.
➢ The incoming runner holds the baton straight up and down and pushes the baton into the
hand.
➢ Team mates rely on spoken words to organize passes.

A
s

23
 The incoming runner can easily adjust the baton's position up, down or sideways and
observe the outgoing runner's hand take hold of the baton.
✓ It will require no manipulation of the baton by the outgoing runner to safely make the
following baton exchange.
✓ It is perhaps the safest method of baton exchange

✓ It is not a natural position of the outgoing athlete's arm and hand to receive the baton.

(b) Visual Exchange

• Receiver has good visibility of the incoming runner.

• He is protected from crowding during exchange.
• Athletes starting position is balanced and relaxed.
• There are less chances of button being knocked out of hand.

Selection of team members

The performance in the relay event primarily depends upon the baton exchange's perfection and
the team's sprinting ability. For the selection of athletes for the different relay legs, it is sensible to
find their capacities for a particular section (the second and third runners cover longer distances).
Establishing each athlete's full potential for running sections on the straight and around the bend

24
 ✓
is also advisable. These individuals' abilities must be considered in deciding the running order of
a relay team, considering the following:

- Good is starting /reaction time.

- Good in curves.
- Good in handing over the baton.
- Very fast.

- Good at receiving and handing over the baton.

- Runs well in the straight
- Possesses sufficient speed endurance.
- The athlete should perhaps be a 200 metres specialist.

- Good at curves.
- The sprinter must be confident and reliable in receiving and passing the baton, - Possess
sufficient speed endurance.
- The athlete should perhaps be a 200 metres specialist.

- Good at receiving the baton.

- Good in running straights.
- Good in fast acceleration.
- Good finisher.
- Very fast.
- Has a high degree of competitive spirit.

25
 outgoing runner is on the inside, and the 2nd runner is on the outside and fatiguing! With
more distance to cover, you only have once chance to get it right. Being a right handed
3rd “leg ”, this is why Usain Bolt prefers the 3rd leg

Hurdling races

▪ 100m H(women)
▪ 110m H(men)
▪ 400m H(men and women)

26
 of the line
hurdles

A competitor shall only clear the hurdles on his/her lane.

A competitor shall not trail the leg around the hurdle.
A competitor shall not deliberately knock down the hurdles. If it is an accident, there
is no penalty
A hurdler’s whole body must clear the hurdle
When standard hurdles are used a competitor may knock down as many hurdles
without being penalized.
The first person to cross the line with the torso is the winner; the leg or the arm does
not count.
No avoiding any hurdle or go through or under the hurdle.

in hurdles?

27
 ❖ False start
❖ Intentionally knocking over the hurdles
❖ Trailing the foot/leg along the horizontal plane
❖ If the runner goes outside the assigned lane
❖ Avoiding the hurdle by going round it in any way

Start

✓ The takeoff can be from the balls of the foot.

✓ Place the take-off foot about 10-20cm from the base of the hurdle depending on the speed
and this should be consistent in all clearances.
✓ Quickly pick up the thigh of the leading leg to the chest as one clips forward at the waist.

28
✓ Give a simultaneous backward swing of the opposite arm and should as one goes over the
hurdle

✓ It is a continuation of take off

✓ The toe of the leading leg is kept up and the heel is thrown up the hurdle.
,

✓ Use opposite arm/opposite leg action over the handle (syncronised)i

✓ sprint over the handle and not jumping over it.s

✓ Maintain good spin rhythm between the handles.

✓ Avoid overstraining or galloping which results when one fails to get a good step off the
hurdle with the trailing leg.

- Depending on the ability and height of the athlete, landing is about 1m or more from the
base of the hurdle.
- Land on the ball of the foot of the leading leg.

- Little speed is lost during clearance

- Speed to the first hurdle is paramount
- Keep shoulders facing the event and land on as bent leg

29
 ✓ Steeplechase in athletics is a footrace run over an obstacle course that includes such
obstacles as water ditches, open ditches, and fences.
✓ Runners of the standard course face a total of 7 water jumps and 28 hurdling jumps. Hurdles
are 91.4 cm (36 inches) high, and one of them, which has a top bar of 12.7 cm (5 inches),
is placed immediately in front of the water jump, which is 3.66 metres (12 feet) long.
✓ A competitor may jump, vault, or stand on the hurdles.
✓ The hurdles numbered 3 and 4 are positioned after the competitors have passed by on the
first lap.
✓ Competitors run outside the water jump on the first lap.

C a - Men -3000m t -
women -3000m e-
2000m
g - Introduced to women in 1996 o r - It requires, strength, stamina of
5000m and speed of 1500m runner and hurdles skill.
i - Hurdles are made of heavy timber so that are they are not overturned
easily. e s

o
f

Water jumps should have floor.

✓ Water jump hurdles must be firmly fixed.

✓ To go over the barrier a competitor may jump, hurdle, vault by placing the hands on
the barrier, or step on it.

30
 ✓ A keen competitor steps in the barrier with one foot and step on the shallow water with
the other foot.
✓ The competitors concentrate as he approaches the barrier.
✓ He keeps his body low as he pivots his supporting leg.
✓ Places the sole of the supporting foot firmly on top of the hurdles.
✓ In 3000m steeplechase, there are dry 28 jumps/dry hurdles and 7 water/wet jumps in
3000msteeple chase 3000m/400=7.5laps ✓ In the first 270m, there is no barrier.
✓ 7 laps are run with barriers.
✓ In total there are 35 times jumping over barriers.
✓ In the 2000m steeplechase race has 18 barriers and five water jumps.

Steeplechase barrier height

There’s a difference when it comes to the height of the barriers in the steeplechase for men and
women. The barrier heights for men are 0.914m (36in) and the barrier heights for women are
0.762m (30in).

31
32
- Stepping on either side of the jump.
- Trailing the leg or foot around the hurdle.
- Avoiding a hurdle.
- Failing to go over or through the water
- Trails his foot or leg below the horizontal plane of the top of the hurle

➢ These are races started at the same linee.g.800m, 1500m (middle distance), 5,000m,
10,000m (long distance).
33
➢ NB: In 800m when competitors are many, the event is done in heats and started on staggers.
They are expected to run on their lanes for 120m after which they can get in to the inner
lane. This is to minimize congestion.

• They take longer time to finish.

• Covers long distances
• They involve both cardio-vascular and muscular endurance.
• They are aerobic in nature.

➢ Only two commands are given ‘On your marks’ and ‘Go’.
➢ During the ‘On your marks’ position, the athlete should lean forward with a bend at the
knee of the leading leg.

- These are races started on different points. For these races balloting of lanes is done.
- When the number of competitors is greater than the lanes, the races are done on heats and
then finals.

1. A competitor shall maintain his/her lane when the track events demand so e.g.100m,200m
and 400m etc.
2. A competitor shall not obstruct his/her opponent e.g. pushing, blocking the way etc.
3. A competitor shall not run inside the track or move out of the track and come back again
to resume the race.
4. A competitor shall overtake to the right of the opponent unless there is enough space to the
left.
5. All the competitors shall be registered by the recorder.
6. Running shall be done anti-clockwise. This is because it is easier to negotiate curves on the
left as opposed to right.
34
 7. Each competitor shall wear a Number and colour allocated to his/her team.

T h e

o
r
d
e
r

i
n

w
h
i
c
h

35
This is taken from the smoke or the flash of the gun or any approved apparatus to the moment any
part of the torso comes over the finishing line. Every competitor shall be timed by 3 timekeepers
and in the event of the times disagreeing the middle time is taken. When taken by 2 timekeepers
and the time disagree the longer time is taken.

1. Hand timing.
2. Fully automatic timing and photo finish.
3. Timing by transponder system (for races out of stadium).

✓ Race walking, or race-walking, is a long-distance discipline within the sport of athletics

which is different from running in that one foot must appear to be in contact with the ground
at all times.
✓ Walking is a progression of steps taken with unbroken contact with the ground maintained.
✓ The advancing leg must be straightened from the moment it touches the ground to the
moment it reaches a vertical position i.e. When each step of the foot is on the ground, the
leg must be straight in vertically upright position and it is supposed to be a heel-toe
movement.
✓ Race walking is an event contested in all levels of the sport of track & field, from youth
athletics up to and including the Olympic Games. Race walking combines the endurance
of the long distance runner with the attention to technique of a hurdler or shot putter.
Producing less impact, this technically demanding event continues to grow in popularity
across the younger and older age groups for its fitness and competitive aspects.
✓ Race judges carefully assess that this is maintained throughout the race.
✓ It is held on either roads or running tracks
✓ The common distances range from 3,000 metres (1.9 mi) up to 100 kilometres
✓ There are two race walking distances contested at the Summer Olympics: the 20 kilometres
race walk (men and women) and 50 kilometres race walk (men only) ✓ Both are held as
road events.

36
Categories of walking races

Olympic race walking

➢ Race walking made its debut at the Olympics in 1904 at St Louis, USA, but it was clubbed
as a part of the ‘All-Around Championship’ - today’s version of the decathlon.

37
 ➢ It made its debut as a standalone sport at the 1908 Games in London as a men’s event,
featuring a 3500 metre and a 10-mile race walk.
➢ A 10km short-distance walk was introduced at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm
and the 50km long-distance event made its first appearance at the 1932 Games in Los
Angeles.

➢ The Olympics has a 20km race walking category for both men and women. The 50km
category, however, is only for men.
➢ The 20km, the second category under short distance, was introduced at the 1956 Olympics
in Melbourne.
➢ A women’s category was eventually added at the 1992 Barcelona Games in the form of a
10km event. It was upgraded to the 20km at Sydney 2000.
➢ As things currently stand at the Olympic Games, men and women compete in the 20km
short distance category while the 50km long distance features only men.

Stages of Walk race

i) Double support: -Where one foot is landing on the ground as the other is about to leave
the ground.
ii) Traction Stage: - where the leading foot steps down using the heel as the other foot
comes forward then makes contact with the ground.
iii) Relaxation stage: - point where the centre of gravity is not fully on landing leg.
iv) Drive stage: - pushing off from the ground.

Refreshments

➢ Ensure that the knee is straightened before the heel makes contact with the ground.
➢ Get full rotation of the hips with each stride.
➢ Carry the arms loosely across the body for balance.
➢ Keep the head steady without turning from side to side.
38
 ➢ No flights in walking.
➢ Move in a straight line to avoid wasting time and increasing distance.
➢ The longer the stride the better the results.
➢ Maintain rhythm of movement throughout the whole distance.

ing
➢ In a walk race, each judge should be independent and rely on his own observation. He
shouldn’t seek the opinion of other judges.
➢ Judges ranging from five to nine, depending on the category of the event, inspect the race
with their naked eyes. They carry paddles with symbols for ‘loss of contact’ (~) and ‘bent
knee’ (<).

yellow colour

yellow in colour

Disqualification is red in colour NB:

39
➢ For road races there should be a minimum of 6 judges and a maximum of 9 judges.
➢ For track races there are 6judges.
➢ I n
• Obstruction
• Dragginga
• Hopping or trotting (run at a moderate swift pace)
• rMomentarily running
o
• Lifting both feet in the air
a
• Creeping or limping
d

r
➢ Participants will be cautioned with a white flag if they contravene the rules i.e. break of
a
contact to ground.
c e
➢ The same judge will not caution an athlete twice for the same mistake ➢ Each caution
constitutes a warning.
➢ If three judges offer the same opinion for loss of contact or bent knee during any part of
t
the competition the athlete is disqualified.
h
➢ Disqualification is communicated to the competitor by the Chief Judge using a red flag
e
immediately.
➢ During the race signs are used, i.e. A yellow board with the mistaken drawn.
r
➢ A red flag is used by the Chief Judge after the third warning on disqualification, the
o
competitor leaves the track and in case of a road race, he/she must remove his number
u
immediately
t
➢ Races must take place and end during day time. e

s
h
o
➢
T
h
40
i
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41
a
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42
 c
.

➢ T
Hh
Ye
➢ PHThe course shoul d be designed on an open or woodland area covered by grass with
natural EYHobstacles, which can be used by course designer to build a challenging and
interesting c racecourse.PRYo
➢ PLEThe area must be wide enough to accommodate not only the course but all the
necessaryu
IERfacilities.r
➢ LRNThe course should be clearly designed using a tape on both sides.s
➢ LKIf necessary, a small loop can be added in order to adjust the distances to the required e
INoverall distance of the various events in which case the same loop must be run in the ea,
rly "KNstages of the event. hKt
t"y

t"hHp
Course design
➢ phYtiA course may include natural or artificial obstacles,
➢ tsPccross country courses support continuous running,

➢ Ept:aIt does not require climbing over high barriers, through deep ditches, or fighting

through spR/lthe underbrush, as do military-style assault courses.

➢ :sL/lThis is an event where competitors start by making one lap on the athletic track and
then /:Ieyfollow a marked course of track with red flags (right side) and white flags (left
side).

➢ /nN A course of at least 5 metres wide full allows competitors to pass others during the
race.
➢ ./eK3Clear markings keep competitors from making wrong turns, and spectators from
interfering enw–with the competition.

43
➢ n .i"Markings may include tape or ribbon on both sides of the course, chalk or paint on the
k.whground, or cones. itHw tkYpi
ke
Pi
p
Ep
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➢
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44
di
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,

45
an
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or
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46
ou
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47
 m
et
er
or
ea
ch
mi
le.
➢ The course should have 400 to 1,200 m of level terrain before the first turn, to reduce
contact and congestion at the start. However, many courses at smaller competitions have
their first turn after a much shorter distance.
➢ The course should also have a corral or chute (funnel) after the finish line to facilitate the
recording of finishing positions.

✓ In cold conditions, long-sleeved shirts and tights can be worn to retain warmth without
losing mobility.
✓ The most common footwear are cross country spikes, lightweight racing shoes with a
rubber sole and five or more metal spikes screwed into the forefoot part of the sole.
✓ Spike length depends on race conditions, with a muddy course appropriate for spikes as
long as 25mm.
✓ If a course has a harder surface, spikes as short as 6 millimetres may be most effective.
✓ While spikes are suitable for grassy, muddy, or other slippery conditions, runners may
choose to wear racing flats, rubber-soled racing shoes without spikes,

❖ Courses for international competitions consist of a loop between 1750 and 2000 meters.
❖ Consist of three to six loops, depending on the race.
❖ Senior men and women compete on a 10 kilometre course.
❖ Junior men compete on an 8-kilometre course
❖ Junior women compete on a 6-kilometre course
❖ C
❖

48
❖ Distance is determined by age and sex.

➢ Started by firing a gun.

➢ Commands used are for long races(‘On your mark’ and ‘Go’)
➢ The athletes assemble at the starting point and the member of each team lines up behind
each other.
➢ The starter should ensure that the athletes have chest numbers.

• The best way to finish a cross country is the funnel. -

• After entering the finishing area/funnel the athlete is given a number by the position judge.
The athlete will take these number to his team recorder.
• The team recorder will record the first four members of team in order of arrival and take
the result to the chief recorder.

• To avoid congestion at the finish.

• To avoid overtaking once the athlete closes the finishing line.
• For more accuracy and fair positioning of athlete in order of arrival.
49
The top five finishers of each team score.

The sum total of the place numbers of the first five runners from a team is its score in a meet. For
example, if members of a team place 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th and 10th, those numbers are added together
to give the team a score of 31 points (3+4+6+8+10=31).

a
t
t
a

UM
n

ir

50
vu

e
e.g. Between University of Nairobi and Meru university, Meru takes second position because
rU sn
their last winning athlete is position14, while for UON is position 16 Strategy and tactics
i ✓ Coaches and cross-country runners debate the relative merits of fast starts to get clear of
tv the field, versus steady pacing to maximize physiological efficiency.
ey ✓ Some teams emphasize running in a group in order to provide encouragement to others on
r2 the team.
,s ✓ While others hold that every individual should run his or her own race.
i4 ✓ Run ahead 'of the pack' or behind it and pull ahead in the end is important, but can vary
,t according to the runner's individual skill, endurance, and the length of the race.

7y
,
1=36 – 1st runners up

0
2

e measures the course and prepares the assembly, pens, scum funnel, and recorders’ desks.

51
– He or she checks the results sheet against the position cards and records the final position of

This can be either St. John’s Ambulance or Red Cross Society. These official are to give first aid

52
fficials’ hand over tot eh Guest of Honour the prizes and/or certificates to be awarded to individual

➢ The standard distance for both men and women shall be 10km, 15km, 20km, half marathon
and full marathon and road relay.
➢ It is a road race for both women and men.
➢ Half marathon, 21km, full marathon, 42km.
➢ The races are done on made up roads.
➢ The start and finish may be within athletics arena or stadium.
➢ The distance to be covered is announced to the athletes every 5km of the race.
➢ Road safety is ensured for all competitors.
➢ After 15km they get refreshment points, water points are also placed after every 5 km.
➢ Sponging is allowed in marathon to help in preventing dehydration.
➢ This is individual event.

• Mombasa
• Nairobi Standard Chartered
• Lewa-Meru
• UAP Ndaka-ini

53
 ndividual and team’s trophy awarded

t r a c 5 events done by junior men and

women. k Takes one day.
Long Jump, Javelin, 200m, Discus, 1500m. a n

d Category for women. Consists of seven

events.

f Held in two days i Day1; 100mH, Shot Put,

High Jump, 200m.
e Day2; Long Jump, Javelin, 800m l d
Category for men. Consists of ten
events
Held In Two Consecutive Days
Day1; 100m, Long Jump, Short Put, High Jump, 400m.
Day2; 110mH, Discus, Pole-vault, Javelin, 1500m
Octathlon –Boy’s youth.
Boys event.

54
 8 events done in two days.
Day1-100m, Long Jump, Shot Put, 400m.
Day2 -110mH,High jump, Javelin, 1000m

• There are intervals of 30 minutes between events.

• Athletes compete in groups.
• Long jump and throwing events have three chances.
• In track events two false starts lead to disqualification.
• Failure to participate in one event leads to disqualification.
• The winner is the competitor with the highest number of points.

1. Chairman of the meeting:

• Normally head of the institution
• In charge of the meeting
• Sees smooth running of the programme
• Checks on the officials and substitutes where necessary
• Settles disputes
2. Guest steward
• Normally deputy head of institution in case of institutions competitions
• Welcomes guests of honour and other guests
• Minds about their sitting and feeding arrangement
3. Organizing secretary
• Corresponds to other team officials
• Responsible for programmes
• Certification

55
 • Invitation cards
4. Technical manager (clerk of the course)
• Ensures that field is marked before meeting and according to required standards.
• Ensure that equipment are of the required weight and are available.
• Prepare score sheets and result cards before meeting.
5. Referee:
• Ensures that the rules are observed.
• Settle any disputes
• Checks on the final results.
• Decides when judges fail to agree.
• Has power to disqualify competitors with improper conduct.
• Allocates duties to judges of particular events.
• He signs the result cards at the end of each event before handing them over to the recorder.
6. Chief time keeper
• Assign duties to assistant timekeepers.
• Collects stop watches from the clerk of the course and returns them back.
• Gives signal to the starter when other timekeepers are read by use of flags
• Decides the official time for each competitor in case of disagreement between assistant
timekeepers' times.
• Signs the time keeping cards before handing them over to the chief track judge.
• Instructs other timekeepers to clear their watches.
7. Time keeper
• Answerable to the chief time keeper
• Times the races and keeps the records of each athlete i.e. they must have records of time
taken by each athlete to finish the race
• Must have a clear view of both starter and finish line.
8. Chief track judge
• Allocates duties to the other track judges..
• Controls his officials.
• Signal the starter when judges are ready by use of flag.
• Makes final decision on placing competitors when watches have the same reading or
disagree.

56
 • Helps to run the programme, he can change the position of the track event in the
programme.
• Ensures that stationery and track score cards are available.
• Ensures that track equipment are available and in good condition i.e. buttons ,huddles, water
jumps
• Solves disputes that may arise in the track e.g. if an athlete gets into somebody's lane or
drops his baton
• Signs the result card at the end of each track event before handing it over to referee.

9. Track judges
• Decide the order in which the competitors finish the race i.e. place competitors in the order
of their finish.
• In case of dispute, they refer it to the chief track judge.
• Stand at different points in the field and watch the competition closely and incase or
violation of rules in either track or field events they report to the referee: e.g.
a. They supervise the relay take over boxes to ensure that baton is exchanged within the
proper -zone so that there is no obstruction.
b. Ensure that athlete keeps to their lanes throughout the competition.
c. Ensures that the competitors clear the hurdles or steeplechase hurdle dearly.
d. Acts as walk judges and communicates by use of flags once they notice any infringement.

10. Field judges

• In charge of various field events. Usually there are 2 judges per event assisted by other
officials.
• Calls names of competitors.
• Records performance.
• Controls the spectators and keeps the field clear.
11. Starter
• Starts the races/track events.
• Signals to the chief track judge.
• Controls all competitors at the start of race
• Disqualifies the competitor for false start
57
 • Keeps programme running to schedule

12. Starter assistant /Marksman /recallers

• Assembles athletes in their correct lanes.
• Assists the starter in supervising the start of races.
• Signals starter when all are in 'on your marks.’
• Indicates starter’s failure (fault start) by raising a green flag.
• Indicates false start and who the offender is by raising the flag.
• Prepares batons in relays.
• Enforces the rule of ‘on your marks’.
• Checks that the athletes are competing in the right heat.
• He has the flags- White:- go ahead - Yellow- warning - Red - disqualification -Green – fault
start
13. Marshals (call room judges)
• Gives competitors notice to prepare.
• Registers all competitors by taking their names.
• Checks competitor bib numbers.
• Assembles athletes at the starting point.
• Ensure that all teams are represented in the race in case of a big meeting.
14. Walk judge
• Ensures that athletes follow the walk rules, gives warning and communicates to the chief
walk judge.
• Chief walk judge disqualifies the participants.
15. Lap scorer
• Minimum of 2 in any race.
• Keeps records of laps covered by each competitor in each race.
• Indicates to the competitor the number of laps remaining after each lap.
• Rings the bell to inform the athlete that only one lap is left.
16. Announcers
• Call athletes to start the event.
• Announce results.
• Announce new records set.
• Help keep programme running.
58
 • Silences the spectators at the start of the race
• Gives spectators information of what is going on in the field and gives them any
important information e.g. arrival of important guests, what event is going on etc. 17. Recorder
• Collects the full results of each event.
• Relays the results to the announcer.
• Records the results of each event together with time, height, distance covered by athletes.
• Allocate points depending on position of athletes going by the result from the track arid
field events e.g.

18. Prize and certificate stewards

• Ensures that certificates are awarded to the winners after each event is over.
• Make proper arrangements for the trophies to be awarded at the end of the day by the guest
of honour.
19. Refreshment steward
• Provides drinks during the meeting.
• Feeds guests and officials during the meeting.
20. Hurdles stewards
• Ensures that the hurdles are available before the race starts.
• Places the hurdles during the hurdles races and removes them after the event.
• Adjusts the hurdles for different sex and ages.
21. First aider
Gives the competitors the necessary first aid.
22. Black board officials

23. Wind Gauge Operator

Operates the wind gauge and keeps records of wind direction throughout the competition.
24. Team Manager
• In charge of his team.
Ensures that all requirements are ready e.g. uniform, meals and transport.

59
 • Keeps the team informed of what is going on e.g. events in progress and what to follow.

Keeps the team psychologically motivated.

• In charge of the registration of the team at the time of competition.

Launches any complaint on behalf of the team.

25. Chaperon
• In charge of ladies/female affairs
• Provide psychological boost and encouragement.
• Provide materials needed.
• Gives exercise for physical fitness.
• Gives skills to the athletes.
• Enhances maximum performance during competition.

26. Trainer/Coach
• Gives tactics to the athletes.
• Gives skills to the athletes.
• Enhances maximum performance during competition
• Their duty is mainly to discuss and solve disputes, objections or any other problem that
may arise in the course of the competition.
• To make final decisions in case the officials cannot solve out problems
27. Jury of appeal
• Consists of 3- 5 or 7 people.
• Their duty is mainly to discuss and solve disputes, protests, objections or any other
problem. that may arise in the course of the competition which are referred to them for
decision making.
• They make final decisions in case the officials cannot solve out a problems.

• Chairman of the meeting

• Chief track judge
• Chief field judge
• Clerk of the course/secretary of the organization.
• Referee of the meeting

60
 • Match past.
• Theme of the sports i.e. our spirit in motion.

FIELD EVENTS
SHOTPUT
Shot put is an athletic sport in which a spherical weight is thrown, or put, from the shoulder for
distance.
The shot is made of solid iron or brass, although any metal not softer than brass may be used
Shotput Weight

Men

Open - 7.26kg

Under 20 - 6kg

Under 18 - 5kg

Under 17 - 5kg

Under 16 - 4kg

Under 15 - 4kg

Under 14 - 3kg

Women

Open -4kg
61
Under 20 - 4kg

Under 18 - 4kg

Under 17 - 4kg

Under 16 - 4kg

Under 15 - 4kg Under

14 - 3kg

Shotput throwing area

A 34.92-degree sector shall be marked on the ground.
The putting circles shall have an inside diameter of 7 feet (2.134 meters).
The circumference shall be marked with a metal, wood or plastic band which shall not rise more
than 1.9 cm above the level of the circle; or, if the circle has a surface of asphalt, concrete, wood
or other hard material, a painted line 5cm wide may be substituted for the band.
A concrete surface with a (1 millimeter) roughness is recommended. centimeters) in height and
11.4 cent in width. The inside edge of the line or band is the limit of the putting circle. Radial lines
2 inches (5 centimeters) wide shall extend from the center of the circle to form an area into which
legal puts must be made. The inside edges of these lines shall mark the sector and the lines shall
be placed equidistant from the ends of the stopboard. Projecting lines, 2 inches (5 centimeters)
wide and 8 inches (20 centimeters) long, lying on the diameter extended and outside the
circumference, shall be used to designate the back half of the throwing circle

62
(a) Holding the shot (Grip)
✓ Ball (shot) held on first joints at the base of the fingers.
✓ Three middle fingers comfortably spread behind the shot.
✓ Thumb and little finger on either side for balance.
✓ Lies slightly towards the index finger and thumb (stronger side of the hand).
✓ Placed into the neck, resting on the collar bone and underneath the jaw.
✓ Palm of the hand up and slightly facing towards the left.
As the thrower becomes more experienced and his technique improves, he will be able to hold the
shot higher up on the fingers and a little further out of the palm.

63
(b) The glide
(i) Preliminary movements of Glide:
✓ Relax momentarily and concentrates on the sequence of movements that follow.
✓ raise the left leg backwards along the line of the direction of put.
✓ At the same time body bends forward from hips
✓ Body horizontal and parallel to the ground in a “t” position over the right leg.
✓ Left thigh now brought in towards the right leg and then swung up and backwards towards
middle of stop board.
✓ Overbalance backwards driving off the right leg and foot.

(ii) The final Glide

✓ Right foot snapped quickly across the surface as soon as completes it back drive.
✓ Right foot must land with the toes directed not less than 45o to the rear around the centre
of the circle.
✓ Left foot should land in line with the heel of the right foot.
NB: the distance across the circle to where the foot lands will depend on a number of factors. i.
Height of the athlete
ii. Speed across the circle
iii. Amount of run backward
iv. Generals strengths and the athlete

(c) The delivery

▪ Right foot land before the left
▪ Remain looking back as body lifts as long as possible ▪ Right
shoulder and elbow begin to lift high.
▪ Rotation of the shoulders should come as late as possible.
▪ When shoulders are almost square to the front the right arm comes
in with a powerful thrust.

64
(d) The reverse
The reverse should never be attempted until it is required or such time as the athlete is putting so
well that he finds himself falling out of the circle at the end of his put. To execute this: -
✓ As soon as the shot leaves the hand make a quick shift of the right leg forward to land next
to stop board.
✓ At the same time left foot leaves ground and balances backwards.
✓ This should be extremely fast.

Rules regarding putting a shot / Legal throws

✓ Upon calling the athlete's name, they have sixty seconds to commence the throwing
motion.
✓ The athlete may not wear gloves; however, world athletics rules permit the taping of
individual fingers.
✓ The athlete must rest the shot close to the neck, and keep it tight to the neck throughout
the motion.
✓ The shot must be released above the height of the shoulder, using only one hand. The ball
is to be put (i.e. pushed), not thrown with an overhead motion. At no time may the shot
move behind the plane of the shoulders.
✓ The athlete may touch the inside surface of the circle or stop board, but must not touch the
top or outside of the circle or stop board, or the ground beyond the circle. Limbs may
however extend over the lines of the circle in the air.
✓ The shot must land in the throwing sector, which is a circular sector of 34.92° centered on
the throwing circle. The throwing sector has been narrowed multiple times over the years
to improve safety,
✓ The athlete must exit the throwing circle from the back half of the circle.

Foul throws occur when an athlete

✓ Does not pause within the circle before beginning the throwing motion.
✓ Does not begin the throwing movement within sixty seconds of having his or her name
called.

65
 ✓ Allows the shot to drop below his shoulder or outside the vertical plane of his shoulder
during the put. At any time if the shot loses contact with the neck then it is technically an
illegal put.
✓ During the throwing motion, touches, with any part of the body (including shoes):
➢ The top or ends of the stop board
➢ The top of the iron ring
➢ Anywhere outside the circle.
✓ Throws a shot which either falls outside the throwing sector or touches a sector line on the
initial impact.
✓ Leaves the circle before the shot has landed.
✓ Does not exit from the rear half of the circle.

Allotment of putting
✓ The first three rounds of throws are taken by each competitor in an order determined
randomly at entry registration.
✓ The top 8 throwers, once established, will have three more attempts in order of increasing
distance.
✓ The final rankings will result from all 6 attempts.
✓ The competitor's best throw from the allocated number of throws, typically three to six, is
recorded, and the competitor who legally throws the shot the farthest is declared the winner.
✓ Ties are broken by determining which thrower has the longer second-best throw. NB: If
any disputes or problems arise, consult the Field Referee

2. Discus

Discus throwing area

1. Layout

- The discus throw includes a throwing circle, protective cage and landing sector.
- They are located near the ends of the back straight and the landing sector is
located in the grass area inside the track.

66
 - The facility for discus throw, near the 1500m start, is usually combined with a
facility for hammer throw.
- The only difference is the diameter of the throwing circle is 2.50m for discus
throw and 2.135m for hammer throw.
- The protective cage must meet the more stringent requirements for hammer
throwing.
- If two separate discus and hammer circles are placed within the hammer
protective cage, then the discus throw circle is the circle closer to the landing
sector.

2. Throwing circle

- The throwing circle is made of band iron, steel or other suitable material, the
top of which is flush with the ground outside or the synthetic surface or
concrete surround.
- The interior of the circle is constructed of concrete and must not be slippery.

67
3. Safety cage

- The discus and hammer are thrown from a combined facility.

- In those instances, the higher standards required for hammer throwing apply
to the protective cage design.
- To provide greater safety it is desirable to extend the netting on the side of
the cage nearer to the track further than 7m from the centre of the circle
and/or increase the height of the netting for the last 2m.

4. Landing sector

- The landing sector consists of cinders or grass or other suitable material

with an even surface soft enough to ensure that the place of the initial fall
of the implement can be clearly established by the judges.
- The landing surface must not allow the implement to bounce backwards,
thus creating a risk that the measuring point is obliterated.
- The landing sector is laid from the middle of the circle with an angle of
34.920 and marked by 0.05m wide white lines, the inside edges which
form the boundary of the sector.
- The length of the sector is 80m. Its angle of 34.920 will be attained if the
two sector lines at a distance of 80m are spaced 48m apart.

Combined discus and hammer throw cage

68
Throwing teaching points (a) Stance
i. Stand at the back half of the circle facing away from the direction of the throw
ii. Feet should be slightly wider than the shoulder width apart. iii. Swings
are few, relaxed and rhythmical.

b) The Hold (grip)

▪ The discus is usually held not gripped
▪ Hold discuss loosely in the hand so that the end joints of the fingers wrap around the discuss
rim.
▪ It should rest against the flat part of the hand.
▪ Fingers spread comfortably.
▪ Pads of the first joints rest over the metal rim.
▪ Thumb lies flat along the plate and act as a stabilizer.

(c) Preliminary swings

- Position of thrower at the rear of the circle facing opposite direction.
- Feet shoulder width apart on either side of line of throw.

69
- Discus facing downwards.
- Two or three preliminary swings to the shoulder level.
- Left arm folds comfortably across the chest.
- At the end of its forward swing it can be received in the left hand.
- Trunk kept erect during swings.
- Weight moves easily from one foot to another.
- At back swing the left leg flexes at the knees and the heel rises.
- On forward swing left leg straightens while right leg flexes and the heel rises.

(d) The turn:

- Hips displaced from the feet.
- Shoulders displaced from the hips.
- Arms and discuss displaced from the shoulders.
From such a position the thrower explodes powerful into the throw with each part of the body
adding its force as the previous force finishes.
As the discuss moves back on its last preliminary swing the thrower should:
❖ Turn the left foot, knee and hip in the direction of throw.
❖ Shoulders kept back
❖ Left arm wrapped across the chest.
❖ Body weight moves over the left foot.
❖ Right foot remains on the ground as long as possible.
As the thrower overbalances allowing the upper part of the body to get a head of the left foot: a.
Left leg drives.
b. Right thigh staying compact and close to the left.
c. As left foot leaves the ground both feet momentarily lose contact with ground.
d. Right foot lands approximately on the centre line with leg bent.
e. Left leg moves rapidly to the front of the circle.
(e) The throw
- Start with a forward and upward drive from the right foot.
- Fast turn right foot to drive the hips round ahead of shoulder.
- Shoulder comes in slightly after the hip - Arms strike from the low point.

70
- Keeps a whole body going forwards as long as possible.
- The discus leaves the hand in line with the Starts with a forward and upward drive from the right
foot.
- The discus leaves the hand in line with the right shoulder and squeezed out the fingers.
- Spin off the first finger last.

(f) The Reverse

The reverse is only required after a good throw where the thrower has driven has body weight well
ever the left foot on delivery.
It is best not to teach it until such time that the athlete is throwing well enough to require it. When
this is achieved after the discus has left the hand the thrower will have to reverse the feet rapid and
lower the body weight to maintain balance.
- The right leg brought forward quickly.
- The right leg planted close to rim of the circle.
- Left leg swings back.

Competition Rules
1. The discuss shall be thrown from the circle and from a stationary positions
2. The order of trials shall be drawn by lot.
3. Once a competition begins to throw, he should not touch the ground outside the circle or
on the top of the line of the circle with any part of his body
4. A competitor shall leave the circle form a stationary position when the implement has
landed, and he shall do so through the rear half of the circle.
5. For valid trial, the implement must land within the sector lines.
6. Measurement is taken from the nearest mark under by fall of discuss of the inside of the
circumference of the circle through the centre of the circle.
7. Only the official accepted implements are allowed for competition purposes.
8. No device of any kind shall be allowed, as to give undue advantage to any competitors.
Leather belt may be worn to protect the spine. No gloves may be used for firm grip.
9. Implement must be carried back to the circle and never thrown back.

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 10. Each competitor is allowed 6 trials. Where there are more than competitors, the first 3 trials
are used to select the best 8 competitors who are allowed the next 3 trials.
11. A competitor is credited with the best of all his throws. Safety precautions
✓ Enclose the discus circle: Use a cage to enclose the discus circle and consider extending a
fence to protect other areas.
✓ Position the Chief Official: The Chief Official should stand outside the cage and on the
right-hand side of the ring for a right-handed thrower.
✓ Wait your turn: Wait for your turn from behind the cage.
✓ Don't walk across the sector: Don't walk across the sector while a discus is in progress.
✓ Don't walk through the middle of the stadium: At a competition, don't walk straight across
the middle of the stadium to get to your event.

Other general safety precautions for sports include:

✓ Wearing the correct safety gear and equipment
✓ Ensuring the playing environment is well lit and appropriate for the sport
✓ Enforcing safety rules
✓ Staying hydrated during and after sports

72
3. The Hammer

73
Basic skills Qualities of a good hammer thrower
- Rotational speed.
- Strength.
- Agility
- Co-ordination.
- Keen sense of rhythm
- The turning speed increases the centrifugal force of the hammer, which if well managed
increases the distances of the throw. It is equally important to learn to maintain the largest
possible radius of the hammer’s path.
There are three phases in hammer throwing:
- The swings
- The turns
- The delivery

a) Stance
i. Stand on the back of the circle
ii. Face behind the throwing area. iii. Be relaxed. Feet should be
shoulder width apart.

b) The Grip
✓ Hold the handle in the palm of the left hand (Right handed person)
✓ The hammer should be placed on the ground outside the right foot, while holding the handle
in the palm of the left hand, and the right hand closed on top.
✓ The holder remains two-handed throughout the throw
✓ Gloves may be worn on left hand to prevent wear and tear.

c) Swing
i. Start the swing from one side to the other e.g. Right to left.
ii. Get the longest radius by stretching arms to the full
iii. Bend the knees but keep the trunk straight and upright
iv. Move the hips to maintain the balance during the swings

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d) The Turn
(Three swings are enough to start the turn)
✓ Start turning as the hammer comes in front of you.
✓ The weight form the right toes is transferred o the left and the hips continue to turn ✓
The left should be kept flexed.
✓ The right foot then lands on the toe, as it completes the turn, the right hip should be
pressed forwards ahead of the hammer during the last quarter of each turn.
✓ Three or four turns are usual depending on one’s ability to turn. ✓ The best knees still
maintained (sitting like position)

e) Delivery (Release)
Two to three turns are enough to release the hammer
✓ When the thrower has turned well, the thrower should arrive at the end of the last turn with
the hips pressed forward, and the hammer stretched way back on the right, and the body
weight over the left leg.
✓ The delivery originates as a sharp lift with the legs, and finished off the arms.
✓ The arms should be kept straight and moved close to the body as the hammer makes its
final pass in front of the thrower.
✓ Face hammer as it flies
✓ The balance is maintained as the right foot follows through for another step.
✓ The secret in long throws is the speed, power, relaxation and balance with which they are
delivered.
Competition Rules
1. The order of trials shall be drawn by lot
2. Each competitor shall be given 6 trials, where there are more than a competitors, the first 3
trials are used to select the best 8 competitors who are subsequently allowed the other 3 trials.
3. A competitor is credited with the best f all his throws.
4. Gloves for protection of hands are permitted but must show finger tips. Other devices to give
undue advantages to competitor are allowed. Leather belt may be worn to protect the spine.
5. The hammer is thrown from the circle and from a stationary position.
6. During the swings the head of the hammer may touch the ground outside the circle.
75
7. A competitor is not allowed to touch the ground outside the circles or the top of the line of the
circle with any part of his body.
8. A competitor may interrupt his throw only once during any one trial.
9. If the hammer breaks in the sir it shall not be counted as a trial
10. A competitor must not leave the circle until the hammer has touched the ground. He shall then,
from standing position leave from the rear half of the circle.
11. For a valid fall, hammer must face within the sector lines
12. Measurement must be taken from the nearest mark made by the fall of the head of the hammer
to the inside edge of the circle through the centre of the circle.
13. Hammer must be carried back to the circle, and not to be thrown back.

Safety Precautions
✓ Inspect the hammer: Before using a hammer, check it for damage, such as a loose head
or cracked handle. A damaged hammer can break easily and cause injury.
✓ Wear eye protection: Always wear safety glasses or goggles to protect your eyes from
splinters and other debris.
✓ Grip the hammer correctly: Hold the hammer close to the end. Gripping it incorrectly
can lead to hand injuries like bruising, pinched fingers, or broken bones.
✓ Strike squarely: Always hit the work surface squarely with the hammer face.
✓ Avoid striking hardened objects: Never strike hardened objects like a wrench or another
hammer with a hammer.
✓ Keep your work area clean: A cluttered workspace can lead to accidents.
✓ Check your footing: Make sure you have secure footing, especially if you're using a
hammer tacker on a roof or at high elevation.
✓ Start with a light blow: When driving nails, start by holding them near the head and hitting
them with a light blow.

4. The Javelin

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(a) In order to avoid accidents a safety sector covering the landing area must be roped off at a
height of approximately 1m and at a minimum distance of 2 m outside the sector lines.
Competitors must be given instructions that implements must be thrown during practice only from
the area or tie immediate vicinity thereof. Implements must be returned by hand during practice of
competition and must not be thrown back to the starting area.

77
 The referees or other appropriate official should disqualify from competing in the event any
athlete who willfully disobeys the above instructions after having his attentions drawn to them.
No practice throws shall be allowed after the competition has begun.
(b) The competition may be decided in either of the following two ways the conditions should,
if possible, be printed in the programme and must be explained to the competitors before
the competitions begins.
(i) Each competitor being allowed three trials or,
(ii) Each competitor being allowed three trials and the three to six best competitors being
allowed three more trials.
NOTE: - In National and Area Championships up to eight competitors may be allowed the
three trials.

c) Each competitor shall be credited with the nest of all his trials.
d) No competitors may place, or cause to be placed, any mark within the Throwing Section.
e) Shall use only those implements provided for general use. Subject to any regulation laid
done by the promoting Body, a competitor who wishes to use his own implement must
submit it to the Referee for approval and when it has been approved it shall be available
for the use of all competitors. When markers are used to indicate the nest throw of each
competitor and to show record distances they shall be placed on a line or tape outside the
sector.
f) Gloves may not be worn.
g) No device of any kind – e.g. the taping of fingers- which can assists a competitor when
making a throw shall be allowed.
NB: The use of tape to cover injuries to hand on wrist will be allowed if the referee is satisfied on
medical or other evidence that the tape is necessary.
h) (i) In order to obtain a better grip, competitors are permitted to use an adhesive substance
on their hands only.
(ii) In order to protect he spine from injury a competitor may wear a belt of leather or some other
suitable materials.
i) Provided that if in the course of a trial the rules have not been infringed, a competitor may
interrupt a trial once started, may lay his javelin down, return to a stationary position and
begin a fresh trial provided that there shall not be more than one interruption in each trial.
78
j) A foul throw or letting go of the javelin in an attempt shall be reckoned as a trial.
k) The scratch line must be clearly marked on the ground by chalk, or otherwise, and all
measurements must be made from the nearer edge of the mark first made in the ground by
the point of the javelin to the inside edge of the javelin are along a line from the point of the
fall to the centre of the circle of which the arc is a part.

A steel or fibre-glass tape should be used for measurement, and that part of the tape showing the
distance thrown must be held by the official at the scratch line. Alternatively approved measuring
measurement equipment may be used. The distance shall be recoded to the nearest 2 cm below the
distance covered, i.e. fractions below 2 cm must be ignored.
l) For a valid throw the javelin must land so that the point from which measurement is to be
made is within the edges of lines marking the sector or set out on the ground by extending
the lines from the centre of the circles of which the area is a part, through the points at which
the arc joins the lines marking the runway.
m) No marks shall be placed on the runway but competitors may place marks at the side of the
runway.
n) The javelin must be held with one hand only, and at the grip, so that the little or fourth finger
is nearest to the point. The javelin shall be drawn over the shoulder or upper part of the
throwing arm and must not be slung, or hurled.

Non orthodox styles are not permitted. At he same time after preparing to throw, and until the
javelin has been discharged, may the competitor turn completely round so that his back is towards
the throwing arc.
o) A competitor may not cross either of the parallel lines forming the runaway.
p) A competitor throw must not be marked and measured if he steps on that arc or extend scratch
line or if he crosses the scratch line on the ground marked at any time, before a fair throw
has been indicated by the judge at the throwing end.
q) A competitor shall not leave the runway until the javelin has touched the ground and he shall
then, from standing position, leave the runaway from behind the arc and the lines drawn from
the extremities of the arc at right angles to the parallel lines which define the runaway.
r) No throw shall be valid in which the tip of the metal head does not strike the ground before
any other part of the javelin.
79
Javelin specifications:
✓ The runaway shall be marked by two parallel lines 4 metres apart and he throw shall be
made from behind an arc of a circle drawn with a radius of 8 metres, such arc shall consist
of a sharp made of wood or metal painted white 7cm in width, painted white and shall be
flush with the ground.
✓ The runway should be level and the minimum length 30metre. For international and major
competitions the length of the runway shall not be more than 36.5 m and not less in 35 m.
✓ The outer ends of the sector lines should be marked with flags. It is recommended that the
extremities of the extensions of the scratch line should be marked with shall flags.
Safety measures
Javelins are pointed at both ends and long; they are liable to be dangerous. Remember, in order to
avoid accidents:
a) Always carry the implement safety (Javelin upright).
b) Do not swing or play about with implements.
c) Always throw in one known direction only.
d) Throw only when the area is clear or people.
e) Do not go to retrieve your implement until every one has thrown.
f) Javelins not in use should be kept away.
g) Never allow a javelin to be thrown back, always carry it back; when retrieving a javelin,
pull it out of the ground in the reverse direction it has struck. Do not bend or try to pull it
out at any angle.

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 SCORE SHEET
Throwing and Jumping for Distance Men/Women
Meeting …………………………… Event
…………………. Heats/final………………

Name No. Team Throw or jump Best Plac

throw e
or jump

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th

Field Judge remark Signed: _________________

______________________________ Field Referee: ____________
______________________________ Venue: __________________
_______________________________ Date: ___________________

Release results immediately to the Chief recorder.

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5. Long jump Introduction;
Efficient long jumping has been described as a compromise. This is because neither maximum
running speed nor spring is attained at take off. The aim of the jumper is therefore to reach the take
off board at the higher speed which he can control and convert into vertical lift. Even the world’s
best jumpers, many of whom are outstanding spinters, take off at speeds considerably less than
their top sprinting speeds.

The long jump event may be broken down into the following aspects of technique. 1.
Approach run
2. Take off.
3. Flight and style in the air.
4. Landing.

(i) Approach
This is dependable highly on the strength of the athlete, his ability to run at top speed and his
strength. The athlete must be able to keep constant stride, with high knees. He should be able to
run very fast (Sprinting with speed) keeping a constant stride.
(ii) Take off
✓ This is done at a constant high speed and should be continuous with the approach.
✓ Place the jumping foot in front of the body weight and slightly towards the centre line.
✓ As the athlete comes over his take off foot the opposite leg knee is bent and swung rapidly
forward and upright to gain momentum and is also opposite arm to this leg.
✓ Take off should be as fast, powerful so as to create a forward rotation of the body.
(iii) Flight
• Move the arms and legs at the centre of gravity to alter body shape in the air.
• If an athlete looses balance in the air then the result is very poor landing probation
where the legs and feet are forced to drop prematurely the reducing the length of the
jump.

(iv) Hitch kick o Running exercise is continued in the air. o Legs

performing one of two strides and a half running strides. o

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 Before coming together and forward for landing. o Movement
comes from the knees and the hips.
o Arm work independently of each other contributing balance of body flight.

(v) The hang

• Athlete swings the non-jumping leg back.
• Straightened at knee after take-off to join the take-off leg in an extended position.
• Body remains in this extended position until body legs are brought through together bent
at knee and then straightened and extended forward for landing.

Competition rules
1. The order in which the competitors take their trials shall be drawn by lot.
2. Each competitor shall be credited with the best of all his jumps.
3. Where there are more than eight competitors, each competitor shall be allowed three trials and
he eight competitors with the best jumps shall be allowed three additional trials. In the event
of a tie for eight places, any competitor so trying shall be allowed the three additional trials.
Where there are eight competitors for fewer each competitor shall be allowed six trials.
4. If a competitor takes off before reaching the board it shall not be for that reason counted as a
failure.

Instances when participant’s trial is regarded invalid

i. Touches the ground beyond the take-off-line with any part of the body, whether running up
without jumping or in the act of jumping.
ii. Take off from outside either end of the board, whether beyond or behind the take-off line
extended.
iii. In the course of landing, touches the ground outside the landing area nearer to the take-off
than the nearest break in the landing area made by the jump.
iv Employs any form of somersaulting

Take-off Board
1. The take-off shall be marked by a board sunk level with the runaway and the surface of the
landing area. The edge of the board which is nearer to the landing area shall be called the take-
83
 off line. Immediately beyond the take off line there shall be placed a board of plastacine or
other suitable material for recording the athlete’s footprint when he has foot-faulted. If it is not
possible to install the above apparatus, the following method should be adopted immediately
beyond the take-off line and across all the length of it over a width on the 100 millimeters the
ground shall be sprinkled with soft earth or sand, at an angle of 30o to the horizontal.
2. The distance between the take off board and the end of the landing area shall be at least 10
metres.
3. The take-off board shall be not less than 1 metre from the edge of the landing area.
4. Construction. The take-off board shall be made of wood or other suitable rigid material and
shall measure 1.2 m to 1.22m long, 198mm to 202mm wide and maximum 100mm deep.
5. Indicator Board: This shall consist of a board covered with plastacine or other suitable material
on the top surface. The surface shall rise from the level of the take off board nearer the landing
area.
6. When mounted in this recess, the whole assembly must be sufficiently rigid to accept the full
force of the athlete’s foot. The surface of the board beneath the plasticine shall be of a material
in which the spikes of an athlete’s shoe will grip and not skid.
7. The layer of plastacine can be smoothed by means of a roller or suitably shaped scrapper for
the purposes of removing the foot prints of the competitors.

NOTE: It will be found very helpful to have spare plasticine boards available, so that while the
footprints are being eliminated, the competition is not delayed.

Landing Area.
The landing area shall have a minimum width of 2.75 metres and the runaway shall, if possible,
be so placed that the middle of the runway, if extended would coincide with the middle of the
landing area.

NOTE: When the axis of the runway is not in line with centerline of the landing area, this shall be
achieved by placing a tape which shall de-limit a landing area which has the same width on either
side the central axis of the runway prolonged.

84
Measuring
All jumps shall be measured from the nearest break in the landing area made by any part of the
body or limbs to the take-off line, or take-off line extended. The measurement must be taken
perpendicular to the take-off line or its extension.
In order to ensure the correct measurement of any jump, it is essential that the surface of the sand
in the landing areas should be accurately controlled so as to be level with the top of the take-off,
board.

6. Triple Jump Summary (a) Approach

The distance gained highly demands on the approach and its control. It also depends in the
accelerating ability. The approach just like in-long jump is one of his most important aspects in
obtaining good take-off.

(a) The Hop

The athlete should continue with the rhythm during the entire run. The hop is an extension of the
run.
1. The running take-off can create forward rotation but the rotation is off set by a straight leg
sweep back which causes the trunk to straighten thus putting the jumper in an upright balance
landing position at the end of the hop.
2. As the hopping leg passes the ‘free’ leg the thigh is lifted parallel to the ground.
3. The foot is slung out and back making a contact with the ground just in front of the centre
gravity.
4. Arm action can be “natural” or double arm action where arms act more as balancers of the leg
action.

(c) The Step

1. Drive knees up and downward vigorously. Legs gain maximum drive and extension from the
ground.
2. Pull the heel in while the knee of the rear leg is tucked under the body in mid flight.
3. Bring both arms to the rear in order to use a double arm action at the jump take-off.

85
(d) The Jump
1. Try to gain height.
2. Try to land with legs outstretched, trunk learning forward slightly arms to the rear, then as you
pivot over your heels throw the arms vigorously forward.

Activities
1. Stand at the top of run up with both feet.
2. Try to run fast, then walk then run to check mark.
3. Keep constant strides 14-16 gradually accelerating counting every stride.

Competition Rules
1. The order in which the competitors take their trials shall be drawn by lot.
2. Each competitor shall be credited with the best of all his jumps.
3. Where there are more than eight competitors each competitor shall be allowed three and the
eight competitors with the best jumps shall be allowed three additional trials. In the event of
a tie for either place, any competitor so trying shall be allowed the three additional trials.
Where there are eight competitors or fewer, each competitor shall be allowed six trials.

NOTE: trying means, in this connection clearing the same distance

The hop shall be made so that the competitor lands first upon the same foot as that from which he
has taken off in the step, he shall land on the other foot from which subsequently, the jump is
performed.
Failure:
1. If the competitor while jumping touches the ground with the leading leg it shall be considered
a failure.
2. In all other respects the rules defining failure for the long jump shall apply.

The Runway:
- The runway has a minimum width of 1.22 metres. The maximum length proved for the runway
shall be 40 metres.

NOTE: Where conditions permit the runway should not be shorter than 45 meters.
86
- The maximum allowance for lateral inclination of the runway should not exceed 1:100 and the
overall inclination in the running direction 1:1000.

- No marks shall be placed on the runway but a competitor may place marks (supplied by the
organizing committee) along side the runway. No marks shall be placed in the landing area.
Once a competition has begun, competitors are not permitted to use runways for practice
purposes.

Take-off Board.
- The take-off shall be marked by a board sunk level with the runway and the surface of the
landing area, and placed at least 13 metres from the landing area. The edge of the board which
is nearer to the landing area shall be called the take-off line. Immediately beyond the take-off
line, there shall be placed a board of plasticine or other suitable materials for recording the
athlete’s footprints when he has foot-faulted.

- If it is not possible to install the above apparatus sprinkle the ground or the sand.
- The distance between the take-off board and the end of the landing area shall be at least 21
metres.

- The take-off board shall be not less than 13 metres from the edge of the landing area.

- Construction. The take-off board shall be made of wood or other suitable rigid material and
shall measure 1.21 to 1.22m long, 198mm to 202 mm wide and maximum 100 mm deep. It
shall be painted white.

- Prasticine indicator board. This shall consists of a rigid board, 98mm to 102 wide and 21m to
21.2 m long, covered with plasticine or other suitable material on the top surface. The surface
shall rise from the level of the take-off board at a angle of 30o in the direction of the running to a
maximum height above the take-off board of 7mm, The board shall be amounted height above the
take-off board of 7mm, The board shall be mounted in a recess of shelf in the runway, on the side
of the take-off board nearer the landing area.
87
- When mounted in this recess, the whole assembly must be sufficiently rigid to accept the full
forces of the athlete’s foot.

- The surface of the board beneath the plasticine shall be of a material in which the spikes of an
athlete’s shoes will grip and not skid.

- The layer of plasticine can be smoothed off by means of roller or suitable shaped scraper for
the purpose of removing the footprints of the competitors.

- NOTE: It will be found very helpful to have spare plasticine boards available, so that while
the footprint is being eliminated the competition is not delayed.

Landing Area
The landing area shall have a minimum width of 2.75 metres and the runway shall, if possible, be
so placed that the middle of the runway if extended would coincide with the middle of the landing
area.
NOTE: When the axis of the runway is not in line with the centerline of the landing area this shall
be achieved by placing a tape which shall de-limit landing area which has the same width on either
side of the central axis of the runway.

Measuring
- All jumps shall be measured from the nearest break in the landing area made by any part of the
body or limbs to the take-off line, or take-off line extended. The measurement must be taken
perpendicular to the take-off line or its extension.
- In order to ensure the correct measurement of any jump, it is essential that the surface of the
sand in the landing area should be accurately controlled so as to be level with the top of the
take-off board..

7. The High jump

- Ninety percent of height obtained is due to that indefinable quality called spring and he other
factor is the models of bar clearance or layout.
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- The two popular techniques employed by high jumpers today are the flosbury flop and straddle.

(a) The Fosbury Flop

This technique was made popular by the 1968 Olympic high jump champion Dick Fosbury of the
United States. At the same time Debbie Brill of Canada evolved her own technique which has
come to be known as the Brill bend. The techniques is characterized by a take off from the foot
furthest from the bar followed by a back layout of the body across the bar resulting in a back
landing on a soft raised landing area.

One of the great advantages of the Fosbury flop is that it allows the jumper to think in terms of
achieving greater vertical lift which is the aim of all high jumpers. The added speed of the approach
run must be so controlled so that the jumper is not driven into the bar, but is able to convert his
running speed into vertical lift at take off. Basically the event may be divided into the following
aspects:

(i) The Approach:

The approach run is measured from A the high jump stand to a point B in line with the stand. This
distance depends on the angle of approach. From B a measurement is taken to a point perpendicular
to AB. This distance depends upon how many strides the jumper is going to use.

The run is started with a 2 of 4 strides walk on to a check mark and in a straight line at an angle of
70 degrees with the curve beginning on the third or fourth last stride.
A 7 or 8 stride approach after hitting the check mark is sufficient for the novice and sometimes
even the experienced international, as great strength is required to control the extra speed resulting
from a longer run. Therefore the approach run must develop speed that is optimum for the strength
and technique of the jumper at that time.

(ii) The take off

The jumper running “tall” with the hips high and forward accelerates into the final three strides.
There is only a minor settle in the quick permitted to step and a small knee bend in the final stride.
The foot plant should be along the line of his run which, because of the curve, will be a shallow
angle of less than 25 degrees.
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One of the problems of t he Fosbury technique is to avoid being driven forward and achieve a near
vertical lift at the take off.

This is accomplished by lifting bent, swinging leg up and in relation to the take off curve inward.
The arms play an important role in the high jump take off. They contribute to the overall lift and
balance of the jumper. Jumpers vary in their use of arm action at take off. Some adopt a techniques
which may be described as a continuation of their running arm action while others adopt a very
effective ‘double arm shift’ which involves a drastic modification of the running arm action to
effectively swing both arms upwards and towards the bar while the take off foot is in contact with
the ground.

(iii) Clearance
A relaxation of the whole body becomes obvious immediately after the take off. Both legs are
relaxed but bent at the knees and the hips pushed out to facilitate a good arch. The clearance of the
power legs involves critical timings as the hips must clear the bar before the head and shoulders
are lifted up and the knees straightens and the feet cleanly lifted over. The jumper lands on his
back.

(b) The Straddle

In this technique which was popular until the advent of the flop technique, the jumper takes off
with the nearest foot to the bar and clears the height facing the bar to land on his side.

(i) The Approach Run

- The direction of the approach run can greatly influence the jumpers take off rotational over the
bar. Therefore side approach with a recommended angle 0f 25 to 35, degrees if recommended as
it allows the jumper to use his free leg swing at take off more effectively.
- The speed of approach has a definite influence on the jumper’s springs and contributes to greater
range of movement, force at take off and sufficient speed to clear the bar.
- Speed in the approach run can be obtained by either:-
a) A comparatively slow beginning and a marked acceleration over the last three strides.
b) A rapid increase in speed from the start with less acceleration before takes off.

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- The jumper uses a long striding run with the body in a semi-crouch. The majority of high jumpers
use a preliminary walk on to a check mark and use between seven and nine strides and a check
mark two strides from take off.

(ii) The take off

The take off is prepared for by changes in the length and the rhythm of the last strides of the run
up. The take off that is placed in front of the jumper at a distance which gives his free leg and arms
time to start the thrust upwards from the take off leg. To achieve this position there must be a
backward body lean by pushing the hips forward and slightly upward.

(iii) Bar clearance

The high point of the jump must coincide with crossing the bar. It is pointless to have the high
point in front of the bar and knock it off coming down to land or to have the high point beyond the
bar and dislodge it on the way up to the high point.

Parallel Bar Clearance

- The jumper spreads his leg as an aid to clearing the take off leg (trial leg).
The trial leg is turned outward at the hip joint, led by the knee and toes. The knee of the leg should
not be straightened, but rather it should remain bent (thus further from the cross bar).
- The jumper’s face and chest turn completely towards the bar, so that he is face down and parallel
to the bar.
- The arms initially ahead of the body are not to the sides near the trunk. The inner arm should not
be tucked between the chest and bar, while the outside (right arm in this case) arm performs a
rowing type action upwards as the high jumper turns his shoulders counter clockwise, causing
his hips to move clockwise in reaction as an aid to clearing the bar with his trial leg. Incline the
head toward the chest for if lifted up it would force the hips down on the cross bar.

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Basic mistakes
1. (a) Insufficient speed at take off
(b) Bringing the hips forward too early
(c) Avoid lowering the hips too early as it makes the execution of the last step very difficult.
2. The most common technical error met at take off is to bring the take off leg high and place it
forcefully on the ground with accented support on the heel. A rational method requires moving
the take off leg low over the ground with a motion forward and away from oneself.

NETBALL EPE 104

COURSE OUTLINE

1. History and development netball

2. Development of Netball in Kenya

3. Dimensions, layout and markings

4. Skills

5. Rules and regulations

6. Strategies and tactics

7. Minor/conditioned games

8. Officials and their duties.

ASSESSMENT (50%)

1. CAT (2)..…….. ………….…………………………………..………….15%

2. Theory exam……………………………………………………………10%

3. Practical Exam…………………………………………………….……25%
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REFERENCES

1. Physical Education Teachers Guide By Jomo Kenyatta Foundations Form 2 2. Physical

Education Teachers Guide By Jomo Kenyatta Foundations Form 3

HISTORY

- Netball was started in USA in 1891

- Method of playing was similar to basketball

- Two baskets would be placed on each end of the gymnasium where two opposing
teams with equal number of players would pass the ball to score in these baskets -
Rings were introduced in 1897

- The first draft of rules was drawn in 1901.

- Netball Federation was formed in 1924.

- The game spread in England in 1895 having been introduced here by Dr. Tole
Nesmith an American.
- In 1926 the England Association was formed.

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DEVELOPMENT OF NETBALL IN KENYA

It was introduced by missionary centers and European schools in 1920s. By 1940s most schools
played the game and this way it spread to most parts of the country.

The Kenya Netball Association was formed in 1960 and headed by a British lady who at the time
was P.E. Lecturer at Kenyatta College (K.U).

International Federation of Women Netball Association was formed in the same year and new rules
introduced.

Kenya Netball Association currently manages the game locally.

The game is played by both men and women.

EQUIPMENT:

The Court

Shall have a firm surface

Divided into three equal parts- centre third and two goals thirds by two transverse lines. All lines
are parts of the court and shall be 5cm wide

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GOAL POSTS:

- Place the goalpost in such a way that its back is at outside of the goal line - Supports
of goalposts should not project in to the court.
- Check DA behind

BALL:

Shall be netball, 690mm – 710mm in circumference

Weights shall be 400-450 grams

Shall be made of leather, rubber or the similar material

PLAYERS

- May wear shoes or boots (not spiked)

- Should wear registered playing uniforms which shall include playing positions
initials e.g. GK, GA, GS, etc.

- Jewelers not allowed. Wedding ring shall be taped

- No adornment that may endanger players shall be worn. Finger nails shall be short

and smooth
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DURATION OF THE GAME:

- 4 quarters of 15 min each

- Rest time between 1st and 2nd quarter and 3rd and 4th shall be 3 min - Half
time shall be 5 min i.e.
- 15-(3)-15-(5)-15-((3) – 15 min

- Game could be played within two halves of 20 min each if a team is playing two or
more matches or time is limited.
- Rest time shall be 5 min. i.e. 20-5-20min.

- The added time must be played within the affected quarter or half - Penalty pass or
shot must be *continuer if time has ended.

THE TEAM

There shall be 7 playing positions: GS, GA, WD, WA, C, GD, and GK.

A team may take the court with 5 players but one must be a centre

Maximum numbers of players registered for the match is 12 and one must be a captain.

Substitutions from the 12 registered players is unlimited.

LATE ARRIVALS

- A late arrival may take up position in the court if it was not filled; immediately after
a goal has been scored or at a stoppage but not when the game is in progress.
- If the late arrival infringes the above rule a free pass of the opposing team is
awarded where the ball was when play was stopped.
- Player concerned leaves the court until a goal is scored or after the next interval.

SUBSTITUTIONS AND TEAM CHANGES

Substitutions – when player leaves the court and is replaced by another.

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Team Change – when players in court change playing positions

Done at intervals, stoppages or after a goal.

Infringement leads to a free pass and the player concerned leaves the court.

STOPPAGES

Attention to the injured player should last for two minutes during which time is held.

Restarting Play

- Throw in if ball was out

- Toss up if umpire cannot make decision or ball was on the ground

- Penalty pass or shot if stoppage was due to obstruction or contact

- Free pass

Blood policy

- Time is held to attend to a bleeding player

- Wound must be covered

- Blood stained clothes must be removed and cleaned - Ball and court shall be
cleaned if necessary

EMERGENCIES

Umpire may stop play for extra ordinary circumstances such as:-

- Equipment

- Court

- Weather

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OFFSIDE

One player with or without the ball shall be offside if the player enters any other area than the
playing areas for that designated positions.

NB

A player may reach over and take ball in an offside area.

A free pass is awarded as a penalty for offside where infringement occurred.

SIMULTANEOUS OFFSIDE

When two opposing players simultaneously enter an offside area:- -

If neither makes contact with the ball are not penalized.
- A toss up in their own area of play if one had the ball

- If GK or GS (only allowed in the goal third) goes offside to centre third and
opposing player simultaneously goes offside to goal third one or both in contact
with the ball a tossup is taken in centre 3rd between any opposing players allowed
in that area.

BALL OUT OF COURT

When;

- It touches the ground out of the court

- Touches an object or person in contact with ground outside court - Held by a
player outside court or object

Throw in is awarded to opposing team taken from where ball crossed the line

NB

Ball rebounding from posts is not out of play.

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PLAYER OUT OF COURT

If he touches/receives ball while outside the court.

- A throw in to the opposing team is awarded

- A toss up if it was held simultaneously with one player out of court

- A player who has left court to retrieve ball / take a throw in is allowed direct reentry
into the court

Infringement of the above leads to penalty pass at that point.

POSITIONING OF PLAYERS FOR A START OR RE-START OF THE GAME

- Centre with the ball shall stand wholly on the centre circle

- Opposing centre in the centre third and free to move

- All other players in their respective goal 3rd

- A free throw awarded to opposing team if a player enter the centre third before the
whistle.
Simultaneous encroachment before leads to the following:-
- Play continues if none touches the ball

- Toss up if one touches the ball

CONTROLLING THE CENTRE PASS

- Ball must be played within three secs after the whistle.

- Must be received within centre 3rd with one or both feet inside the 3rd if violated
free pass is awarded at the transverse line where the ball crossed.

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 - If the member of the opposing team catches the centre pass in the goal 3 rd with feet
astride transverse line the play continues.

PLAYING THE BALL

A player may:-

- Catch the ball with one or both hands

- Play ball rebounding from goal posts

- Bounce or bat the ball to another player

- Tip/pass or catch the ball

- Catch the ball after bating it once

- Bounce the ball that was not in his control and catch or pass it

- Roll the ball to once self

- Fall when in possession of the ball but must regain footing and play within three
seconds.

- Lean on ball to gain balance

- Jump to retrieve ball from out without contacting ground.

A PLAYER MAY NOT:

- Use fist to play the ball

- Fall on the ball to gain possession

- Reach or play the ball while sitting, lying or kneeling

- Use goal post for support

- Deliberately kick the ball

- Roll the ball to another player

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 - Play or replay the ball before it has been played by another player A penalty for
infringement: free pass to the opposing team.

PASSING DISTANCES

Short pass

When the ball is being passed the two players involved must be a distance that can allow
3rd player to pass in between. Penalty free pass

OVER A THIRD

Ball passed from a goal 3rd to another goal 3rd without being touched in the centre 3rd.

Passing ball from baseline to the centre 3rd

Penalty free pass on the transverse line of infringement

FOOTWORK

A player may receive the ball with one foot grounded or jump to catch and land on one foot and
then
- Pivot and step on the other foot in any direction and jump to release the ball before
grounding the foot

- Jump from the landing foot to the other jump again but must release the ball before
grounding either foot
- Step with either foot and jump but throw the ball before grounding either

WRONG FOOTWOR

- Dragging
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 - Sliding

- Hoping

- Jumping from both feet and landing on both before releasing the ball.

SCORING A GOAL

- A goal is scored when the ball is thrown or bated over and completely through the
ring by the GS or GA within the goal circle

- It’s a goal if the GK and GD deflects ball into the ring

- From a toss up in the goal circle GA and GS may shoot or pass the ball

- No goal is scored if whistle goes before the ball completely passes the ring

Shoot within three seconds of catching the ball

Penalty pass or penalty pass / shot is awarded if defender interferes with the goal post in the act of
shooting by the attacker.

OBSTRUCTION

This is when a player attempts to intercept or defend the ball while at a distance less than 0.9
meters (3 feet) from the attackers landing foot to the nearest foot of the defender.

The defender may:-

Jump up towards the player observing 3 feet

Defender not penalized if the attacker with the ball lessens the distance

A player may be within 3 feet of an opponent in possession of the ball provided no effort is made
to intercept or defend the ball and no interference in throwing or shooting the ball.

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OBSTRUCTION OF A PLAYER WITHOUT THE BALL

A defender cannot stand with arms outstretched upwards unless ready to receive the ball or finding
balance.
It is not an obstruction within the distance if arms are out stretched to:

- Catch, deflect or intercept a pass or a feint pass

- To obtain a rebound from unsuccessful shot

- Momentarily to signal pass or to indicate the intended directions of movement.

Penalty of obstruction is penalty pass or penalty pass or shot

Preventing a player to enter the court after a throw in leads to penalty pass or penalty shot or pass
A player who is out of court may not attempt to defend a player who is in the court this leads to
penalty pass or shot

CONTACT

Player shall not:

- Move into the path of an opponent hence impede movement

- Push, trip or use other forms of contact

- Place hands on a ball held by an opponent - Knock or remove ball from hands of
an opponent - Push the ball to an opponent while holding it.

Penalty – penalty pass or penalty pass or shot

Simultaneous contact leads to a toss upp

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AWARDING PENALTIES

During the game the umpire may award the following unless the advantage rule applies;

- Free pass

- Penalty pass

- Penalty pass or shot

- Throw in

- Toss up

In all the above 3 seconds and footwork rules applies

FREE PASS

Awarded for all minor infringements and may be taken by any player allowed in that area. GA and
GS taking a free pass in the goal circle may not shoot for goal

PENALTY PASS OR SHOT

Awarded for major infringements

- Obstruction

- Contact

- Defender causing goal post to move

- Intimidation

- Penalized player stands besides and away from the player taking the penalty. If the
infringer moves or attempts to take part in play either physically or verbally, before ball
has left the thrower’s hands, the penalty shall be retaken by that player unless the penalty
pass or shot is successful or advantage rule applies.

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 - An attempt to intercept the penalty pass may be made by any opposing player other than
the offender.
- A subsequent contact / obstruction by the second opponent makes both stand aside.

- A GS and GA taking a penalty pass or shot in the goal circle may either pass or shot for a
goal.

THROW IN

Ball is out after closing side line or goal line

Also if touched or received by a player with parts of him/her touching the ground, object or person
outside the court
Player throwing the ball observes the following:-

- Ensures all players are in court before taking the throw in

- Be completely out of court but close to sideline

- Throw ball within 3 seconds after taking up the position.

- Observe the footwork rule

- Not step on the line/entering the court before releasing the ball

- Not stand behind any offside area - Throw ball to the nearest 3rd.

TOSS UP

Taken when:

- Opposing players gain simultaneous ball possession

- Opposing players simultaneously knock the ball out of court

- Opposing players simultaneously offside

- Simultaneous contact

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 - Play was stopped due to an injury an umpire can’t determine who had the or ball
was on the ground.

Toss up is taken between two opposing players concerned at the point where the incident occurred
or in the area common to both players.
If no area is common to both e.g. across a transverse line, toss up is taken in the centre 3 rd. If two
opposing players simultaneously knock the ball out of the court over a line bounding an area
which is not common to both, toss up is taken between any two opposing players allowed in that
area on court near the point where the ball crossed the line.

Two players shall stand facing each other and their own goal ends and their arms straight and hands
to the sides, 3 feet apart from each other.
Ball may be batted or caught in any direction except directly to the opposing player.

Penalty –penalty pass or penalty pass or shot.

DELIBERATE DELAYING THE GAME

Not allowed and a free pass awarded to the non-offending team

WARNING, SUSPENSION AND ORDERING OFF

Umpire may in addition to the penalty awarded.

- Warn a player or a team official

- Suspend a player for a specified time

- Order a player to leave the court and take no further part in the game.

- In extreme circumstances stop the game and require the exclusion from any team
official whose inappropriate comments / behaviors continues after warning.

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SUSPENSION

Umpire shall:

Signal the time keepers to stop time

Advice the player of the reasons for suspension Suspension

takes the following format
- Till next goal is scored

- Till next interval

- For 5 minutes (depending on the seriousness of the offense)

Advice the timekeepers on length of suspension

Signal the timekeeper for game to be resumed A suspended

player is not replaced.

ORDERING OFF

For more serious misconduct or misconduct following suspension, the umpire may order a player
to leave the court and take no further part in the game.

Umpire shall:-

- Signal to time keeper to hold time

- Advise the player of the reasons

- Signal the time keeper for a re-start of the game

- Player sent off reports to the appropriate team bench and he is not replaced.

FAILURE TO TAKE THE COURT

Umpire notifies the teams when there are 30 seconds remaining prior to:-

- Start of the game

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 - The end of the interval

If the team fails to take the court at the end of 30 seconds the umpire shall give 1 minute warning.
Team must take court within that time otherwise the game shall be awarded to the non offending
team.
A team with less than 5 players is given only 5 minutes to raise the team.

OFFICIALS

Match officials

- 2 umpires

- 2 scorers
- 2 time keepers

UMPIRES

Check court and its surrounds

Check balls and goal posts to ensure the standards

Inspects players for uniforms, jeweler, adornments, fingernails

Umpire whistle of:-

- Starting and stopping the game

- Signal end of each quarter or half

- Restart game after interval controlled by umpire into whose half is directed.

- Signal when an infringement is penalized

- Signal when a goal is scored

- Signal timekeeper to stop time

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Umpires toss for goal ends after captains have made their toss

Umpire winning the toss controls the half designated northern half

Umpire appeal to the scorer if they disagree on the direction of the centre pass

Umpire keeps out of court except during a toss up or assessing an injury

Calls for advantage

Can’t criticize or coach during a game

Use hands signal to clarify decisions

Stops game to deal with emergencies.

SCORERS

Shall be two;

1 is the official scorer for the game

- Records names of the 12 players one being captain

- Records goals as they occur

- Records suspension / send off

TIME KEEPER

Time game

Stop time when necessary

Signal ends of quarters or halves

TEAM OFFICIALS

1. Coach

2. Assistant coach

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 3. Manager

4. Captain

5. 2 primary care personnel doctor, physician etc.

The above and the 5 players constitute the team bench.

Suggested tactics

A. General tactics

- Do not waste your energy by unnecessary running or rushing around.

- Any time after a goal has been thrown, move back quickly to your playing area.

- All passes where possible should be made to the non-opponent side of a player.

- Players should be aware of who is to take a throw-in from different areas of the
court. For example; the GA and GS should not take a throw-in (unless the throw-
in is from behind the goal circle areas) but should move into play to be free to shoot
at goal.

B. Passing

Having several types of passes in netball, a player should sensibly select the right kind of
pass according to the following suggested factors:
- Direction and strength of wind, conditions of the ground- either wet or position of
the sun if outdoor facilities are being used or brightness of lights if an indoor facility
is used.
- Consider the distance between player with ball and receiver.

- Position taken by a player who is to try to intercept a ball in flight or to defend the
receiver.
- Make a quick decision on when to pass, as well as the speed of the pass.

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C. Catching/receiving

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 -

The main intention is to take the ball safely and throw it accurately but within three seconds of
catching
- Using two hands build confidence to your teammates than when one attempts
to catch using one hand.
- Concentrate on the speed, direction and the height the ball is moving

- Catch the ball as far from the opponent as possible

- Be ready to pivot away from opponent

- Once the ball is in your hands, you should control and position it quickly in
readiness for pass.
D. Jumping

- In jumping, timing is crucial so as to intercept a thrown ball or a shot at goal.

- Must avoid any personal contact with another player during a jump.

E. Goal Shooting

- Shooting styles vary from one individual to another. Therefore the shooters
should bear in mind that “any style is good so long as goals are scored”.
- Shooters should design a pattern, concentrate, should release the ball high and
keep your balance. All that accomplished, accuracy is the essential factor.
- Shooters should be able to time the attacking movement so that they may receive
the ball in the shooting circle and at that point in the circle which on knows is
most accurate to shoot. (This can be practices for perfection).
- Normally, the path followed by the ball in the air during shooting is an arc. The
ball is projected from a high point so as it is clear of the interceptors or defender’s
hands. - There must be close understanding between the Goal shooter and
Wing defense to counter the defender’s movements. This is best done by stepping
back or taking a sidestep.
- When possible, shoot from the side so that an overshoot ball lands in play rather
than it goes out.

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-

- At all times, be ready to move for a rebound quickly.

F. Attacking

Decide early the side the defender prefers to stand on. It is your duty to attempt all you
can to force her/him to do the opposite.

- To avoid confusing the teammates, the attacker’s moves must be specific not
hesitant or uncertain movements.
- Attacking players must decide according to the prevailing situation whether;

• To drop back

• Make quick lunge to either side

• Make a straight run toward the thrower A combination of any of the

mentioned moves Time all the movements made.
- Attackers need to concentrate so as to identify their teams system. An attacker
should watch the action of the two teams, theirs and the opponents.

- Constantly check the defender’s ability to keep up with you as an attacker by

keeping on moving.
- When in possession of the ball, the attacker should at all times be able to

• Identify three players to receive from him/her;

• One of them breaking on the same side

• One on the opposite side

• One moving up from behind

- It is the responsibility of the following players to attack their opponent’s goal

third and bring ball to centre third;
• Goal keeper

• Goal defense

• Wing defense

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 -

The centre normally should link the attackers from the defense third with those of her/his
goal third.

G. Defending

General defending tactics

Always follow the opponent closely.

- Be ready for rebounds

- Throw-ins from goal line should be made quickly - Never throw-in across the
goal area.

Defending requires a lot of concentration. Any good defender should not allow to be distracted
by the umpire’s decisions, weather, conditions of the ground, either being slippery or rough and
also what is very common during netball matches, the comments from opponent players or
spectators. Defenders should read the opponent’s moves by predicting their movements.

The following additional tactics should be observed and practices for effective defending.

- Check out the opponent’s eyes and posture to anticipate the direction he/she
intends to throw
- Abide by the rules at all times

- While in the shooting circle, a defender should be quick to assume the idea
position in case of rebounds or if you could not intercept be ball during shooting.
- By overworking the attackers chances of inaccurate passes from them is high.

- In case defenders realize that the opponents have a key shooter being used
throughout they should double defend, but not lose sight of the other free

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-

shooter. - When one is beaten to the ball, a defender should move quickly
to intercept, or force a hold by, but not to make any foul.
- The goalkeeper and goal defense should consistently be ready for the quick pass
made by shooters

H. Footwork

The use of the feet is very important in netball. One can be penalized for not controlling
them as stipulated by the netball rule on footwork. The feet are also important because
in

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 -

netball, each skill feature of the game calls for a specific use of the feet. The players should;
- Attempt to catch the ball when coming

- Use footwork fit to the surface of the court

- Be ready to steady the play when the opposing defence is strong. When playing against
a weaker defence, throwing on the run come out best.

Centre Pass

Players of the same team should make decisions to decide the position of the attacking
players and defending players. These players should be moving and the one to receive
the centre pass should be a distance from the side-lines not to make a defensive move on
his/her free side. The objective is to be able to ensure that the ball reaches an attacker in
the shooting circle the soonest from the centre pass.

Player’s composition, position play and roles during play

As stated in earlier series, a netball team is made of up to 12 players, 7 who are

immediate players and there is no limit to the number of substitution which can be made
in a game.

The seven players are:-

Goal shooter - GS
Goal Attack - GA
Centre - C
Wing Attack - WA
Wing Defense - WD
Goal Defense - GD
Goal Keeper - GK

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 -

Role of each player in relation to team effort

Team work is the basis of tactical play in Netball.

It means intelligent, harmonious effort to counter the opposing sides’ moves and to combine
smoothly in attack. But it is important that in working as a member of a team, you should
think for yourself, but not of yourself.

We shall now consider each individual role in relation to team-effort.

i) The Goal Shooter (GS)

- Has a main task of shooting goals, and is located in the attacking third of the court
including the circle.
- Must be a specialist in attacking play as well as shooting for goal.

- May decide to stay in the goal circle to be fed with balls or may use all available
space.

- Must also be a sound defender, to enable her to retrieve balls taken by the defending
team to convert her team into attackers once again.

ii) The Goal Attack (GA)

- Has a special task of shooting for goal, plays in the attacking two thirds of court,
including goal circle.
- Must do more attacking than the GS because her area of operation is less restricted.

- Moves in close combination with her C, WA and GS.

- Also has an important defensive role i.e. dodging while shooting to confuse the
defender.

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iii) The Center (C)

- Is the prime mover in setting the team on the attack or defense, he/she plays the whole
court except for the goal circles. - Must move in and out with an aim.

- Must be alert to pick loose balls anywhere on court.

- Should create space for her/his teammates when play is congested.

Since being the key linker between the Goal third and the centre third, one should avoide
joining in the attack in the defense third as much as possible.

iv) The Wing Attack (WA)

- Bringing play from centre third into Goal circle operates in the attacking two thirds but
cannot enter the goal circle.
- Feeding balls to her GS and GA.

- Being alert to break quickly from the WD and the opposing centre.

v) The Wing Defense (WD)

- Countering an opponent who has an important part of advancing the ball in the goal
circle.
- Defending the WA who will be making quick dashes, changing speed and direction.

- Interception centre passes to WA

- Giving passes while on the run and while stationery.

vi) The Goal Defense (GD)

- Preventing GA from gaining the ball plays in the defense and centre thirds,
including the goal circle.

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- Practice defense of all types of movements in the circle and at the centre pass.

- Practice interception running shots, stationery shots, giving passes of all kinds
and joining team mates in attacking moves.

vii) The Goal Keeper’s (GK)

- To harass GS. Whether out or in the goal circle, plays in defense third that
includes the goal circle.
- To practice with team-mates, intercepting by leaping, catching or batting the ball
to a team-mate. The leap must be well timed.
SKILLS INTERCEPTION

Move quickly in front of the opponent to attempt to prevent the ball from being passed or shot
Dodging

Getting free or shaking off an opponent

Shooting

Throwing ball or batting it over and completely through the ring from above into net.
Marking
Defensive play i.e. effort a player makes to prevent opponent from receiving ball.
Passing
- Chest pass

- Overhead pass

- Underarm pass
- Bounce pass

- Shoulder pass

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FEINTING

A false attack made to attract opponent’s attention away from the ball that might be passed
to him.
Player avoids the opponent by suddenly moving a side, forward or backwards to get free.

PIVOTING

Moving one foot in any direction while the other foot is stationery on the ground.

GOALPOST

A goalpost is placed at the mid-point of each goal line so the back of the pole is at the
outer edge of the goal line. It is inserted in the ground or sleeved beneath the floor so
when it is knocked there is a minimal amount of movement and it remains stable.

It consists of the following:

A vertical metal pole 65-100 mm (2.5-4 in) in diameter and 3.05m

(10 ft) high that is covered with padding of uniform thickness not more than 50 mm (2 in)
thick and extending the full length of the pole.
A curved horizontal metal ring made of steel rod 15 mm (5/8 in) in
diameter with an internal diameter of 380 mm (15 in).
A horizontal metal bar of length 150 mm (6 in), projecting from
the front edge at the top of the pole, to which the ring is
attached.

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A net (preferably white) fitted to the ring, clearly visible and open at top and bottom.
The minimum length of the net is 380 mm (15 in) and maximum is 457 mm (18 in).

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The match ball is spherical in shape:

Measures 690-710 mm (27-28 in) in circumference and weighs 400-450 g (14-16 oz)

Is made of leather, rubber or suitable synthetic material

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Is inflated to a pressure as specified on the ball by its manufacturer

Match balls may be rotated throughout the match as stipulated by the event

organiser prior to the start of the match.

Role of an Umpire

Remember that your job as an umpire is to ensure that the game is played fairly
under the Rules of the Game.

Umpire’s Tools

Whistle – A Thunder finger whistle is recommended, but any whistle will

do. Just remember to keep your whistle at your side when not being used.
You need to blow your whistle with short sharp blasts. Make sure players
and the other umpire can hear it.
Band – Use an elastic band on your hand to keep track of which team
has the next centre pass. After each goal is scored change the band to
the other hand. The centre pass is then given to the team having the goal
end the umpire’s ring or band is on. At the end of a quarter, do not
change the hand the band is on.
Voice - Make every effort to project your voice across the whole of the court when
making decisions and calling the centre pass after a goal etc.
Do not just talk to the players in and around an infringement that you have penalised.

Try to keep your voice firm but friendly.

Make sure your instructions are simple and clear.

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Hand Signals – Learn the correct hand signals and use them. This will help players understand
your calls.
Official Rules – Get a copy of the rules and read it!
Clothing - All umpires are to wear white collared shirts, white skirt or shorts.
Our club will have Mayfield Umpire Shirts available for you to purchase
What you need to do before the game

1. Sign in at the umpiring window.

2. Introduce yourself to the other umpire. Agree on which side to umpire. Also meet with each other
at quarter times. It is good to have a good relationship with the other umpires because you all have
to support each other.

3. Check the court and equipment look to be safe.

4. Check the players for:

a. Uniforms

b. Jewellery. earrings, nose and/or belly rings, rings (wedding ring is accepted if taped), anklets
c. Correct length fingernails.

5. Be ready in your sideline position to start the game when the time signal sounds.

Hand Signals

It is important to use good hand signals each time you blow the whistle. This
helps the other umpire and players on the court know why you have blown
your whistle.
Your hand signals basically “mimic” the action on the
court. Stepping Moving Hands in an up and down
motion, slowly and deliberately.
Obstruction Hands apart in front of body.

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Personal Contact: One hand hits the other on the wrist or area
of contact.
Held Ball 3 Fingers apart held up.

Direction of Pass Arm pointed towards one goal line.

Toss Up: Palm of hand moved vertically upward

Take Time Arm upright with palm open.
Short Pass Hands held a short distance apart in front of the body.

Breaking/Offside/

Over Third Hand and arm moving in an arc beside the body

Advantage Arm swept outright in front of the body in the direction of

Play

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